Assessment of the reproduction of six collembolan species in tropical soils naturally rich in potentially toxic elements

Laboratory ecotoxicological tests are important tools for the management of environmental changes derived from anthropogenic activities. Folsomia candida is usually the model species used in some procedures. However, this species may not be sufficiently representative of the sensitivity of the other collembolan species. This study aimed to evaluate (i) the effects of soils naturally rich in potentially toxic elements (PTE) and soil characteristics on the reproduction and survival of different collembolan species, (ii) whether the habitat function of these soils is compromised, and (iii) to what extent F. candida is representative of the other collembolan species. For this, reproduction tests with six collembolan species were conducted in 14 different samples of soils. In general, collembolan reproduction was not completely inhibited in none of the natural tested soils. Even soils with high pollution load index values did not negatively affect collembolan reproduction for most of the species. In contrast, the lowest collembolan reproduction rates were found in a visually dense soil (lowest volume/weight ratio), highlighting that soil attributes other than total PTE concentration also interfere in the reproduction of collembolans. Our results support the idea that the F. candida species might not be representative of other collembolan species and that laboratory tests to assess soil contaminations should be conducted using diverse collembolan species.

Human and environmental exposure to rare earth elements in gold mining areas in the northeastern Amazon

Rudimentary methods are used to exploit gold (Au) in several artisanal mines in the Amazon, producing hazardous wastes that may pose risks of contamination by rare earth elements (REEs). The objectives of this study were to quantify the concentrations of REEs and assess their environmental and human health risks in artisanal Au mining areas in the northeastern Amazon. Thus, 25 samples of soils and mining wastes were collected in underground, colluvial, and cyanidation exploration sites, as well as in a natural forest that was considered as a reference area. The concentrations of REEs were quantified using alkaline fusion and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and the results were used to estimate pollution indices and risks associated with the contaminants. All REEs showed higher concentrations in waste deposition areas than in the reference area, especially Ce, Sc, Nd, La, Pr, Sm, and Eu. Pollution and enrichment levels were higher in the underground and cyanidation mining areas, with very high contamination factors (6.2-27) for Ce, Eu, La, Nd, Pr, Sm, and Sc, and significant to very high enrichment factors (5.5-20) for Ce, La, Nd, Pr, and Sc. The ecological risk indices varied from moderate (167.3) to high (365.7) in the most polluted sites, but risks to human health were low in all areas studied. The results of this study indicate that artisanal Au mining has the potential to cause contamination, enrichment, and ecological risks by REEs in the northeastern Amazon. Mitigation measures should be implemented to protect the environment from the negative impacts of these contaminants.

Changes in the surface water quality of a tropical watershed in the southeastern amazon due to the environmental impacts of artisanal mining

The expansion of areas of human occupation and the increase in economic activity and deforestation are negatively impacting the Amazon ecosystem. Situated in the Carajás Mineral Province in the southeastern Amazon, the Itacaiúnas River Watershed (IRW) encompasses several active mines and has a historical record of intense deforestation primarily linked with the expansion of pasturelands, but also of urban areas, and mining activities. Industrial mining projects are subjected to strict environmental control, but artisanal mining (ASM; 'garimpos') sites have not been controlled, despite their known environmental impacts. In recent years, the opening and expansion of ASM in the IRW for the exploitation of mineral resources (Au, Mn, and Cu) have been remarkable. This study presents evidence of anthropogenic impacts, mainly caused by ASM, on the quality and hydrogeochemical characteristics of the IRW surface water. The hydrogeochemical data sets of two projects carried out in the IRW, during 2017 and from 2020 until present, were used to evaluate these impacts within the region. Water quality indices were calculated for the surface water samples. For the whole IRW, water collected during the dry season tended to yield better quality indicators in comparison to those collected during the rainy season. Two sampling sites at Sereno Creek showed very poor water quality and extremely high concentrations of Fe, Al, and potentially toxic elements over time. From 2016 to 2022, ASM sites increased markedly. Moreover, there are indications that Mn exploitation via ASM in Sereno hill is the main source of contamination in the area. New trends of ASM expansion were observed along the main watercourses, related to the exploitation of Au from alluvial deposits. Similar anthropogenic impacts are registered in other regions of the Amazon and environmental monitoring should be encouraged to assess the chemical safety of strategic areas.

Combined effects of hydrothermally-altered feldspar and water regime on cadmium minimization in rice

The accumulation of cadmium (Cd) in grains and edible parts of crops poses a risk to human health. Because rice is the staple food of more than half of the world population, reducing Cd uptake by rice is critical for food safety. HydroPotash (HYP), an innovative potassium fertilizer produced with a hydrothermal process, has the characteristics of immobilizing heavy metals and potential use for remediating Cd-contaminated soils. The objective of this study was to evaluate the HYP as a soil amendment to immobilize Cd in acidic soils and to reduce the accumulation of Cd in rice tissues. The experiment was performed in a greenhouse with a Cecil sandy loam soil (pH 5.3 and spiked with 3 mg Cd kg^-1) under either flooding conditions (water level at 4 cm above the soil surface) or at field capacity. Two hydrothermal materials (HYP-1 and HYP-2) were compared with K-feldspar + Ca(OH)₂ (the raw material used for producing HYP), Ca(OH)₂, zeolite, and a control (without amendment). After 30 days of soil incubation, HydroPotashs, the raw material, and Ca(OH)₂ increased both soil solution pH and electrical conductivity. These materials also decreased soluble Cd concentration (up to 99.7%) compared with the control (p < 0.05). After 145 days, regardless of the materials applied, plant growth was favored (up to 35.8%) under the flooded regime. HydroPotash-1 was more effective for increasing dry biomass compared with other amendments under both water regimes. HydroPotashs reduced extractable Cd in soil, Cd content in plant biomass at tillering and maturing stage, and were efficient in minimizing Cd accumulation in rice grains.

Soil-sediment linkage and trace element contamination in forested/deforested areas of the Itacaiúnas River Watershed, Brazil: To what extent land-use change plays a role?

Trace elements (TE) contamination in forested areas of the Itacaiúnas River Watershed (IRW), Brazilian Amazon, arouses growing interest owing to the rapid deforestation and mining activities. In this study, soils (surface, SS; bottom, BS) and stream sediments (SD) from forested/deforested areas of IRW were analyzed with the aim of (1) evaluating the major sources of TE (mainly As, Ba, Cd, Cu, Co, Cr, Hg, Mo, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn), and (2) examining the soil-sediment TE link related to land-use change and/or geologic factors. Compositional data analysis (CoDA) was used to eliminate data closure issues and the centred log-ratio (clr) transformation yielded better results in Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The TE distribution pattern was significantly different (p < 0.05) between forested and deforested areas, but in both areas the TE distribution pattern is significantly correlated between SS, BS, and SD, indicating a strong lithogenic control. PCA (clr-transformed) identified the major geochemical bedrock signature as Fe-Ti-V-Cu-Cr-Ni, which is nearly similar in soil and sediments. The more accentuated enrichment and the maximum number of anomalies of these elements were found in the Carajás Basin and are highly coincident with mineral deposits/local lithologies without clear indication of anthropogenic contamination from point sources. Besides geogenic factors, deforestation is also affecting TE distribution in the basin. In deforested areas, Mn was significantly enriched in the surface horizon. Furthermore, linear regression analysis shows stronger TE relationships between soils and sediments in deforested areas than in forested ones, reflecting higher erosion in the former. This could be the reason for the relatively higher enrichment of TE (e.g., Fe, Mn, Cu, Cr, Ni) in deforested sediments. The TE contamination using regional background values provides more accurate results than worldwide reference values. Thus, the former should be considered for a more realistic environmental risk assessment in IRW and other forest ecosystems in the Brazilian Amazon.

Copper mining in the eastern Amazon: an environmental perspective on potentially toxic elements

Mining activity is of great economic and social importance; however, volumes of metallic ore tailings rich in potentially toxic elements (PTEs) may be produced. In this context, managing this environmental liability and assessing soil quality in areas close to mining activities are fundamental. This study aimed to compare the concentrations of PTEs-arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn)-as well as the fertility and texture of Cu tailings and soils of native, urban and pasture areas surrounding a Cu mining complex in the eastern Amazon. The levels of PTEs were compared with soil prevention values, soil quality reference values, global average soil concentrations and average upper continental crust concentrations. The contamination factor (CF), degree of contamination (Cdeg), potential ecological risk index (RI), geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and pollution load index (PLI) were calculated. The levels of Co, Cu and Ni in the tailings area exceeded the prevention values, soil quality reference values and average upper continental crust concentrations; however, the tailings area was considered unpolluted according to PLI and RI and presented a low potential ecological risk. The high concentrations of PTEs are associated with the geological properties of the area, and the presence of PTEs-rich minerals supports these results. For the urban and pasture areas, none of the 11 PTEs analyzed exceeded the prevention values established by the Brazilian National Environment Council.

Impact of copper mining wastes in the Amazon: Properties and risks to environment and human health

Improper disposal of copper mining wastes can threaten the ecosystem and human health due to the high levels of potentially toxic elements released into the environment. The objective of this study was to determine the properties of Cu mining wastes generated in the eastern Amazon and their potential risks to environment and human health. Samples of forest soil and artisanal/industrial Cu mining wastes were collected and subjected to characterization of properties and pseudo-total concentrations of Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn, in addition to chemical fractionation of Cu. The pH ranged from near neutrality to alkaline. Pseudo-total concentrations of Cu were high in all wastes, mainly in the artisanal rock waste, with 19,034 mg kg^-1, of which 61% is concentrated in the most reactive fractions. Pollution indices indicated that the wastes are highly contaminated by Cu and moderately contaminated by Cr and Ni. However, only the artisanal rock waste is associated with environmental risk. Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic human health risks were detected, especially from exposure to Cr in the artisanal rock waste. Prevention actions and monitoring of the artisanal mining area are necessary to avoid impacts to the local population.

Hydrothermally-altered feldspar reduces metal toxicity and promotes plant growth in highly metal-contaminated soils

Novel green technologies for soil remediation have been focusing on altering soil properties and improving soil health. Hydrothermally-altered feldspar (HYP, HydroPotash), recently developed, is being related as both an efficient amendment to immobilize heavy metals in soils and a plant nutrients source, consisting in a promising technology for revegetation of contaminated sites. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of using HYP for phytostabilization programs, two different soils (Technosol and Oxisol) collected from a smelting site were amended with increasing doses of HYPs (HYP-1 and HYP-2): 15, 30, 60, and 120 Mg ha^-1. For comparison, a control (soil without amendment) and a soil amended with zeolite (clinoptilolite) were also included as treatments. After 90 days of incubation, HYPs decreased up to 83.8 % of Cd availability and reduced exchangeable Al up to 100 %. HydroPotash increased pH, cation exchange capacity, and contents of potassium, calcium, and phosphorus, as well as microbial biomass carbon, and fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis of soils. Andropogon gayanus, Eucalyptus grandis, and Heterocondylus vitalbae started growing from the dose of 15 Mg ha^-1 HYPs in the Oxisol and 60 Mg ha^-1 HYPs in the Technosol. Principal component analysis indicates that plant shoot dry weight was negatively correlated with extractable Cd and Zn and positively with pH, CEC, and Ca content. Besides promoting plant growth, HYPs reduced heavy metals (Cd and Zn) absorption by plants, indicating that HYP has potential use as an amendment in phytostabilization programs.

Lead acetate ecotoxicity in tropical soils

Lead acetate (AcPb) is an important raw material used in chemical industries worldwide. The potential toxicity of AcPb is generally attributed to the presence of Pb. However, the effect of AcPb on the environment as a whole is still poorly known. This study aimed to evaluate AcPb toxicity on three standard species of soil invertebrates and two plant species using ecotoxicology tests. Three tropical soils (Oxisol, Inceptisol, and Tropical Artificial Soil (TAS)) were contaminated with different concentrations of AcPb and one dose of K-acetate (positive control). These soils were used in tests with Eisenia andrei (earthworm), Folsomia candida (springtail), Enchytraeus crypticus (enchytraeid), Zea mays (maize), and Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean). Dose-response curves obtained in the laboratory tests were used to estimate the EC₅₀ values for each species. Among invertebrates, the highest sensitivity to AcPb was observed for E. crypticus in the TAS (EC₅₀ = 29.8 mg AcPb kg^-1), whereas for E. andrei and F. candida the highest sensitivity was observed in the Oxisol (EC₅₀ = 141.9 and 1835 mg AcPb kg^-1, respectively). Folsomia candida was the least sensitive invertebrate species to AcPb in all soils. Among plant species, Z. mays was less sensitive (EC₅₀ = 1527.5 mg AcPb kg^-1) than P. vulgaris (EC₅₀ = 560.5 mg AcPb kg^-1) in the Oxisol. The present study evidenced that the toxicity of AcPb should not be attributed uniquely to the presence of Pb, as the treatment containing uniquely Ac provoked the same toxicity as the highest dose of AcPb.

Bioavailability of copper and nickel in naturally metal-enriched soils of Carajás Mining Province, Eastern Amazon, Brazil

Naturally elevated contents of copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni) are found in soils worldwide, and their potential toxicity is better understood when geochemical reactive fractions are identified and monitored. Thus, this study aimed to assess the bioavailability of Cu and Ni and estimate environmental risks in naturally metal-enriched soils of Carajás Mining Province, Eastern Amazon, Brazil. For that, 58 surficial soil samples were analyzed for their extractable contents of Cu and Ni by Mehlich 1. Next, 13 soil samples were selected for additional single and sequential extractions, for the determination of metal content in the shoots of grasses naturally growing in these soils and for calculating the risk assessment code. Despite the naturally high total concentrations, the contents of easily available Cu and Ni are a minor fraction of total concentrations (up to 10.15%), and the reducible oxide and residual pools hold the major proportion of total content of metals. This contributed to low bioavailability, low environmental risk, and also to low concentrations of these metals on grasses collected in the field. Soil organic matter, Fe₂O₃, Al₂O₃ and clay content have a dominant role in metals retention on studied soils. Our findings on the bioavailability of Cu and Ni in a region of great economic relevance for Brazil are important not only for predicting the elements' behavior in the soil-plant system but also for refining risk assessments and to provide useful data for environmental quality monitoring.

Physiological effects of mercury-contaminated Oxisols on common bean and oat

The heavy metal mercury (Hg) is one of the most complex and toxic pollutants. When present in soils, it may impair plant growth, but the intensity of damage depends on the physical-chemical properties of the soil such as pH, clay, and organic matter content, which in turn affects Hg sorption and bioavailability. Understanding Hg potential damage to staple food crops is of paramount relevance. Here, we evaluated the physiological effects of Hg in Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean) and Avena sativa (oat) cultivated in two Oxisols with contrasting properties: Rhodic Acrudox (RA) and Typic Hapludox (TH). We performed four independent experiments (one per species/soil combination) that lasted 30 days each. Treatments were composed by HgCl₂ concentrations in soils (0 to 80 mg kg^-1 Hg). At the end of the experiment, we determined the impact of Hg on photosynthesis, nutritional status, and oxidative stress. Cultivation in TH contaminated with Hg resulted in oxidative stress in common bean and decreased photosynthesis/P accumulation in oat. No deleterious effects on physiological variables were detected in both species when cultivated in the RA soil. In general, we conclude that the lower Hg sorption in the TH soil resulted in toxicity-like responses, while acclimation-like responses were observed in plants cultivated in RA, reinforcing soil physical-chemical properties as key features driving Hg toxicity in Oxisols. Graphical abstract.

Interactions of cadmium and zinc in high zinc tolerant native species Andropogon gayanus cultivated in hydroponics: growth endpoints, metal bioaccumulation, and ultrastructural analysis

Cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) toxicity causes physiological disorders and harms plants, interfering with the rehabilitation of areas affected by mining activities. This study evaluated how the exposure to Zn and/or Cd affects the growth of native andropogon grass (Andropogon gayanus Kunth) plants originally found in areas contaminated with Cd and/or Zn due to zinc mining activities. Plants were cultivated for 7 weeks in a nutrient solution treated with Zn (142.3-854.0 μM) or Cd (0.9-13.3 μM) separately or combined with a molar ratio of 64:1 (Zn:Cd). A control treatment was grown in a complete Hoagland and Arnon solution (without Cd). Plant height, stem diameter, internode length, dry weight, Cd and Zn concentration, and accumulation in shoots/roots, as well as ultrastructure of roots and leaves were analyzed at the end of the experiment. The root dry weight was not significantly affected by the addition of the metals. Moreover, Zn provided higher shoot dry weight (up to 160%) relative to control. Andropogon grass tolerated both metals better separately than when applied together. Transmission electron microscopy analyses showed modifications such as vesiculation and vacuolation in the ultrastructure of andropogon tissues by Cd and/or Zn. The andropogon grass was tolerant to the doses tested, evidencing that it has potential for recovering areas contaminated with Zn and/or Cd.

Chemical fractionation and bioaccessibility of potentially toxic elements in area of artisanal gold mining in the Amazon

Artisanal mining may have modified the mobility, bioavailability and bioaccessibility of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the Serra Pelada gold mine, eastern Amazon, Brazil, which has not yet been studied. The objectives were to perform chemical fractionation of barium (Ba), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn), and to determine the bioaccessibility of these elements in soils and mining wastes collected in agriculture, forest, mining, and urban areas from the influence zone of the Serra Pelada gold mine. Pseudo total concentrations were obtained by acid digestion, chemical fractionation was performed using the Bureau Community of Reference (BCR) sequential extraction, oral bioaccessibility was obtained by the Simple Bioaccessibility Extraction Test (SBET) and lung bioaccessibility was obtained through Gamble's solution. The pseudo total concentrations indicated contamination by Ba, Cu and Ni. The sequential extraction revealed the predominance of all elements in the residual fraction. However, Ba is in high concentrations in the greater mobility forms, ranging from 166.36 to 1379.58 mg kg^-1. Regardless of the area, Cr and Cu are more oral bioaccessible in the intestinal phase, and Zn in the gastric phase. Ba, Cr and Zn are not lung bioaccessible, while Cu, Ni and Pb are bioaccessible via inhalation. The PTEs studied deserve attention not only due to the high pseudo total concentrations found (which indicate potential risk), but also the concentrations in high mobility forms and bioaccessible fractions, especially in the areas of greatest anthropogenic occupation.

Assessing the most sensitive and reliable endpoints in plant growth tests to improve arsenic risk assessment

Arsenic (As) is toxic to humans and the environment. Its toxicity has been assessed in many ways, including plant growth tests integrated in As risk assessments (RA). The tiered approach used in RA schemes assumes that lower tiers are more conservative than higher tiers. Plant growth tests may comprise lower tier of a RA and include the measurement of several endpoints. However, only few of these endpoints are highly sensitive and reliable, which makes them more appropriate to comprise lower tiers. Therefore, the selection of those endpoints is needed. The present study aimed to evaluate the most appropriate endpoints of plant growth tests to use in lower tier As RA schemes. This selection of endpoints was based on their sensitivity and reliability, using different tropical soils and plant species. In order to achieve this objective, six plant species were exposed to eight levels of As contamination (0; 8; 14.5; 26; 46.5; 84; 150; 270 mg kg^-1), in three different tropical soils (Oxisol, Inceptisol, and tropical artificial soil). The endpoints measured were: first germination count (FrC), plant height (PH), relative leaf area (RLA), stem diameter (SD), total germination (TG), germination speed index (GSI), dry mass (DM), number of completely expanded leaves (CEL), plant survival (PS), soil plant analysis development chlorophyll level (SPAD), and the final germination count (FnC). Toxic values for 50% of effect were estimated for each endpoint within each species and test soil, to rank them according to their sensitivity and reliability. The most sensitive endpoints were: FrC, RLA, DM, GSI, PH, and FnC, while the most reliable endpoints were: FrC, DM, GSI, DM, PH, FnC, and TG. Our findings suggest that FrC, DM, GSI, PH, and FnC are the most adequate endpoints to be used in plant growth tests as lower tiers of As RA in tropical regions.

Source and background threshold values of potentially toxic elements in soils by multivariate statistics and GIS-based mapping: a high density sampling survey in the Parauapebas basin, Brazilian Amazon

A high-density regional-scale soil geochemical survey comprising 727 samples (one sample per each 5 × 5 km grid) was carried out in the Parauapebas sub-basin of the Brazilian Amazonia, under the Itacaiúnas Basin Geochemical Mapping and Background Project. Samples were taken from two depths at each site: surface soil, 0-20 cm and deep soil, 30-50 cm. The ground and sieved (< 75 µm) fraction was digested using aqua regia and analyzed for 51 elements by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). All data were used here, but the principal focus was on the potential toxic elements (PTEs) and Fe and Mn to evaluate the spatial distribution patterns and to establish their geochemical background concentrations in soils. Geochemical maps as well as principal component analysis (PCA) show that the distribution patterns of the elements are very similar between surface and deep soils. The PCA, applied on clr-transformed data, identified four major associations: Fe-Ti-V-Sc-Cu-Cr-Ni (Gp-1); Zr-Hf-U-Nb-Th-Al-P-Mo-Ga (Gp-2); K-Na-Ca-Mg-Ba-Rb-Sr (Gp-3); and La-Ce-Co-Mn-Y-Zn-Cd (Gp-4). Moreover, the distribution patterns of elements varied significantly among the three major geological domains. The whole data indicate a strong imprint of local geological setting in the geochemical associations and point to a dominant geogenic origin for the analyzed elements. Copper and Fe in Gp-1 were enriched in the Carajás basin and are associated with metavolcanic rocks and banded-iron formations, respectively. However, the spatial distribution of Cu is also highly influenced by two hydrothermal mineralized copper belts. Ni-Cr in Gp-1 are highly correlated and spatially associated with mafic and ultramafic units. The Gp-2 is partially composed of high field strength elements (Zr, Hf, Nb, U, Th) that could be linked to occurrences of A-type Neoarchean granites. The Gp-3 elements are mobile elements which are commonly found in feldspars and other rock-forming minerals being liberated by chemical weathering. The background threshold values (BTV) were estimated separately for surface and deep soils using different methods. The '75th percentile', which commonly used for the estimation of the quality reference values (QRVs) following the Brazilian regulation, gave more restrictive or conservative (low) BTVs, while the 'M_MAD' was more realistic to define high BTVs that can better represent the so-called mineralized/normal background. Compared with CONAMA Resolution (No. 420/2009), the conservative BTVs of most of the toxic elements were below the prevention limits (PV), except Cu, but when the high BTVs are considered, Cu, Co, Cr and Ni exceeded the PV limits. The degree of contamination (C_deg), based on the conservative BTVs, indicates low contamination, except in the Carajás basin, which shows many anomalies and had high contamination mainly from Cu, Cr and Ni, but this is similar between surface and deep soils indicating that the observed high anomalies are strictly related to geogenic control. This is supported when the C_deg is calculated using the high BTVs, which indicates low contamination. This suggests that the use of only conservative BTVs for the entire region might overestimate the significance of anthropogenic contamination; thus, we suggest the use of high BTVs for effective assessment of soil contamination in this region. The methodology and results of this study may help developing strategies for geochemical mapping in other Carajás soils or in other Amazonian soils with similar characteristics.

Investigating arsenic toxicity in tropical soils: A cell cycle and DNA fragmentation approach

Arsenic (As) is a metalloid and a toxicant that is found naturally in many environmental compartments, soils included. Soils with high levels of As occur worldwide and might pose a threat not only to humans, but also to many ecosystems. Considering the scarcity of studies regarding cytogenotoxic effects of model plants in As-contaminated soil, mainly in tropical areas, this study proposes the use of Allium cepa root tip bioassays for a fast-track assessment of As toxicity in tropical soils. For this end, root tip cells of A. cepa were exposed to an Oxisol, an Inceptisol and a Tropical Artificial Soil (TAS) contaminated with increasing doses of As (0, 8, 14.5, 26, 46.5, 84, 150, and 270 mg kg^-1). The effects of As on cell cycle, micronucleus formation, and DNA fragmentation were evaluated. In general, root tip cells exposure to As increases the frequency of chromosome abnormalities and micronucleus, in turn, decreasing the frequency of mitotic index. As-treated cells also presented an increase in the percentage of DNA damage observed in comet assay. Overall, the effects of As in TAS were more pronounced, than in the Oxisol, being the Inceptisol the less toxic. A discussion of each As effect in cells and the link with the soil type is presented and reveals that clastogenic effects of As in A. cepa cells seemed to be the mode of action of this soil contaminant.

Assessing the Brazilian prevention value for soil arsenic: Effects on emergence and growth of plant species relevant to tropical agroecosystems

One of the entry routes of arsenic (As) into the food chain is through the consumption of edible parts of crops contaminated by this element. Different plant species present distinctive As accumulation and tolerance capacities. These differences are also influenced by As availability and speciation in soils. This study assessed the effect of As contamination on plant emergence and initial growth, as well as on accumulated As contents in different crops grown in tropical soils. In addition, it was intended to verify the protection level of the current soil As prevention value adopted in Brazil, which should be applicable for conceivably other tropical soils in Latin America. Plants of maize, rice, sorghum, common bean, sunflower, and radish were cultivated in two different tropical soils (Oxisol and Inceptisol) and in a standard substrate (tropical artificial soil - TAS) dosed with As (0; 8; 14.5; 26; 46.5; 84; 150; 270 mg kg^-1). Early germination, total dry mass, As content, and bioconcentration factor were evaluated. The EC₂₀ and EC₅₀ values (the As concentration for 20% or 50% of effect relative to control treatment) based on total As concentration were more variable among different soils than the corresponding EC₂₀ and EC₅₀ values based on extractable (phytoavailable) As concentration. From the studied species, common bean was the most sensitive and maize was the least sensitive to As. Those species were the ones that accumulated the lowest As levels in shoot tissues. Arsenic concentrations measured in plant tissues and estimated bioaccumulation factors were not related to relative As toxicity among species. Data obtained suggest that the current Brazilian prevention value for arsenic is adequate for soils with high arsenic adsorption capacity.

Natural variation of arsenic fractions in soils of the Brazilian Amazon

Arsenic (As) in native soils of the Amazon rainforest is a concern due to its likely origin from the Andean rivers, which transport loads of sediments containing substantial amounts of trace elements coming from the cordilleras. Yet, unveiling soil As baseline concentrations in the Amazon basin is still a need because most studies in Brazil have been performed in areas with predominantly high concentrations and cannot express a real baseline value for the region. In this study, 414 soil samples (0-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm layers) were collected from different sites throughout the Amazon basin - including native Amazon rainforest and minimally disturbed areas - and used to determine total and extractable (soluble + available) As concentrations along with relevant soil physicochemical properties. Descriptive statistics of the data was performed and Pearson correlation supported by a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) provided an improved understanding of where and how As concentrations are influenced by soil attributes. Total As concentration ranged from 0.98 to 41.71 mg kg^-1 with values usually increasing from the topsoil (0-20 cm) to the deepest layer (40-60 cm) in all sites studied. Considering the proportional contribution given by each fraction (soluble and available) on extractable As concentration, it is noticeable that KH₂PO₄-extractable As represents the most important fraction, with >70% of the As extracted on average in all the sites studied. Still, the extractable fractions (soluble + available) correspond to ~0.24% of the total As, on average. Total, available, and soluble As fractions were strongly and positively correlated with soil Al³⁺. The PCA indicated that soil pH in combination with CEC might be the key factors controlling soil As concentrations and the occurrence of each arsenic fraction in the soil layers.

Critical mercury concentration in tropical soils: Impact on plants and soil biological attributes

Mercury is a toxic element that becomes a problem when present at high concentrations in soils. Mercury toxicity in soils varies depending on chemical species, concentration, exposure routes, and organism vulnerability. There is little information regarding the toxicity of Hg in tropical soils, especially for establishing safe levels of this pollutant. The purpose of this study was to investigate Hg concentrations in two tropical soils and their effect on oats and common beans, as well as on soil biological attributes. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse, following ISO 11.269-2 and OECD-208 guidelines. Oat and common bean were cultivated in a Typic Hapludox (TyHpx) and Rhodic Acrudox (RhAcx) contaminated with HgCl₂ at the following concentrations: 0, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0, 20.0, 40.0, and 80.0 mg of Hg kg^-1 of dry soil. The biological variables analyzed were seedling emergence, vegetative growth, chlorophyll content (SPAD index), gas exchange (photosynthetic rate, internal CO₂ concentration, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance), and Hg concentration and accumulation in shoot dry matter. Microbial biomass carbon, soil basal respiration, and metabolic quotient (qCO₂) were also analyzed. Due to the sorptive characteristics of TyHpx, it had higher Hg concentrations than RhAcx. Mercury showed toxic effects on both oat and common bean species. However, common bean was affected only at concentrations higher than 20 mg kg^-1. The microbial community showed high sensitivity to soil Hg concentrations, but external factors, such as the plant species cultivated, influenced the sensitivity of the community. The microbiota was most sensitive in pots with common bean, and this effect was more pronounced at low clay and low organic matter contents (TyHpx). In this study, the concentration of 0.36 mg kg^-1 was critical for Hg in these soils, based on its deleterious effects on oat and common bean and on biological soil attributes.

Combining biochar and sewage sludge for immobilization of heavy metals in mining soils

Excess heavy metal concentrations in mining areas is a worldwide problem due to their toxicity and persistence. Applying amendments to those areas is a cost-effective remediation technique that would aid revegetation efforts. The aim of this work was to study the ability of sewage sludge-derived biochar (SSB), wood charcoal powder (hereafter named wood biochar - WB), raw sewage sludge (SS), and their blending (WB/SS) to improve soil properties and to immobilize Cd, Pb, and Zn after their addition to heavy-metal contaminated soils from a Zn-mining area. Biochar was prepared from dried sewage sludge and a greenhouse experiment was set using different amendment doses (WB = 30 and 60 g kg^-1, SS = 10 and 20 g kg^-1). Addition of wood biochar and sewage sludge-derived biochar to soils led to increased leachate and soil pH. Biochar materials were responsible for the greatest reduction of Cd, Pb, and Zn bioavailability. The use of sewage sludge-derived biochar or the combination of sewage sludge with wood biochar in mining areas are potential alternatives for reusing and aggregating value to these locally available wastes, offering an opportunity to solve both soil remediation and waste disposal problems at once.

Amending potential of organic and industrial by-products applied to heavy metal-rich mining soils

Mining activities promote the development of economies and societies, yet they cause environmental impacts that must be minimized so that their benefits overcome the likely risks. This study evaluated eco-friendly technologies based on the use of low-carbon footprint wastes and industrial by-products as soil amendments for the revegetation of Zn-mining areas. Our goal was to select adequate soil amendments that can be used to recover these areas, with a focus on low-cost materials. The amendments - limestone, sewage sludge, biochar, and composted food remains - were first characterized concerning their chemical composition and structural morphologies. Soil samples (Entisol, Oxisol, Technosol) from three different areas located inside an open-pit mine were later incubated for 60 days with increasing doses of each soil amendment, followed by cultivation with Andropogon gayanus, a native species. The amendments were able to change not only soil pH, but also the phytoavailable levels of Cd, Zn, and Pb. Limestone and biochar were the amendments that caused the highest pH values, reducing the phytoavailability of the metals. All amendments improved seed germination; however, the composted food remains presented low levels of germination, which could make the amendments unfeasible for revegetation efforts. Our findings showed that biochar, which is a by-product of the mining company, is the most suitable amendment to enhance revegetation efforts in the Zn-mining areas, not only because of its efficiency and cost, but also due to its low carbon footprint, which is currently the trend for any "green remediation" proposal.

Efficacy of and effect on tooth sensitivity of in-office bleaching gel concentrations: a randomized clinical trial

With the aim of reducing the side effects of in-office bleaching agents, less-concentrated hydrogen peroxide (HP) gels have been released by manufacturers. We evaluated the tooth sensitivity (TS) and bleaching efficacy (BE) of two HP concentrations in this study. Gels containing 35% and 20% HP (HP35 and HP20, respectively) were applied on teeth of 60 caries-free patients. Color was recorded at baseline and one week after the first and second bleaching sessions using the Vita Classical shade guide. TS was recorded on a 0-4 scale. BE at each weekly recall was evaluated by Kruskall-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests (α=0.05). Absolute risk of TS and its intensity was evaluated by Fisher exact and Mann-Whitney tests, respectively (α=0.05). After two bleaching sessions, color change of approximately eight tabs was obtained with HP35; whereas, with HP20 it was six tabs (p<0.05). Only 26.7% (HP35) and 16.7% (HP20) of the participants reported TS, and no statistical differences were detected among them. Both in-office bleaching gels showed similar TS intensity, but the 35% HP agent produced faster bleaching.

[Influence of nutrition on hormone secretion. II. Study in Ribeirão, Pernambuco, Brazil (author's transl)]

1. Ten children from Ribeirão of both sexes, aged 1 to 6 years, suffering from 2nd and 3rd degree malnutrition were studied. The mean circulating growth hormone levels were significantly higher in both groups before dietary therapy, but the highest values were found in children with 3rd degree malnutrition. It was demonstrated that serum growth hormone levels were significantly related to the severity of malnutrition. A positive correlation was found between the nutritional status and the growth hormone levels. 2. The mean circulating insulin levels were lower before dietary therapy, but a significant correlation was not noted between the nutritional status and the insulin levels. 3. After the dietary therapy the hormone levels progressively returned to normal. These children showed a better recovery than those of the previous study, Agua Preta. This observation may be due to the active participation of the mothers in the nutritional recuperation of their children.

[Influence of nutrition on hormone secretion. I. Study in Agua Preta (author's transl)]

A positive correlation between the circulating growth hormone levels and the nutritional status was reported in 9 children of both sexes, aged 1 to 6 years, suffering from 2nd degree malnutrition. The mean serum insulin levels, the mean urinary 17-KS and 17-OHCS levels were low before the dietary therapy. No significant correlation between the levels of these hormones and the nutritional status was found. The hormone levels gradually returned to normal after the dietary therapy and the nutritional status of the children improved, according to the observed biochemical, clinical and anthropometric data.