Neutrophil surface presentation of the anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-antigen proteinase 3 depends on N-terminal processing

The neutrophil serine protease proteinase 3 (PR3) is a main autoantigen in anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. PR3 surface presentation on neutrophilic granulocytes, the main effector cells, is pathogenically important. PR3 is presented by the NB1 (CD177) glycoprotein, but how the presentation develops during neutrophil differentiation is not known. An N-terminally unprocessed PR3 (proPR3) is produced early during neutrophil development and promotes myeloid cell differentiation. We therefore investigated if PR3 presentation depended on NB1 during neutrophil differentiation and if PR3 and proPR3 could both be presented by NB1. In contrast to mature neutrophils, differentiating neutrophils showed an early NB1-independent PR3 surface display that was recognized by only two of four monoclonal anti-PR3 antibodies and occurred in parallel with proPR3, but not PR3 secretion, suggesting that the NB1-independent surface PR3 was proPR3. PR3 gene expression preceeded NB1. When the NB1 receptor was detected on the surface, a mode of PR3 surface display similar to mature neutrophils developed together with the degranulation system. Ectopic expression studies showed that NB1 was a sufficient receptor for PR3 but not proPR3. ProPR3 display on the plasma membrane may influence the bone marrow microenvironment. NB1-mediated PR3 presentation depended on PR3 N-terminal processing implicating the PR3-N-terminus as NB1-binding site.

Adipose tissue and circulating endothelial cell specific molecule-1 in human obesity

Adipocytes produce the endothelial-cell specific molecule-1 (ESM-1), which inhibits leukocyte adhesion and migration through the endothelium. This study investigates ESM-1 expression and regulation in human adipose tissue. Subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue was obtained from seventy postmenopausal women. Fourteen women subsequently underwent non-pharmacological weight reduction. In vitro experiments were performed on adipocytes isolated from human mammary adipose tissue. We determined gene expression by TaqMan RT-PCR and measured ESM-1 levels in serum and cell culture medium by ELISA. Mature adipocytes produced ESM-1. ESM-1 gene expression was higher in adipocytes than in preadipocytes. Cortisol inhibited ESM-1 gene expression in preadipocytes. Insulin and cortisol inhibited adipocyte ESM-1 production in adipocytes. This inhibitory effect of insulin was attenuated by insulin resistance, as ESM-1 gene expression in subcutaneous adipose tissue was increased in obese, hyperinsulinemic women. In contrast, ESM-1 serum levels were reduced in obese women and inversely correlated to C-reactive protein levels. Five percent weight loss did not markedly change gene expression. Circulating ESM-1 levels increased significantly, albeit modestly. ESM-1 is actively produced by adipocytes. However, since ESM-1 adipocyte gene expression and circulating plasma levels are not correlated, other sources of ESM-1 may be more important. Circulating ESM-1 levels are reduced in the overweight and obese, consistent with the notion that ESM-1 may play some role in obesity-associated vascular disease.

Simulation of voltage-sensitive optical signals in three-dimensional slabs of cardiac tissue: application to transillumination and coaxial imaging methods

Voltage-sensitive dyes are an important tool in visualizing electrical activity in cardiac tissue. Until today, they have mainly been applied in cardiac electrophysiology to subsurface imaging. In the present study, we assess different imaging methods used in optical tomography with respect to their effectiveness in visualizing 3D cardiac activity. To achieve this goal, we simulate optical signals produced by excitation fronts initiated at different depths inside the myocardial wall and compare their properties for various imaging modes. Specifically, we consider scanning and broad-field illumination, including trans- and epi-illumination. We focus on the lateral optical resolution and signal intensity, as a function of the source depth. Optical diffusion theory is applied to derive a computationally efficient approximation of the point-spread function and to predict voltage-sensitive signals. Computations were performed both for fluorescent and absorptive voltage-sensitive dyes. Among all the above-mentioned methods, fluorescent coaxial scanning yields the best resolution (<2.5 mm) and gives the most information about the intramural cardiac activity.

Intramural wave propagation in cardiac tissue: asymptotic solutions and cusp waves

The cardiac muscle is well known to conduct electric impulses anisotropically, showing a larger conduction velocity along than across fibers. Fiber orientation is not uniform within the cardiac wall, but rotates by as much as 180 degrees throughout the wall thickness. Numerical simulations and experiments have indicated that this rotational anisotropy considerably affects the spread of excitation in cardiac tissue: the wave front shows a complex intramural shape with trailing cusps. The cusps can travel across layers and reach the epicardial and endocardial surfaces where they cause apparent accelerations of propagation. In the present study we provide an analytical description of the asymptotic wave front, as well as of cusp waves. We investigate the motion of cusp waves, based on the assumption that they occur at the intersection of asymptotic solutions, and we show that our theoretical analysis is in close agreement with numerical simulations. The asymptotic solutions are found to be determined purely by the fiber organization within the cardiac wall, independent of the excitable properties of cardiac tissue.

Endothelial cell specific molecule-1--a newly identified protein in adipocytes

Expression of the endothelial cell-specific molecule (ESM)-1 was originally identified in lung and kidney endothelial cells, where its expression is regulated by cytokines. In vitro, ESM-1 interferes with the molecular mechanisms of immune cell migration by binding to adhesion molecules. In this study, we have explored the expression of ESM-1 in isolated human adipocytes and in rat adipose tissue depots. Human primary adipocytes were cultivated after collagenase digestion and used for in vitro incubation studies. Adipocytes were also isolated from different fat depots of Sprague-Dawley rats. Gene expression was quantified by TaqMan RT-PCR using specific human and rat ESM-1 primers. The cellular localisation of ESM-1 was determined by confocal microscopy using a specific antibody. ESM-1 expression in human adipocytes was stimulated by phorbol ester, an activator of protein kinase C, and by retinoic acid, an activator of nuclear receptors. The maximum increase in gene expression was 3.2-fold after 72 h treatment with phorbol ester and 4.6-fold after 72 h treatment with retinoic acid. The highest expression was found in subcutaneous rat adipose tissue - two-fold compared to epididymal and six-fold compared to intrascapular brown adipose tissue. As obesity is related to systemic inflammation (examplified by increased circulating levels of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6), the formation of ESM-1 in adipocytes and its activation by protein kinase C may play a role in the regulation of inflammatory processes.

Regulation of calcium sparks and spontaneous transient outward currents by RyR3 in arterial vascular smooth muscle cells

Intracellular Ca(2+) levels control both contraction and relaxation in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Ca(2+)-dependent relaxation is mediated by discretely localized Ca(2+) release events through ryanodine receptor (RyR) channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). These local increases in Ca(2+) concentration, termed sparks, stimulate nearby Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channels causing BK currents (spontaneous transient outward currents or STOCs). STOCs are hyperpolarizing currents that oppose vasoconstriction. Several RyR isoforms are coexpressed in VSMCs; however, their role in Ca(2+) spark generation is unknown. To provide molecular information on RyR cluster function and assembly, we examined Ca(2+) sparks and STOCs in RyR3-deficient freshly isolated myocytes of resistance-sized cerebral arteries from knockout mice and compared them to Ca(2+) sparks in cells from wild-type mice. We used RT-PCR to identify RyR1, RyR2, and RyR3 mRNA in cerebral arteries. Ca(2+) sparks in RyR3-deficient cells were similar in peak amplitude (measured as F/F(0)), width at half-maximal amplitude, and duration compared with wild-type cell Ca(2+) sparks. However, the frequency of STOCs (between -60 mV and -20 mV) was significantly higher in RyR3-deficient cells than in wild-type cells. Ca(2+) sparks and STOCs in both RyR3-deficient and wild-type cells were inhibited by ryanodine (10 micromol/L), external Ca(2+) removal, and depletion of SR Ca(2+) stores by caffeine (1 mmol/L). Isolated, pressurized cerebral arteries of RyR3-deficient mice developed reduced myogenic tone. Our results suggest that RyR3 is part of the SR Ca(2+) spark release unit and plays a specific molecular role in the regulation of STOCs frequency in mouse cerebral artery VSMCs after decreased arterial tone.

Altered gene expression in cerebral capillaries of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats

Stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP) are a well-characterized, genetic model for stroke. We showed earlier that the structure and function of the tight junctions in SHRSP blood-brain barrier endothelial cells is disturbed prior to stroke. To investigate the molecular events leading to endothelial dysfunction in SHRSP cerebral capillaries, we carried out suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) in combination with a cDNA filter screening step. We identified two cDNA fragments that were upregulated in SHRSP, compared to stroke-resistant spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), and found open reading frames of 133 and 138 amino acids, respectively. These peptides did not match any known proteins in public databases. A third upregulated SHRSP cDNA fragment was identified as the rat sulfonylurea receptor 2B (SUR2B). We also isolated and cloned the cDNA of the rat homologue for the mouse G-protein signaling 5 (RGS5) regulator. This regulator was downregulated in SHRSP. We used in situ hybridization to show that rat RGS5 is expressed in the brain capillary endothelium and in the choroid plexus. Our findings may lead to the identification of new stroke-related genes.

Shaping of a scroll wave filament by cardiac fibers

Scroll waves of electrical excitation in heart tissue are implicated in the development of lethal cardiac arrhythmias. Here we study the relation between the geometry of myocardial fibers and the equilibrium shape of a scroll wave filament. Our theory accommodates a wide class of myocardial models with spatially varying diffusivity tensor, adjusted to fit fiber geometry. We analytically predict the exact equilibrium shapes of the filaments. The major conclusion is that the filament shape is a compromise between a straight line and full alignment with the fibers. The degree of alignment increases with the anisotropy ratio. The results, being purely geometrical, are independent of details of ionic membrane mechanisms. Our theoretical predictions have been verified to excellent accuracy by numerically simulating the stable equilibration of a scroll filament in a model of the FitzHugh-Nagumo type.

Nitric oxide synthase isoforms I, III and protein kinase-Ctheta in skeletal muscle fibres of normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats with and without Ginkgo biloba extract treatment

The expression of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms I, III and protein kinase-Ctheta (PKCtheta) in rat vastus lateralis muscle was demonstrated immunohistochemically and then correlated to the physiological metabolic fibre types: SO (slow-oxidative), FOGI, FOGII (fast-oxidative glycolytic; I more glycolytic, II more oxidative), and FG (fast-glycolytic). NOS expression in muscles from different experimental groups (normal and diabetic rats, with and without Ginkgo biloba extract treatment) was assayed by Western blotting. Generally, NOS I and PKCtheta were co-expressed in fibres with predominantly oxidative metabolism (SO, FOGII). This suggests an interplay of PKCtheta and NOS I in nitric oxide production by oxidative fibres. NOS III was more highly expressed in fibres with predominantly glycolytic metabolism (FOGI, FG). A somewhat lower NOS I immunoreactivity was also found in NOS III positive fibres suggesting that NOS III and NOS I are co-expressed in these fibres. Western blotting revealed that NOS I as well as NOS III expression in the vastus lateralis muscle was down-regulated in diabetes and increased after Ginkgo biloba extract treatment. These effects may be associated with a diminished glucose uptake by myocytes of diabetic musclesand with an improved muscle function after Ginkgo biloba treatment.

Topological constraint on scroll wave pinning

Scroll waves in an excitable medium rotate about tubelike filaments, whose ends, when they exist, can lie on the external boundary of the medium or be pinned to an inclusion. We derive a topological rule that governs such pinning. It implies that some configurations cannot occur although they might otherwise have been expected. Heart tissue provides an application of these concepts. Computational illustrations based on a FitzHugh-Nagumo model are given.

Predicting filament drift in twisted anisotropy

Excitable media with twisted anisotropy have recently been attracting significant interest because of their applicability to wave propagation in heart tissue. Here we consider the dynamics of an intramural scroll wave whose filament lies initially within an arbitrary layer of mutually parallel cardiac fibers, and drifts parallel to itself from layer to layer. Earlier simulations have demonstrated that such a filament stabilizes in a layer whose fiber direction is the same as its own. In the present paper we analytically derive the trajectory of the filament, and obtain good agreement with earlier numerical data. For sufficiently sparse scrolls, our analysis predicts an equilibrium alignment perpendicular rather than parallel to the fibers.

Spiral drift and core properties

We consider the drift of a stable, nonmeandering rotating spiral wave in a singly diffusive FitzHugh-Nagumo medium with generic reaction functions; the drift is assumed to be caused by a weak time-independent diffusivity gradient or convection term in the fast-variable equation. We address, to first order in the perturbation, the standard problem whose statement reads, "Given the unperturbed solution, as well as the model's parameters, predict the speed and direction of the drift in terms of the strength and direction of the perturbation." Our main results are as follows: First, we establish a mathematical equivalence between true gradients and convective perturbations; second, a variety of numerical examples, taken from computer simulations, are presented as a reference base for testing drift theories; and third, we propose a semiempirical solution to the drift problem, requiring only two quantities to be measured off the unperturbed spiral, namely, its period of rotation and the value of the fast variable at its center; good agreement with numerical simulations is found for moderately sparse spirals.

The proliferative effect of vascular endothelial growth factor requires protein kinase C-alpha and protein kinase C-zeta

The heparin-binding protein vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a highly specific growth factor for endothelial cells. VEGF binds to specific tyrosine kinase receptors, which mediate intracellular signaling. We investigated 2 hypotheses: (1) VEGF affects intracellular calcium [Ca2+]i regulation and [Ca2+]i-dependent messenger systems; and (2) these mechanisms are important for VEGF's proliferative effects. [Ca2+]i was measured in human umbilical vein endothelial cells using fura-2 and fluo-3. Protein kinase C (PKC) activity was measured by histone-like pseudosubstrate phosphorylation. PKC isoform distribution was observed with confocal microscopy and Western blot. Inhibition of PKC isoforms was assessed by specific antisense oligonucleotides (ODN) for the PKC isoforms. VEGF (10 ng/mL) induced a transient increase in [Ca2+]i followed by a sustained elevation. The sustained [Ca2+]i plateau was abolished by EGTA. Pertussis toxin also abolished the plateau phase, whereas the initial peak was not affected. The PKC isoforms alpha, delta, epsilon, and zeta were identified in endothelial cells. VEGF induced a translocation of PKC-alpha and PKC-zeta toward the nucleus and the perinuclear area, whereas cellular distribution of PKC-delta and PKC-epsilon was not influenced. Cell exposure to TPA led to a down-regulation of PKC-alpha and reduced the proliferative effect of VEGF. VEGF-induced endothelial cell proliferation also was reduced by the PKC inhibitors staurosporine and calphostin C. Specific down-regulation of PKC-alpha and PKC-zeta with antisense ODN reduced the proliferative effect of VEGF significantly. Our data show that VEGF induces initial and sustained Ca2+ influx. VEGF leads to the translocation of the [Ca2+]i-sensitive PKC isoform alpha and the atypical PKC isoform zeta. Antisense ODN for these PKC isoforms block VEGF-induced proliferation. These findings suggest that PKC isoforms alpha and zeta are important for VEGF's angiogenic effects.

Antisense oligodesoxynucleotide strategies in renal and cardiovascular disease

Antisense oligodesoxynucleotides (ODN) provide a novel strategy to inhibit RNA transcription and thereby the synthesis of the gene product. Because antisense ODN hybridize with the mRNA strand, they are highly specific. Their backbone structure has been modified to phosphorothioates or phosphoamidates so that they can better withstand degradation after delivery. We have shown that antisense ODN are a useful research tool to elucidate intracellular processes. The example we provide involves the inhibition of PKC signaling. Furthermore, we have shown the potential clinical utility of antisense treatment. We successfully inhibited the expression of the surface adhesion molecule ICAM-1 with antisense ODN in a model of reperfusion injury. This model is highly applicable to the problem of delayed graft function in humans. However, "getting there" is a major problem and clearly less than half the fun. Cationic substances such as lipofectin have worked sufficiently well in the experimental setting. Viral gene transfer offers a possibility; however, viruses produce an additional series of problems. Liposomes may not provide sufficient transfer efficiency. Coating liposomes with viral fusion proteins may offer an ideal way with which to deliver the goods into the cytoplasm of the target cell.

From triple cysteine mutants to the cysteine-less glucose transporter GLUT1: a functional analysis

Two triple cysteine mutants containing Cys-less N- or C-terminal halves and the Cys-less GLUT1 were generated by site-directed mutagenesis. Following expression in Xenopus oocytes, the intrinsic transport activities of the multiple cysteine mutants were slightly decreased when either the cysteine residues of the C-terminal half or all six residues were changed; substitution of serine for cysteine residues located at the N-terminal half was without consequence for the catalytic activity. The exofacial ligand ethylidene glucose inhibited 2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake of wild-type and Cys-less GLUT1-expressing Xenopus oocytes with comparable half-saturation constants (11.5 and 13.2 mM). However, each of the multiple cysteine mutants exhibited an increase in affinity for the endofacial inhibitor cytochalasin B, with the greatest effect being observed for the Cys-less construct (decrease in Ki by the factor 5-6).

Functional consequences of proline mutations in the putative transmembrane segments 6 and 10 of the glucose transporter GLUT1

Proline residues are thought to play a characteristic structural and/or dynamic role in various membrane proteins [Williams, K.A. & Deber, C.M. (1991) Biochemistry 30, 8919-8923]. By use of site-directed mutagenesis and functional expression of mutant glucose transporters in Xenopus oocytes, we investigated the effects of single proline substitutions in the putative helices 6 and 10 on GLUT1-mediated glucose transport. Proline residues of helix 6, that are conserved in all human glucose-transporter isoforms except for the human GLUT2, were mutated either to alanine or to the corresponding residues of GLUT2, i.e. to histidine (P187H), arginine (P196R) or phenylalanine (P205F). In addition, the three proline amino acids within the domain G382-P-G-P-I-P of helix 10 were individually replaced with either alanine or glutamine residues. In all cases, transport function was retained when each individual proline residue was replaced with alanine. Substitution of proline 196 by arginine (P196R), however, resulted in reduction of 2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake rates by approximately 70%. Since the amount of this mutant transporter protein in plasma membrane and total membrane preparations was found to be decreased, as detected by immunoblotting, no single proline residue seemed to play a critical role in maintaining the catalytic activity of GLUT1. However, structural changes introduced by incorporation of the neutral polar amino acid glutamine at each single proline position of helix 10 almost completely abolished 2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake. Thus, the specific chemical structure of the side chain of the substituted amino acid rather than the unique property of proline residues for cis-trans isomerization seemed to determine the consequences on glucose transport.

The role of cysteine residues in glucose-transporter-GLUT1-mediated transport and transport inhibition

The role of cysteine residues in transport function of the glucose transporter GLUT1 was investigated by a mutagenesis-expression strategy. Each of the six cysteine residues was individually replaced by site-directed mutagenesis. Expression of the heterologous wild-type or mutant glucose transporters and transport measurements at two hexose concentrations (50 microM and 5 mM) were undertaken in Xenopus oocytes. The catalytic activity of GLUT1 was retained, despite substitution of each single cysteine residue, which indicated that no individual residue is essential for hexose transport. This finding questions the involvement of oligomerization or intramolecular stabilization by a single disulphide bond as a prerequisite for transporter activation under basal conditions. Application of the impermeant mercurial thiol-group-reactive reagent p-chloromercuribenzenesulphonate (pCMBS) to the external or internal surface of plasma membrane demonstrated that cysteine-429, within the sixth external loop, and cysteine-207, at the beginning of the large intracellular loop which connects transmembrane segments 6 and 7, are the residues which are involved in transport inhibition by impermeant thiol-group-reactive reagents from either side of the cell. These data support the predicted membrane topology of the transport protein by transport measurements. If residues other than the cysteines at positions 429 or 207 are exposed to either side of the plasma membrane by conformational changes, they do not contribute to the transport inhibition by pCMBS. Application of pCMBS to one side of the plasma membrane also inhibited transport from the opposite direction, most likely due to the hindrance of sugar-induced interconversion of transporter conformation.

GTP analogs suppress uptake but not transport of D-glucose analogs in Glut1 glucose transporter-expressing Xenopus oocytes

A Xenopus oocyte expression-co-injection system was used to study the influence of guanine nucleotides on D-glucose uptake. GTP analogs like GTP gamma S and GppNHp had no effect on 3-O-methylglucose transport determined by zero-trans uptake or equilibrium exchange, but suppressed 2-deoxyglucose uptake into Glut1 glucose transporter-expressing oocytes by up to 86%. Both GTP analogs showed concentration dependence of their effectiveness, with GTP gamma S being more potent than GppNHp. No statistically significant differences were observed between groups of oocytes co-injected with water or GDP beta S (250 and 500 microM intracellular concentration). Glut1 transporter expression in plasma membrane was not different between water or GTP gamma S-co-injected oocytes. Thus, inhibition of hexokinase catalytic activity is the most likely causative factor for down-regulation of 2-deoxyglucose uptake.

The differential role of Cys-421 and Cys-429 of the Glut1 glucose transporter in transport inhibition by p-chloromercuribenzenesulfonic acid (pCMBS) or cytochalasin B (CB)

Cys-421 and Cys-429 of Glut1 were replaced by site-directed mutagenesis in order to investigate their involvement in basal glucose transport and transport inhibition. Neither of the two cysteine residues was essential for basal 2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake in Xenopus oocytes expressing the respective mutant M421 and M429. If applied from the external side, the poorly permeable sulfhydryl-reactive agent pCMBS inhibited 2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake of Glut1- and M421-expressing Xenopus oocytes but failed to affect uptake of the Cys-429 mutant. This is in agreement with the proposed two-dimensional model of Glut1 confirming that Cys-429 is the only residue exposed to the surface of the plasma membrane. The replacement of Cys-421 at the exofacial end of helix eleven caused a partial protection of 3-O-methylglucose transport inhibition by CB; this residue may thus be involved in stabilizing an adjacent local tertiary structure necessary for the full activity of this inhibitor.