Rehabilitation after Shoulder Instability Surgery

Shoulder instability can occur in any direction and presents across a broad spectrum including traumatic dislocations, repetitive microinstability events or subluxations, and global joint laxity. The development of pain, functional decline, and articular pathologic condition is a multifaceted process that is influenced by the underlying bony morphology, biology of the surrounding soft tissue structures, dynamic coordination of the periscapular musculature, and patient factors such as age, activity level, and associated injuries. This article will focus on the younger, active patient with instability due to deficiencies in the capsulolabral complex and dynamic stabilizers.

Predictors of Internal Rotation after Reverse Shoulder Arthroplasty

Objectives

Internal rotation (IR) remains unpredictable following reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA). This study aimed to determine if increasing IR limits range of motion in other planes, and to determine pre- and intra-operative factors associated with post-operative IR.

Methods

A retrospective analysis of a single surgeon's primary rTSA with a single implant was undertaken, excluding patients with acute fracture or infection. A lesser tuberosity osteotomy (LTO) or subscapularis peel tenotomy was performed and repaired at the surgeon's discretion. One hundred sixty rTSA were included; 142 (88.8%) had documented IR both pre-operatively and at one-year follow-up. Variables were collected to determine their effect on IR at the 1-year follow-up point. A multivariate logistic regression was used to determine independent predictors of sufficient IR.

Results

Average age was 69.8 (range: 55-86) years and 55% (88/160) were female. Preoperatively, 20.4% of patients (29/142) had sufficient IR. This improved to 32.4% (46/142) one year following surgery, p<0.001). Factors associated with sufficient post-operative IR were female sex (p=0.05), decreasing body mass index (p=0.04), pre-operative IR (p=0.01), preoperative external rotation (ER) in adduction (p<0.001), radiographic evidence of LTO healing (p=0.02), increased one-year postoperative forward elevation (p<0.001), and increased one-year postoperative ER (p<0.001). Increased postoperative IR did not adversely affect forward elevation or ER. On multivariate analysis, higher preoperative IR and one-year postoperative forward elevation were independently associated with sufficient one-year postoperative IR.

Conclusion

IR following rTSA continues to be modest and unpredictable. Independent predictors of sufficient post-operative internal rotation were higher preoperative IR and one-year postoperative forward elevation. In a Grammont-style rTSA system, humeral version, glenosphere lateralization, and glenosphere size do not appear to impact IR. Importantly, achieving sufficient IR does not come at the expense of other planes of motion.

Redefining Zone II: Anatomy of the Flexor Digitorum Superficialis Insertion

BACKGROUND

Flexor zone II is defined as the region spanning the proximal aspect of the A1 pulley to the insertion of the flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) tendon. Descriptions of the FDS insertion are inconsistent in the literature, but zones of injury are frequently determined with reference to superficial landmarks. The purpose of this study was to describe the footprint of the FDS insertion and define its relationship to the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) skin crease.

METHODS

The FDS insertion on the index, middle, ring, and small fingers was dissected in 6 matched pairs of fresh-frozen cadaveric hands. A Kirschner wire was used to mark the level of the PIP skin crease on bone before measurements of the FDS footprint and its position relative to the PIP skin crease were made using digital calipers.

RESULTS

The radial and ulnar FDS slips inserted a mean distance of 3.22 mm from the distal aspect of the PIP skin crease and varied by digit. The mean distal extent of the FDS insertion was 8.29 mm. The mean length of the insertion of each FDS slip was 5.15 mm and the mean width was 1.9 mm.

CONCLUSIONS

The radial and ulnar FDS slips insert on average 3.22 mm distal to the PIP skin crease and vary by digit. Knowledge of the FDS insertion is clinically relevant when differentiating between flexor zone I and zone II injuries, planning surgical approaches to the finger, and in guiding patient expectations for surgery given the variability in outcome based on zone of injury.

Sensitivity of spermatogonia to irradiation varies with age in pre-pubertal ram lambs

Although germ cells from donor rams transplanted into irradiated recipient testes have produced donor derived offspring, efficiency is low. Further optimization of recipient irradiation protocols will add precision to the depletion of recipient spermatogonia prior to germ cell transplant. Three irradiation doses (9,12,15 Gy) were administered to ram lambs aged 14 weeks (Group 1) and 20 weeks (Group 2), then testicular biopsies were collected 1, 2 and 3 months after irradiation. At 1 month after irradiation of Group 1, only the largest dose (15 Gy) reduced spermatogonia numbers below 10% of non-irradiated controls, whereas in Group 2 lambs, each irradiation dose reduced spermatogonia below 10% of controls. In both Groups, fewer differentiated germ cells were present in seminiferous tubules compared to controls. At 2 months after irradiation, spermatogonia numbers in both Groups increased more than sixfold to be similar to controls, whereas fewer differentiated germ cells were present in the tubules of both Groups. At 3 months in Group 1, each irradiation dose reduced spermatogonia numbers to <30% of controls and fewer tubules contained differentiated germ cells. Lesser expression of spermatogonial genes, VASA and UCHL-1, was observed in the 15 Gy group. In Group 2, only 12 Gy treated tubules contained fewer spermatogonia. Knowledge of these subtle differences between age groups in the effect of irradiation doses on spermatogonia or differentiated germ cell numbers and the duration of recovery of spermatogonia numbers after irradiation will aid the timing of germ cell transplants into prepubertal recipient lambs.

Organization, barrier function and antimicrobial lipids of the oral mucosa

As one moves from the skin across the vermilion region of the lip and into the oral cavity, the oral mucosa is encountered. The oral mucosa consists of connective tissue known as the lamina propria covered by a stratified squamous epithelium. In the regions of the hard palate and gingiva, the epithelium is keratinized like the epidermis. In the buccal region, the floor of the mouth and the underside of the tongue, the epithelium is non-keratinized. The epithelium on the dorsum of the tongue is a specialized epithelium, but can be approximated as a mosaic of keratinized and non-keratinized epithelia. The non-keratinized epithelial regions do not produce a stratum corneum. Nuclei with intact DNA are retained in the superficial cells. In all regions, the outer portions of the epithelium provide a protective permeability barrier, which varies regionally. Antimicrobial lipids at the surfaces of the oral mucosa are an integral part of innate immunity.

Vibrational Energy Transfer in High Explosives: Nitromethane

Time resolved vibrational spectroscopy with picosecond tunable mid-infrared pulses is used to measure the rates and investigate the detailed mechanisms of multiphonon up-pumping and vibrational cooling in a condensed high explosive, nitromethane. Both processes occur on the ˜100 ps time scale under ambient conditions. The mechanisms involve sequential climbing or descending the ladder of molecular vibrations. Efficient intermolecular vibrational energy transfer from various molecules to the symmetric stretching excitation of NO2 is observed. The implications of these measurements for understanding shock initiation to detonation and the sensitivities of energetic materials to shock initiation are discussed briefly.

A shorter interval between irradiation of recipient testis and germ cell transplantation is detrimental to recovery of fertility in rams

The objective of the current study was to identify an optimal time period for donor cell transplantation after irradiation in sheep. The testes of recipient rams were treated with a single dose of 15 Gray (Gy) irradiation followed by germ cell transplantation either 3 or 6 weeks later. Transplantation of donor cells at 6 weeks after irradiation resulted in production of donor sperm by all five recipient rams compared with 4 of 11 rams transplanted at 3 weeks. Rams transplanted 3 weeks post-irradiation appeared to show reduced libido and fertility. Two rams produced sperm with low motility (< 20%) and two other rams were azoospermic. More than 1 year after cell transfer, there were heavy infiltrates of CD45-positive cells and more fibrous tissue in 9 of 14 recipient testes (seven rams) that received cells 3 weeks after irradiation. Taken together, these results suggest that the interval between irradiation of recipients and germ cell transplantation affects the success rate of the procedure, with a 6-week interval preferable. The elevated inflammatory/immune reaction may be responsible, at least in part, for the reduced fertility and low libido observed in the rams that received cells 3 weeks post-irradiation.

Male germ cell transplantation in livestock

Male germ cell transplantation is a powerful approach to study the control of spermatogenesis with the ultimate goal to enhance or suppress male fertility. In livestock animals, applications can be expanded to provide an alternative method of transgenesis and an alternative means of artificial insemination (AI). The transplantation technique uses testis stem cells, harvested from the donor animal. These donor stem cells are injected into seminiferous tubules, migrate from the lumen to relocate to the basement membrane and, amazingly, they can retain the capability to produce donor sperm in their new host. Adaptation of the mouse technique for livestock is progressing, with gradual gains in efficiency. Germ cell transfer in goats has produced offspring, but not yet in cattle and pigs. In goats and pigs, the applications of germ cell transplantation are mainly in facilitating transgenic animal production. In cattle, successful male germ cell transfer could create an alternative to AI in areas where it is impractical. Large-scale culture of testis stem cells would enhance the use of elite bulls by providing a renewable source of stem cells for transfer. Although still in a developmental state, germ cell transplantation is an emerging technology with the potential to create new opportunities in livestock production.

Progress in development of spotted medics (Medicago arabica L. Huds.) for Mediterranean farming systems

Spotted medics (Medicago arabica) have become naturalised in Australia, but the spiny nature of their pods has prevented commercial release of any cultivar. Fifty-eight accessions representing Medicago arabica in the Australian Medicago Genetic Resources Collection were grown as spaced plants at Turretfield, South Australia, and the variation for important agronomic traits was studied. There was large variation for traits including days to flowering, dry matter production, pod and seed yield, and pod spininess. Principal component and cluster analyses conducted for 13 traits revealed 5 clusters. One of the clusters identified comprised accessions originating from Greece and Cyprus, which were found to have high agronomic potential. The study has helped in identifying the relationship among traits, namely pod spininess, days to flowering, dry matter yield, and pod and seed yield, which would be useful to breeders for future breeding and selection programs. A sward trial at Moree, New South Wales, comprising a selected cohort of spotted medic accessions, enabled the identification of 2 early flowering and high dry matter yielding accessions; however, both exhibited spiny pods. These 2 accessions were crossed with a smooth-podded accession, and the F1 plants were confirmed using a microsatellite marker. Days to flowering showed a continuous pattern of variation in the F2, suggesting that the trait is quantitatively inherited, whereas segregation ratio revealed that a single recessive gene controlled the smooth pod trait. Early flowering, smooth-podded F2 plants were selected for cultivar development.

Reprogramming of fibroblast nuclei after transfer into bovine oocytes

Recent landmark achievements in animal cloning have demonstrated that the events of cell differentiation can, in principle, be reversed. This reversal necessarily requires large-scale genetic reprogramming, of which little is known. In the present study we characterized the extent to which blastocyst stage-specific mRNA expression would be conserved in bovine embryos produced by nuclear transfer (NT) using fetal fibroblasts as nuclei donors (FF NT). The mRNA pool of FF NT embryos was compared with that of NT embryos reconstructed from embryonic blastomeres (Emb NT), with embryos produced under in vivo or in vitro conditions, and finally with fibroblast cells. Embryo/cell-specific mRNA pools were contrasted using differential display methodology. Random oligonucleotide primer pair combinations were used to subfractionate mRNA populations and represent individual mRNAs as copy DNA (cDNA) bands ranging in size from 100 to 800 base pairs. Regardless of whether bovine blastocysts developed in vivo or in vitro, or were derived after nuclear transplantation with embryonic blastomeres or fetal fibroblasts, their mRNA profile was highly conserved and distinct from that of fetal fibroblast cells. There was approximately 95% conservation in cDNA banding patterns between FF NT, Emb NT, and in vivo derived blastocysts, when compared with in vitro derived blastocysts. In contrast, the cDNA banding in fibroblasts was only 67% conserved with in vitro derived blastocysts (p < 0.0001), indicating that dramatic changes in gene transcription are induced by nuclear transplantation. After nuclear transplantation, gene expression in fetal fibroblasts is reprogrammed so to mimic that of preimplantation embryo development. Future characterization of these changes will be invaluable for the identification of suitable cell types to serve as nuclear donors for embryo reconstruction and provide information that can be used to improve the efficiency of cloning animals by nuclear transplantation.

Major histocompatibility antigen expression on the bovine placenta: its relationship to abnormal pregnancies and retained placenta

In viviparous animals, regulation of expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I antigens by the trophoblast cells, which constitute the outermost layer of the placenta, seems to be critical for maternal immunological acceptance of an allogeneic fetus. Cattle are unusual in this regard, since the bovine trophoblast cells, in specific regions of the uterine/placental interface, normally express MHC class I antigens during the third trimester of gestation. This expression appears to be biologically relevant as MHC class I compatibility between a cow and her fetus has been associated with an increased incidence of placental retention. We have found significant differences in lymphocyte populations, cytokine production, and trophoblast cell apoptosis in the placentomes of MHC-compatible and -incompatible pregnancies at parturition. This suggests that maternal immunological recognition of fetal MHC class I proteins triggers an immune/inflammatory response that contributes to placental separation at parturition in cattle. Early in pregnancy, a complete shutdown of MHC class I expression by trophoblast cells appears to be critical for normal placental development and fetal survival. In bovine somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) pregnancies, there is an extremely high rate of fetal loss between days 30 and 90 of pregnancy. We have shown that in bovine SCNT pregnancies, between days 34 and 63 of gestation, there is both abnormal expression of MHC class I antigens by trophoblast cells and an abnormal accumulation of lymphocytes within the uterine stroma. Consequently, it is likely that activation of the maternal mucosal immune system, within the uterus at the same time when placentomes are being established, interferes with the process of placentome development and leads to immune-mediated abortion. Our data suggest that bovine MHC-compatible pregnancies provide a unique model for studying regulation of the uterine immune system, as well as immune-mediated placental rejection.

Molecular models of the intercellular lipid lamellae from epidermal stratum corneum

The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that the 13 nm trilamellar repeat units within the intercellular spaces of epidermal stratum corneum are composed of lamellae with alternating 5-3-5 nm dimensions as presented in previous models [J. Invest. Dermatol. 92 (1989) 251, P.W. Wertz, Integral lipids in hair and stratum corneum, in: P. Jolles, H. Zahn, H. Hocker (Eds.), Hair: Biology And Structure, Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, 1996, pp. 227-238, Acta Derm.-Venereol., Suppl. 208 (2000) 23]. Electron density profiles were measured from transmission electron micrographs of porcine stratum corneum prepared using ruthenium tetroxide [J. Invest. Dermatol. 92 (1989) 251]. Center-to-center distances of adjacent electron-dense bands as well as adjacent lucent bands were measured. Dense band center-to-center measurements were consistent with a 5-3-5 nm arrangement. However, lucent band center-to-center measurements revealed uniform lamellar thickness. It is suggested that linoleate chains in the central lamella reduce more ruthenium than the predominantly saturated chains in the outer lamellae and that this additional reduced ruthenium accumulates under the polar head group regions. A similar phenomenon involving the sphingosine moieties of the covalently bound omega-hydroxyceramide molecules accounts for the three-band pattern seen between the ends of adjacent corneocytes. It is concluded that the component lamellae of the several types of 13 nm trilamellar units of the stratum corneum are all of equal thickness.

Strategies for complying with the HIPAA security rule

In response to the HIPAA privacy and security rules, organizations are taking steps to set up and clean up access controls, and explore possible changes to audit controls and termination procedures. They are facing the practical issues of implementing security policies that are compliant, efficient to administer, and not disruptive to users. Organizations are also setting up new users' system access according to role-based schemes and examining the ways they are terminating access for departing employees.

Placental anomalies in a viable cloned calf

Placental anomalies are associated with a high mortality rate in mammalian cloning programs. In this report, we detail the very unusual occurrence of a grossly abnormal placenta that supported a viable cloned calf to term. The placenta was recovered intact 3 h following birth, and its weight was within normal limits (4.3 kg). The chorioallantois of the cloned transgenic female Holstein calf contained only 26 cotyledons. Twelve of these were enlarged and functional. Six were poorly developed, and eight were degenerating. The 12 functional cotyledons ranged in diameter from 8 to 20 cm. The nongravid horn had six rudimentary (<5 cm in diameter) cotyledons and eight cotyledons that remained as oval, mineralized plaques. Despite the reduction in number of placentomes, there was no adventitial placentation. Although this report documents observations from a single case, it does show that a morphologically deficient placenta was able to support development to term and resulted in a viable calf.

Bovine nuclear transfer embryo development using cells derived from a cloned fetus

Many different cell types have been used to generate nuclear transfer embryos and fetuses. However, little is known about the potential of fibroblasts derived from a nuclear transfer fetus as donor cells for nuclear transfer. The ability of cloned fetuses or animals to be cloned themselves is of great interest in determining whether successive generations of clones remain normal or accumulate genetic or phenotypic abnormalities. We generated a bovine fibroblast cell line from a cloned fetus, that continued to divide beyond 120 days (94 doublings,18 passages) in continuous culture. As long-term survival of cells in culture is a desirable characteristic for use in transgenic cell production, passage 2 and 18 cells were compared as donor cells for nuclear transfer (NT). When cells from passage 2 (2 weeks in culture) and passage 18 (4 months in culture) were used for nuclear transfer, there was no significant difference in development rate to blastocyst (35.4 versus 44.6%, P=0.07). A greater proportion of late passage cells were in G0/G1 whether under serum-fed (64 versus 56%, P<0.01) or serum-starved (95 versus 88%, P<0.01) culture conditions. Following embryo transfer, equivalent day 30 pregnancy rates were observed for each group (P 2: 2/19 versus P 18: 2/13). A slightly retarded fetus was surgically removed at day 56 and the remaining three fetuses died in utero by day 60 of gestation. Our results show that fibroblast cells derived from regenerated cloned fetuses are capable of both in vitro and in vivo development. The longevity of this regenerated cell line would allow more time for genetic manipulations and then to identify stable transfected cells prior to their use as NT donor cells. Although no live fetuses were produced in this study the results provide encouraging data to show that a cloned fetus can itself be recloned to produce another identical cloned fetus. Further studies on this and other recloned fetuses are necessary to determine whether the failure to produce live offspring was a result of inadequate sample size or due to the cell type selected.

Endometrial Glands Are Required for Preimplantation Conceptus Elongation and Survival1

Endometrial glands secrete molecules hypothesized to support conceptus growth and development. In sheep, endometrial gland morphogenesis occurs postnatally and can be epigenetically ablated by neonatal progestin exposure. The resulting stable adult uterine gland knockout (UGKO) phenotype was used here to test the hypothesis that endometrial glands are required for successful pregnancy. Mature UGKO ewes were bred repeatedly to fertile rams, but no pregnancies were detected by ultrasound on Day 25. Day 7 blastocysts from normal superovulated ewes were then transferred synchronously into Day 7 control or UGKO ewes. Ultrasonography on Days 25-65 postmating indicated that pregnancy was established in control, but not in UGKO ewes. To examine early uterine-embryo interactions, four control and eight UGKO ewes were bred to fertile rams. On Day 14, their uteri were flushed. The uterus of each control ewe contained two filamentous conceptuses of normal length. Uteri from four UGKO ewes contained no conceptus. Uteri of three UGKO ewes contained a single severely growth-retarded tubular conceptus, whereas the remaining ewe contained a single filamentous conceptus. Histological analyses of these uteri revealed that endometrial gland density was directly related to conceptus survival and developmental state. Day 14 UGKO uteri that were devoid of endometrial glands did not support normal conceptus development and contained either no conceptuses or growth-retarded tubular conceptuses. The Day 14 UGKO uterus with moderate gland development contained a filamentous conceptus. Collectively, these results demonstrate that endometrial glands and, by inference, their secretions are required for periimplantation conceptus survival and development.

Cloning to reproduce desired genotypes

Cloned sheep, cattle, goats, pigs and mice have now been produced using somatic cells for nuclear transplantation. Animal cloning is still very inefficient with on average less than 10% of the cloned embryos transferred resulting in a live offspring. However successful cloning of a variety of different species and by a number of different laboratory groups has generated tremendous interest in reproducing desired genotypes. Some of these specific genotypes represent animal cell lines that have been genetically modified. In other cases there is a significant demand for cloning animals characterized by their inherent genetic value, for example prize livestock, household pets and rare or endangered species. A number of different variables may influence the ability to reproduce a specific genotype by cloning. These include species, source of recipient ova, cell type of nuclei donor, treatment of donor cells prior to nuclear transfer, and the techniques employed for nuclear transfer. At present, there is no solid evidence that suggests cloning will be limited to only a few specific animals, and in fact, most data collected to date suggests cloning will be applicable to a wide variety of different animals. The ability to reproduce any desired genotype by cloning will ultimately depend on the amount of time and resources invested in research.

Evidence for placental abnormality as the major cause of mortality in first-trimester somatic cell cloned bovine fetuses

The production of cloned animals is, at present, an inefficient process. This study focused on the fetal losses that occur between Days 30-90 of gestation. Fetal and placental characteristics were studied from Days 30-90 of gestation using transrectal ultrasonography, maternal pregnancy specific protein b (PSPb) levels, and postslaughter collection of fetal tissue. Pregnancy rates at Day 30 were similar for recipient cows carrying nuclear transfer (NT) and control embryos (45% [54/120] vs. 58% [11/19]), although multiple NT embryos were often transferred into recipients. From Days 30-90, 82% of NT fetuses died, whereas all control pregnancies remained viable. Crown-rump (CR) length was less in those fetuses that were destined to die before Day 90, but no significant difference was found between the CR lengths of NT and control fetuses that survived to Day 90. Maternal PSPb levels at Days 30 and 50 of gestation were not predictive of fetal survival to Day 90. The placentas of six cloned and four control (in vivo or in vitro fertilized) bovine pregnancies were compared between Days 35 and 60 of gestation. Two cloned placentas showed rudimentary development, as indicated by flat, cuboidal trophoblastic epithelium and reduced vascularization, whereas two others possessed a reduced number of barely discernable cotyledonary areas. The remaining two cloned placentas were similar to the controls, although one contained hemorrhagic cotyledons. Poor viability of cloned fetuses during Days 35-60 was associated with either rudimentary or marginal chorioallantoic development. Our findings suggest that future research should focus on factors that promote placental and vascular growth and on fetomaternal interactions that promote placental attachment and villous formation.

Genetic reprogramming of lactate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, and phosphofructokinase mRNA in bovine nuclear transfer embryos produced using bovine fibroblast cell nuclei

Adult animal cloning has progressed to allow the production of offspring cloned from adult cells, however many cloned calves die prenatally or shortly after birth. This study examined the expression of three important metabolic enzymes, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), citrate synthase, and phosphofructokinase (PFK), to determine if their detection in nuclear transfer (NT) embryos mimics that determined for in vitro produced embryos. A day 40 nuclear transfer produced fetus derived from an adult cell line was collected and fetal fibroblast cultures were established and maintained. Reconstructed NT embryos were then produced from this cell line, and RT-PCR was used to evaluate mRNA reprogramming. All three mRNAs encoding these enzymes were detected in the regenerated fetal fibroblast cell line. Detection patterns were first determined for IVF produced embryos (1-cell, 2-cell, 6-8 cell, morula, and blastocyst stages) to compare with their detection in NT embryos. PFK has three subunits: PFK-L, PFK-M, and PFK-P. PFK-L and PFK-P were not detected in bovine oocytes. PFK subunits were not detected in 6-8 cell embryos but were detected in blastocysts. Results from NT embryo RT-PCR demonstrated that PFK was not detected in 8-cell NT embryos but was detected in NT blastocysts indicating that proper nuclear reprogramming had occurred. Citrate synthase was detected in oocytes and throughout development to the blastocyst stage in both bovine IVF and NT embryos. LDH-A and LDH-B were detected in bovine oocytes and in all stages of IVF and NT embryos examined up to the blastocyst stage. A third subunit, LDH-C was not detected at the blastocyst stage in IVF or NT embryos but was detected in all earlier stages and in mature oocytes. In addition, LDH-C mRNA was detected in gonad isolated from the NT and an in vivo produced control fetus. These results indicate that the three metabolic enzymes maintain normal expression patterns and therefore must be properly reprogrammed following nuclear transfer.

Development rates of male bovine nuclear transfer embryos derived from adult and fetal cells

This study compared the nuclear transfer (NT) embryo development rates of adult and fetal cells within the same genotype. The adult fibroblast cells were obtained from a 21-yr-old Brahman bull. The fetal cells were derived from a Day 40 NT fetus previously cloned using cells from the Brahman bull. Overall, similar numbers of blastocysts developed from both adult (53 of 190; 28%) and fetal (39 of 140; 28%) donor cells. Improved blastocyst development rates were observed when fetal cells were serum-starved (serum-fed 12% vs. serum-starved 43%; P < 0.01) whereas there was no similar benefit when adult cells were serum-starved (both serum-fed and serum-starved 28%). Day 30 pregnancy rates were similar for blastocysts derived from adult (6 of 26; 23%) or fetal (5 of 32; 16%) cells. Day 90 pregnancy rates were 3 of 26 for adult and 0 of 32 for the fetal cell lines. One viable bull calf derived from a 21-yr-old serum-starved adult skin fibroblast was born in August 1999. In summary, somatic NT embryo development rates were similar whether adult or fetal cells, from the same genotype, were used as donor cells. Serum starvation of these adult donor cells did not improve development rates of NT embryos to blastocyst, but when fetal cells were serum-starved, there was a significant increase in development to blastocyst.

Characterization of a bovine cDNA encoding citrate synthase, and presence of citrate synthase mRNA during bovine pre-attachment development

Citrate synthase is a key regulatory metabolic enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, the synthesis of citrate from acetyl coenzyme A and oxaloacetate. Aerobic metabolism via the TCA cycle is high in bovine embryos at the 4-cell stage then decreases until the compact morula stage before increasing at the expanded blastocyst stage. This study characterizes the presence of citrate synthase mRNA in bovine pre-attachment embryos to determine if a variation in mRNA transcript expression patterns is associated with previous reports of the patterns of TCA cycle activity. The reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method was used to detect citrate synthase mRNA from the 1-cell to blastocyst stage of bovine embryo development, and in embryos cultured under either an atmosphere of 5% CO(2) in air or 5% CO(2)/5% O(2)/90%N(2). The nucleotide sequence encoding citrate synthase was determined from bovine heart cDNA by the rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) technique. This 1455-bp nucleotide fragment contained an open reading frame that encoded a deduced protein of 466 amino acids. The bovine nucleotide sequence was 92.1% and 93.8% identical to the human and porcine coding sequence, respectively. The amino acid sequence predicted from the bovine sequence is 95.1% identical to the human sequence and 96.3% identical to the porcine sequence. The porcine sequence contains a stop codon that results in a peptide truncated by 2 amino acids. The detection of citrate synthase transcripts from the 1-cell to blastocyst stage demonstrates that the decrease in TCA cycle activity observed following the 4-cell stage is not associated with an absence of citrate synthase mRNA.

Toxicity of dolastatin 10 in mice, rats and dogs and its clinical relevance

PURPOSE

Dolastatin 10 (DOL 10), an oligopeptide isolated from the sea hare Dolabella auricularia, has been shown to be a highly potent cytotoxic agent in a variety of human tumor cell lines. The purpose of this study was to conduct preclinical toxicity evaluations to determine the target organ(s) of toxicity and its reversibility, the dose-limiting toxicity and the maximum tolerated dose (MTD), and to use this information for arriving at a safe starting dose and dose schedule for phase I clinical trails.

METHODS

DOL10 was administered as a single intravenous bolus dose to CD2F1 mice, Fischer-344 rats and beagle dogs. Endpoints evaluated included clinical observations, body weights, hematology, serum clinical chemistry, and microscopic pathology of tissues.

RESULTS

The MTD (i. e. the highest dose that did not cause lethality but produced substantial toxicity) was approximately 1350 microg/m(2) body surface area (450 microg/kg) in mice, 450 microg/m(2) (75 microg/kg) in rats and </=400 microg/m(2) (</=20 microg/kg) in dogs. Adverse signs were observed at doses >/=1350 microg/m(2) in mice, >/=150 microg/m(2) in rats and >/=400 microg/m(2) in dogs. Decreased weight gain or actual weight loss was observed at doses >/=1350 microg/m(2) in mice, >/=600 microg/m(2) in rats and >/=450 microg/m(2) in dogs. In all three species, the primary target organ of toxicity was the bone marrow, as indicated by decreases in the numbers of erythroid cells, myeloid cells, and megakaryocytes in the femoral bone marrow and by decreased white blood cell (WBC) and reticulocyte counts in peripheral blood. Marked neutropenia (i.e. >50% decrease compared to control animal or baseline values) was the principal effect on WBCs and occurred within a week of dosing. A mild anemia was evident 1 week after administering the drug to rats and dogs. The hematologic effects were transient and reversed by study termination. Other lesions at the MTD levels were cellular depletion and necrosis in lymphoid organs (rats and dogs), marked depletion of extramedullary hematopoietic cellular elements in the spleen (rats), thymic atrophy (mice and dogs), and minimal cellular necrosis in the ileum (rats). More extensive and severe pathology was observed in animals sacrificed in a moribund condition or found dead.

CONCLUSIONS

Myelotoxicity was dose-limiting in all three species with mice being the least sensitive. In a phase I clinical trial, granulocytopenia was dose-limiting. Moreover, the MTD of DOL10 for rats and dogs is comparable to the human MTD. Therefore, the results from the preclinical toxicology studies correctly predicted a safe starting dose, the dose-limiting toxicity, and the MTD in humans.

Clinical and pathologic features of cloned transgenic calves and fetuses (13 case studies)

The neonatal abnormalities, treatments and outcomes in a group of 13 cloned transgenic calves and fetuses that progressed into the third trimester of pregnancy are described. From these 13 fetuses, 8 calves were born live, 4 stillborn fetuses were recovered from 3 cows that died 7 d to 2 mo before term, and 1 aborted fetus was recovered at 8 mo gestation. All fetuses and calves were derived from the same male fetal Holstein fibroblast cell line transfected with a beta-galactosidase marker gene. Six calves were delivered by Cesarian section and two by vaginal delivery between 278 and 288 d of gestation. Birth weights ranged from 44 to 58.6 kg. Five of the 8 live born calves were judged to be normal within 4 h of birth based on clinical signs and blood gas measurements. One of these 5 calves died at 6 wk of age from a suspected dilated cardiomyopathy. Three of the 8 calves were diagnosed with neonatal respiratory distress immediately following birth, one of which died (at 4 d of age) as a result of pulmonary surfactant deficiency coupled with pulmonary hypertension and elevated systemic venous pressures. Similar findings of chronic pulmonary hypertension were also observed in 2 of 5 fetuses. Placental edema was present in both calves that later died and in the 2 fetuses with cardiopulmonary abnormalities. Hydrallantois occurred with or without placental edema in 6 cows, and only 1 calf from this group survived. The 6 cows without hydrallantois or placental edema produced 5 live calves and 1 aborted fetus. The cardiopulmonary abnormalities observed in the calves and fetuses occurred in utero in conjunction with placental abnormalities, and it is likely that the cloning technique and/or in vitro embryo culture conditions contributed to these abnormalities, although the mechanism remains to be determined.

Molecular genetics of brain tumors

As many as 40000 patients are newly diagnosed each year as having brain tumors. About half of these are metastatic foci of tumors originating outside the central nervous system, while the other half are primary tumors of central nervous system tissues. These are a diverse group of neoplasms. Currently, primary brain tumors are classified in a manner that reflects their histological appearance and location. The identification of cancer as a disorder of genes, however, has opened the possibility of classifying tumors according to the genetic alterations that underlie their pathogenesis and that regulate their malignant behavior. Two major classes of genes critical for the development of all types of cancer, including brain tumors, are now recognized: tumor suppressor genes, which encode genes that function to inhibit cell proliferation and tumor development, and oncogenes, which encode proteins that stimulate proliferation and mediate biological activities important for invasion, neoangiogenesis, immune escape, and other characteristics of malignancy. While in most cases the specific pathways regulating tumor characteristics such as tumor neoangiogenesis and tissue invasion remain to be defined, recognition of the genetic changes characteristic of individual tumor types should provide opportunities to develop more effective, less toxic therapies.

Evidence for involvement of the proteasome complex (26S) and NFkappaB in IL-1beta-induced nitric oxide and prostaglandin production by rat islets and RINm5F cells

Interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) has been implicated as an effector molecule of beta-cell destruction in autoimmune diabetes. IL-1beta inhibits insulin secretion from pancreatic beta-cells by stimulating the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) that generates the free radical nitric oxide. IL-1beta also induces the coexpression of the inducible isoform of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) that results in the overproduction of proinflammatory prostaglandins. The current studies were designed to characterize the involvement of protease(s) in the signaling pathway of IL-1beta-induced iNOS and COX-2 expression by rat islets and transformed rat pancreatic beta-cells. Because of the limitations of cell numbers of purified primary beta-cells obtained from rat islets, biochemical and molecular studies were performed using the rat insulinoma beta-cell line RINm5F. A serine protease inhibitor, Nalpha-P-tosyl-L-lysine chloromethyl ketone (TLCK), and a proteasome complex (26S) inhibitor, MG 132, inhibited IL-1beta-induced nitrite formation, an oxidation product of nitric oxide produced by iNOS, in a concentration-dependent manner, with complete inhibition observed at 100 micromol/l and 10 micromol/l, respectively. Both TLCK and MG 132 also inhibited iNOS gene expression at the level of mRNA and protein. In an analogous manner, TLCK (100 micromol/l) and MG 132 (10 micromol/l) inhibited IL-1beta-induced COX-2 enzyme activity (PGE2 formation) and COX-2 gene expression at the level of mRNA and protein. In human islets, the proteasome inhibitor MG 132 also inhibited the formation of the products of iNOS and COX-2 enzyme activity, nitrite, and PGE2, respectively. These findings suggest that the inhibitory action of TLCK and MG 132 on iNOS and COX-2 expression precedes transcription. The transcription factor NFkappaB is essential for activation of a number of cytokine-inducible enzymes and was evaluated as a possible site of protease action necessary for IL-1beta-induced coexpression of iNOS and COX-2. TLCK and MG 132 inhibited both IL-1beta-induced activation of NFkappaB and degradation of IkappaBalpha by islets and RINm5F cells. These results implicate protease activation as an early signaling event in IL-1beta-induced inhibition of beta-cell function. This study also suggests that IL-1beta-induced iNOS and COX-2 coexpression by pancreatic beta-cells share a common signaling pathway in utilizing the proteasome complex (26S) and the transcription factor NFkappaB, and it identifies sites of intervention to prevent the overproduction of their inflammatory products.

Factors affecting pregnancy rates following laparoscopic insemination of 28,447 Merino ewes under commercial conditions: a survey

The results of laparoscopic insemination of 28,447 Australian Merino ewes with semen from 468 rams were used to study factors influencing pregnancy. The overall pregnancy rate was 71.7% (20,423/28,447). Pregnancy rates varied with type of progestagen implant, type and dosage of PMSG, fresh or frozen semen, wool type and number of ewes inseminated per hour. The pregnancy rate (64.6%) obtained with Medroxy-progesterone acetate (MAP) sponges, was significantly (P < 0.01) lower than with Fluorogestone acetate 30 mg (FGA 30; 74.7%) sponges, Fluorogestone acetate 40 mg (FGA 40; 72.1%) sponges, and Controlled Internal Drug Release (CIDR-G; 71.7%) implants. A PMSG dose of 200 IU resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) lower pregnancy rates (62.4%) compared with 250 IU (72.9%), 300 IU (79.1%) and > or = 375 IU (69.4%). The mean pregnancy rate for ewes administered Folligon PMSG was 71.9%, which was significantly higher (P < 0.001) than that of ewes treated with Pregnecol PMSG (65.8%). The use of Pregnecol PMSG and MAP sponges was associated, and thus their conditional effects could not be calculated. Ewes inseminated with fresh semen were significantly (P < 0.001) more likely to become pregnant (82.2%) than those inseminated with semen frozen in pellets (69.5%) or straws (71.6%). Ewes inseminated during the months of March, April or May (fall, 71.5%) were just as likely to become pregnant as those ewes inseminated in November, December, January or February (69.6%). Significantly (P < 0.05) fewer strong wool ewes become pregnant to laparoscopic AI, (67.6%) than fine (71.7%), fine medium (73%) or medium wool ewes. Significantly (P < 0.0001) more pregnancies (77.6%) were achieved when more than 55 ewes were inseminated per hour compared with fewer than 35 ewes per hour (63.4%).

Insulin mediates glucose-stimulated phosphorylation of PHAS-I by pancreatic beta cells. An insulin-receptor mechanism for autoregulation of protein synthesis by translation

Although glucose regulates the biosynthesis of a variety of beta cell proteins at the level of translation, the mechanism responsible for this effect is unknown. We demonstrate that incubation of pancreatic islets with elevated glucose levels results in rapid and concentration-dependent phosphorylation of PHAS-I, an inhibitor of mRNA cap-binding protein, eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)-4E. Our initial approach was to determine if this effect is mediated by the metabolism of glucose and activation of islet cell protein kinases, or whether insulin secreted from the beta cell stimulates phosphorylation of PHAS-I via an insulin-receptor mechanism as described for insulin-sensitive cells. In support of the latter mechanism, inhibitors of islet cell protein kinases A and C exert no effect on glucose-stimulated phosphorylation of PHAS-I, whereas the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor, wortmannin, the immunosuppressant, rapamycin, and theophylline, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, promote marked dephosphorylation of PHAS-I. In addition, exogenous insulin and endogenous insulin secreted by the beta cell line, betaTC6-F7, increase phosphorylation of PHAS-I, suggesting that beta cells of the islet, in part, mediate this effect. Studies with beta cell lines and islets indicate that amino acids are required for glucose or exogenous insulin to stimulate the phosphorylation of PHAS-I, and amino acids alone dose-dependently stimulate the phosphorylation of PHAS-I, which is further enhanced by insulin. Furthermore, rapamycin inhibits by approximately 62% the increase in total protein synthesis stimulated by high glucose concentrations. These results indicate that glucose stimulates PHAS-I phosphorylation via insulin interacting with its own receptor on the beta cell which may serve as an important mechanism for autoregulation of protein synthesis by translation.

Hyperglycemic levels of glucose inhibit interleukin 1 release from RAW 264.7 murine macrophages by activation of protein kinase C

Diabetic patients with hyperglycemia (high blood glucose) have frequent and persistent bacterial infections linked to significantly diminished bactericidal activity and macrophage function. Interleukin-1 (IL-1), released primarily from activated macrophages, is a key mediator of effective host defense against microorganisms. We observe that hyperglycemic levels of D-glucose (8-20 mM) inhibit the release of IL-1 by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells. An inhibitor of glucose transport and metabolism, 2-deoxyglucose, prevents this inhibition of IL-1 release. High levels (8-20 mM) of fructose and mannose (but not galactose or L-glucose) also inhibit the release of IL-1 activity, suggesting that metabolism is required for IL-1 inhibition. Immunoprecipitation and activity measurements demonstrate that high glucose levels block the release of IL-1 but do not inhibit IL-1 production. High glucose levels (20 mM) increase protein kinase C (PKC) activity, and inhibitors of PKC block the inhibitory effects of glucose. Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, an agonist of PKC, mimics glucose-induced inhibition of IL-1 release. These results demonstrate that high glucose levels inhibit IL-1 release (but not production) by RAW 264. 7 murine macrophages, and this inhibition is mediated by PKC activation. These studies suggest that persistent infections in hyperglycemic patients may be due to an inhibition of IL-1 release from macrophages.

Evidence for the presence of type I IL-1 receptors on beta-cells of islets of Langerhans

The cytokine interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) has been shown to inhibit insulin secretion and destroy pancreatic islets by a mechanism that involves the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and the production of nitric oxide (NO). Insulin containing beta-cells, selectively destroyed during the development of autoimmune diabetes, appear to be the islet cellular source of iNOS following treatment with IL-1beta. In this study we have evaluated the presence of type I IL-1 signaling receptors on purified pancreatic beta-cells. We show that the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist protein (IRAP) prevents IL-1beta-induced nitrite formation and IL-1beta-induced inhibition of insulin secretion by isolated islets and primary beta-cells purified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). The protective effects of IRAP correlate with an inhibition of IL-1beta-induced iNOS expression by islets and FACS purified beta-cells. To provide direct evidence to support beta-cell expression of IL-1 type I signaling receptors, we show that antiserum specific for the type I IL-1 receptor neutralizes IL-1beta-induced nitrite formation by RINm5F cells, and that RINm5F cells express the type I IL-1 receptor at the protein level. Using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), the expression of type I IL-1 signaling receptors by FACS purified beta-cells and not alpha-cells is demonstrated. These results provide direct support for the expression of type I IL-1 receptors by primary pancreatic beta-cells, the cell type selectively destroyed during the development of autoimmune diabetes.

Effects of aspirin on nitric oxide formation and de novo protein synthesis by RINm5F cells and rat islets

Aspirin and aspirin-like drugs are the most commonly indicated agents for the treatment of inflammation. Mechanisms of action for these drugs, however, are not clearly understood. In this study, we examined the effects of aspirin on production of nitric oxide (NO), a proinflammatory mediator, and show that aspirin inhibits NO production by transformed pancreatic beta cells (RINm5F) and rat islets in a concentration-dependent manner with an IC50 value of approximately 3 mM. Therapeutic concentrations of aspirin (1-5 mM) that block NO production affected neither nuclear factor-kappaB activation nor inducible NO synthase (iNOS) mRNA transcription but potently inhibited iNOS protein expression by both RINm5F cells and rat islets. The effects of aspirin on islet function were examined by measuring glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in the presence of various concentrations of aspirin. Aspirin (1-5 mM) did not affect insulin secretion at basal or glucose-stimulated conditions, whereas higher concentrations of aspirin (10-20 mM) significantly increased basal insulin secretion. Aspirin at high concentrations of 10 and 20 mM inhibited de novo protein synthesis as demonstrated by inhibition of [35S]methionine incorporation into total islet protein and by inhibition of rabbit reticulocyte expression by Brome mosaic virus mRNA, suggesting that inhibition of iNOS expression at these high concentrations of aspirin may be due to the impairment of the translational machinery. These findings indicate that inhibition of iNOS expression and NO production may explain, in part, the beneficial effects of aspirin as an anti-inflammatory agent at therapeutic concentrations, whereas inhibition of de novo protein synthesis may possibly explain clinical and side effects of aspirin in the inflamed tissues and organs such as stomach and kidney that may accumulate high concentrations of aspirin.

Nitric oxide regulates interleukin 1 bioactivity released from murine macrophages

The bioactivity of interleukin-1 (IL-1), a major proinflammatory cytokine, can be modulated by a variety of factors including inhibitors of IL-1 production and release and receptor blockade by IL-1 receptor antagonist and by binding to nonsignaling soluble receptors. This study demonstrates that the free radical nitric oxide (NO) is also a regulator of IL-1 bioactivity. Lipopolysaccharide-activated murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells, and lipopolysaccharide plus interferon-gamma-activated murine peritoneal macrophages release IL-1 bioactivity, which is increased 10-fold over control levels by 24 h. NG-Monomethyl -arginine (NMMA), a nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, almost completely inhibits the release of IL-1 bioactivity from activated macrophages in a time- and concentration-dependent manner with an IC50 of 50 microM. IL-1 activity was determined by thymocyte proliferation bioassay and by a new spectrophotometric bioassay based on IL-1-specific induction of NOS and NO production by an insulinoma cell line, RINm5F. Neither NO nor NOS inhibitors present in the macrophage supernatant interfere with the bioassays. Aminoguanidine and iodonium diphenyl, mechanistically unrelated NOS inhibitors, also prevent the release of IL-1 activity from RAW 264.7 cells. The addition of the NO donor S-nitroso-acetylpenicillamine reconstituted the release of IL-1 bioactivity inhibited by NMMA in a concentration-dependent manner. NO appears to increase the amount of IL-1 protein released by activated macrophages as determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, but not by mechanisms involving cell death nor modification of IL-1 precursor processing. A cGMP donor, 8-bromo-cGMP, dose-dependently reverses NMMA inhibition of bioactive IL-1 release, suggesting that NO regulates IL-1 release by a cGMP-dependent mechanism. These observations suggest that NO stimulation of the activity of IL-1, a key mediator of the immune response, may be a potentially important mechanism for control of IL-1 activity in vivo.