Deep Red Photoluminescence from Cr3+ in Fluorine-Doped Lithium Aluminate Host Material

Deep red phosphors have attracted much attention for their applications in lighting, medical diagnosis, health monitoring, agriculture, etc. A new phosphor host material based on fluorine-doped lithium aluminate (ALFO) was proposed and deep red emission from Cr3+ in this host material was demonstrated. Cr3+ in ALFO was excited by blue (~410 nm) and green (~570 nm) rays and covered the deep red to near-infrared region from 650 nm to 900 nm with peaks around 700 nm. ALFO was a fluorine-doped form of the spinel-type compound LiAl5O8 with slightly Li-richer compositions. The composition depended on the preparation conditions, and the contents of Li and F tended to decrease with preparation temperature, such as Al4.69Li1.31F0.28O7.55 at 1100 °C, Al4.73Li1.27F0.17O7.65 at 1200 °C, and Al4.83Li1.17F0.10O7.78 at 1300 °C. The Rietveld analysis revealed that ALFO and LiAl5O8 were isostructural with respect to the spinel-type lattice and in a disorder-order relationship in the arrangement of Li+ and Al3+. The emission peak of Cr3+ in LiAl5O8 resided at 716 nm, while Cr3+ in ALFO showed a rather broad doublet peak with the tops at 708 nm and 716 nm when prepared at 1200 °C. The broad emission peak indicated that the local environment around Cr3+ in ALFO was distorted, which was also supported by electron spin resonance spectra, suggesting that the local environment around Cr3+ in ALFO was more inhomogeneous than expected from the diffraction-based structural analysis. It was demonstrated that even a small amount of dopant (in this case fluorine) could affect the local environment around luminescent centers, and thus the luminescence properties.

Crystal structure of silver carbonate iodide Ag10(CO3)3I4

The new silver carbonate iodide, Ag₁₀(CO₃)₃I₄, comprises layers of I atoms, Ag atoms, and CO₃ groups stacked along [10].

The title silver carbonate iodide, Ag₁₀(CO₃)₃I₄, deca­silver(I) tris­(carbonate) tetra­iodide, was recently reported as a precursor of the new superionic conductor Ag₁₇(CO₃)₃I₁₁. Ag₁₀(CO₃)₃I₄, was prepared by heating a stoichiometric powder mixture of AgI and Ag₂CO₃ at 430 K. A single-crystal suitable for X-ray diffraction analysis was obtained by slow cooling of a melt with an AgI-rich composition down from 453 K. Ag₁₀(CO₃)₃I₄ exhibits a layered crystal structure packed along [10], in which Ag atoms are inter­calated between the layers of hexa­gonally close-packed I atoms, and CO₃ groups. Up to now, Cs₃Pb₂(CO₃)₃I is the only other compound containing carbonate groups and iodide ions registered in the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database.

Superionic Ag+ Conductor Ag17(CO3)3I11

A new superionic Ag⁺ conductor with a nominal composition Ag₁₇(CO₃)₃I₁₁ (11AgI-3Ag₂CO₃) was found in the AgI-Ag₂CO₃ system. The conductor, which was formed at temperatures from 100 to 170 °C, is a metastable phase that gradually decomposes into AgI and Ag₁₀(CO₃)I₄ over a period of a few weeks at room temperature (RT). A Ag⁺ ionic conductivity of 0.16 S/cm was measured at RT, and an activation energy of 0.33 eV was evaluated in the temperature range from -9 to 19 °C. Single-crystal X-ray analysis revealed that Ag₁₇(CO₃)₃I₁₁ crystallized in a rhombohedral unit cell with hexagonal parameters of a = 15.8831(6) Å and c = 30.0730(13) Å at -183 °C and space group R3c. The Ag atoms were distributed over 53 sites in the asymmetry unit, with a maximum occupancy of 0.33(8). The continuous distribution of the partially occupied Ag sites was associated with the conduction paths of the Ag⁺ ions in the structure.

Design and performance of a new VIS-VUV photoluminescence beamline at UVSOR-III

A new bending-magnet beamline with a 2.5 m normal-incidence monochromator has been constructed to serve with a light source in the visible-vacuum-ultraviolet region for photoluminescence, transmission and reflection spectroscopies of solids at the UVSOR-III 750 MeV synchrotron radiation light source. The aim is to pave the way to establishing a beamline with high photon flux, high brilliance, high energy-resolution, high linear-polarization and low higher-order light. To obtain high photon flux and brilliance, the acceptance angle of the bending-magnet radiation was designed to be 40 mrad (H) × 14 mrad (V) and the post-mirror system employed Kirkpatrick-Baez optics. The incidence angle of the incoming light to the optical elements, except to the gratings, was set to a grazing angle in order to keep a degree of linear polarization. For achieving high energy-resolution, an off-plane Eagle-type monochromator was adopted. Higher-order unwanted light in the energy range below ∼11 eV was suppressed to be less than 0.1%.

Dirac versus Weyl fermions in topological insulators: Adler-Bell-Jackiw anomaly in transport phenomena

Dirac metals (gapless semiconductors) are believed to turn into Weyl metals when perturbations, which break either time reversal symmetry or inversion symmetry, are employed. However, no experimental evidence has been reported for the existence of Weyl fermions in three dimensions. Applying magnetic fields near the topological phase transition from a topological insulator to a band insulator in Bi1-xSbx we observe not only the weak antilocalization phenomenon in magnetoconductivity near zero magnetic fields (B<0.4  T), but also its upturn above 0.4 T only for E//B. This "incompatible" coexistence between weak antilocalization and "negative" magnetoresistivity is attributed to the Adler-Bell-Jackiw anomaly ("topological" E·B term) in the presence of weak antilocalization corrections.

Topological phase transitions driven by magnetic phase transitions in Fe(x)Bi2Te3 (0≤x≤0.1) single crystals

We propose a phase diagram for Fe(x)Bi2Te3 (0≤x≤0.1) single crystals, which belong to a class of magnetically bulk-doped topological insulators. The evolution of magnetic correlations from ferromagnetic to antiferromagnetic gives rise to topological phase transitions, where the paramagnetic topological insulator of Bi2Te3 turns into a band insulator with ferromagnetic-cluster glassy behavior around x∼0.025, and it further evolves to a topological insulator with valence-bond glassy behavior, which spans over the region from x∼0.03 up to x∼0.1. This phase diagram is verified by measuring magnetization, magnetotransport, and angle-resolved photoemission spectra with theoretical discussions.

Migration, integration, and differentiation of hippocampus-derived neurosphere cells after transplantation into injured rat spinal cord

Hippocampus-derived neurospheres were prepared from transgenic rat fetuses expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP), and transplanted into an alginate-filled lesion of young rat spinal cord. One, two and four weeks after transplantation, a large number of grafted cells survived, many of which expressed immunoreactivity for glial fibrillary acidic protein, and a few expressed immunoreactivity for beta-tubulin III. The grafted cells closely attached to the host tissue including astrocytes at the border of the lesion. It was notable that numerous GFP-positive cells had migrated within host spinal cord tissue up to 2 mm away from the implanted site 4 weeks postoperation. These results demonstrate that rat fetal hippocampus-derived neurosphere cells could survive, differentiate, extensively migrate, and integrate well into the host spinal cord tissue.

Chemokine receptors in human basophils: inducible expression of functional CXCR4

We examined the expression profile of chemokine receptors in human basophils and their regulation by cytokines. Basophils expressed transcripts of CC chemokine receptors (CCR)1, CCR2, CCR3, and CCR5 and CXC chemokine receptors (CXCR)1, CXCR2, and CXCR4. In contrast to the other receptors, surface-CXCR4 expression was not detected in fresh- and whole-blood basophils, but it became apparent gradually during incubation. Among 16 chemokines tested, eotaxin induced the most potent basophil migration. SDF-1 also induced a strong, migratory response comparable with that induced by eotaxin in 24-h, cultured basophils, but it failed to induce degranulation. IL-3 abrogated CXCR4 expression completely, and it only down-regulated CCR2 and CCR3 expression slightly. IL-5, GM-CSF, and IL-4 also down-regulated CXCR4 expression. Thus, expression of CXCR4 was the most strongly affected by cytokines, and this may represent an alternative mechanism for control of cell-specific, biological responses to SDF-1.

Visualization of the calcitonin receptor-like receptor and its receptor activity-modifying proteins during internalization and recycling

Expression of the calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CRLR) and its receptor activity modifying proteins (RAMPs) can produce calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) receptors (CRLR/RAMP1) and adrenomedullin (AM) receptors (CRLR/RAMP2 or -3). A chimera of the CRLR and green fluorescent protein (CRLR-GFP) was used to study receptor localization and trafficking in stably transduced HEK 293 cells, with or without co-transfection of RAMPs. CRLR-GFP failed to generate responses to CGRP or AM without RAMPs. Furthermore, CRLR-GFP was not found in the plasma membrane and its localization was unchanged after agonist exposure. When stably coexpressed with RAMPs, CRLR-GFP appeared on the cell surface and was fully active in intracellular cAMP production and calcium mobilization. Agonist-mediated internalization of CRLR-GFP was observed in RAMP1/CGRP or AM, RAMP2/AM, and RAMP3/AM, which occurred with similar kinetics, indicating the existence of ligand-specific regulation of CRLR internalization by RAMPs. This internalization was strongly inhibited by hypertonic medium (0.45 m sucrose) and paralleled localization of rhodamine-labeled transferrin, suggesting that CRLR endocytosis occurred predominantly through a clathrin-dependent pathway. A significant proportion of CRLR was targeted to lysosomes upon binding of the ligands, and recycling of the internalized CRLR was not efficient. In HEK 293 cells stably expressing CRLR-GFP and Myc-RAMPs, these rhodamine-labeled RAMPs were co-localized with CRLR-GFP in the presence and absence of the ligands. Thus, the CRLR is endocytosed together with RAMPs via clathrin-coated vesicles, and both the internalized molecules are targeted to the degradative pathway.

Chemokines induce eosinophil degranulation through CCR-3

BACKGROUND

Such CC chemokines as eotaxin and RANTES induce preferential eosinophil recruitment in allergic inflammation. They also elicit proinflammatory effector functions of eosinophils, such as enhanced adhesion and superoxide generation. Eosinophil degranulation by chemokines, however, has not been studied in detail.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to identify chemokines and their corresponding receptors that induce eosinophil degranulation by using a panel of chemokines and blocking antibodies to candidate receptors.

METHODS

Highly purified eosinophils were preloaded with Fura-2 and stimulated with a panel of chemokine ligands for 14 known chemokine receptors: CCR1 to CCR8, CXCR1 to CXCR4, CX3CR1, and XCR1. Calcium influx was measured with fluorescence spectrometry. Eosinophils were also stimulated with the chemokines in the presence or absence of IL-5, and levels of eosinophil-derived neurotoxin were measured in the supernatant with RIA. Specific antibodies to chemokine receptors were used to block degranulation.

RESULTS

Calcium influx was induced by monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP) 1, MCP-3, MCP-4, RANTES, eotaxin, IL-8, and stromal cell-derived factor 1alpha, which are chemokines that bind several chemokine receptors. However, degranulation was induced only by CCR3 ligands, including MCP-3, MCP-4, RANTES, and eotaxin. Priming of eosinophils with IL-5 enhanced CCR3 ligand-induced degranulation but did not cause non-CCR3 ligands to induce eosinophil-derived neurotoxin release. An antibody against CCR3 significantly inhibited degranulation induced by CCR3 ligands, eotaxin, or RANTES.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that chemokine-induced eosinophil degranulation, a major effector of eosinophil functions, is mediated through only CCR3, although some non-CCR3 ligands induce calcium influx in eosinophils. CCR3 may be an important target in the treatment of eosinophilic inflammation.

Effect of eotaxin and platelet-activating factor on airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigs in vivo

Although eotaxin causes selective infiltration of eosinophils into the lung, its role in airway hyperresponsiveness remains unclear. We studied the effects of local administration of eotaxin on airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigs in vivo. Airway responsiveness to inhaled histamine and differential cell counts in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were evaluated 12 h, 24 h, 3 d, and 7 d after intratracheal instillation of eotaxin. Significant eosinophilia in BALF was observed between 6 h and 7 d after eotaxin administration. Histologically, eosinophil accumulation was observed in the airways but not in the alveoli. In contrast, eotaxin did not affect airway responsiveness between 12 h and 7 d after its administration. We then studied the effects on airway responsiveness of subthreshold doses of interleukin 5, leukotriene D(4) (LTD(4)), and platelet-activating factor (PAF) combined with eotaxin. Neither interleukin 5 nor LTD(4) affected airway responsiveness. After eotaxin treatment, PAF significantly enhanced airway responsiveness without further increases in eosinophil counts. Eotaxin plus PAF significantly increased in eosinophil peroxidase activity in BALF compared with control and with eotaxin alone. These data indicate that eotaxin alone causes eosinophil accumulation in the airways but not hyperresponsiveness, and that additional factors such as PAF are needed to activate eosinophils for the development of airway hyperresponsiveness.

Molecular cloning of a novel CC chemokine, interleukin-11 receptor alpha-locus chemokine (ILC), which is located on chromosome 9p13 and a potential homologue of a CC chemokine encoded by molluscum contagiosum virus

Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV) encodes a CC chemokine MC148R which is likely to have been acquired from the host. By a homology search employing MC148R as a probe, we have identified a novel CC chemokine whose gene exists next to the IL-11 receptor alpha (IL-11Ralpha) gene in both humans and mice. Thus, this chemokine maps to chromosome 9p13 in humans where IL-11Ralpha has been assigned. We term this novel chemokine IL-11Ralpha-locus chemokine (ILC). ILC has the highest homology to MC148R among the known human CC chemokines. Furthermore, ILC is strongly and selectively expressed in the skin where infection of MCV also takes place. Thus, ILC is likely to be the original chemokine of MC148R.

Molecular cloning of a novel human CC chemokine (Eotaxin-3) that is a functional ligand of CC chemokine receptor 3

Previously, we mapped the novel CC chemokine myeloid progenitor inhibitory factor 2 (MPIF-2)/eotaxin-2 to chromosome 7q11.23 (Nomiyama, H., Osborne, L. R., Imai, T., Kusuda, J., Miura, R., Tsui, L.-C., and Yoshie, O. (1998) Genomics 49, 339-340). Since chemokine genes tend to be clustered, unknown chemokines may be present in the vicinity of those mapped to new chromosomal loci. Prompted by this hypothesis, we analyzed the genomic region containing the gene for MPIF-2/eotaxin-2 (SCYA24) and have identified a novel CC chemokine termed eotaxin-3. The genes for MPIF-2/eotaxin-2 (SCYA24) and eotaxin-3 (SCYA26) are localized within a region of approximately 40 kilobases. By Northern blot analysis, eotaxin-3 mRNA was constitutively expressed in the heart and ovary. We have generated recombinant eotaxin-3 in a baculovirus expression system. Eotaxin-3 induced transient calcium mobilization specifically in CC chemokine receptor 3 (CCR3)-expressing L1.2 cells with an EC(50) of 3 nM. Eotaxin-3 competed the binding of (125)I-eotaxin to CCR3-expressing L1.2 cells with an IC(50) of 13 nM. Eotaxin-3 was chemotactic for normal peripheral blood eosinophils and basophils at high concentrations. Collectively, eotaxin-3 is yet another functional ligand for CCR3. The potency of eotaxin-3 as a CCR3 ligand seems, however, to be approximately 10-fold less than that of eotaxin. Identification of eotaxin-3 will further promote our understanding of the control of eosinophil trafficking and other CCR3-mediated biological phenomena. The strategy used in this study may also be applicable to identification of other unknown chemokine genes.

Development of a sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for eotaxin and measurement of its levels in human blood

The CC chemokine eotaxin is potent eosinophil-selective chemoattractant, and it is thought that the function of eotaxin is closely related to the recruitment of eosinophils in certain inflammatory reactions. In order to learn more about the biological role of this molecule, we have developed a new sandwich ELISA method to measure human eotaxin using two monoclonal anitibodies and purified recombinant eotaxin as a standard. The minimal detectable concentration of eotaxin in this assay was 1.5 pg/ml, and the working range was 3.1--200 pg/ml with low CVs (< 10%). Both within- and between-run precision levels were less than 6.7% of the CVs. The dilution curves of two serum and two spiked plasma samples showed good linearity and the recovery range was 92.8--103.3%. No cross-reactivity was found with other similar chemokines. MCP-1, MCP-2, MCP-3, MCP-4, eotaxin-2 and RANTES. This assay was sensitive enough to measure the circulating eotaxin levels of healthy volunteers. However, the eotaxin levels in serum samples (mean+/-SD; 68.6+/-13.4 pg/ml, n=15) were significantly higher than those in matched plasma samples (19.2+/-5.4 pg/ml) separated from blood collected in tubes containing EDTA. Kinetic studies revealed that the eotaxin levels in serum markedly increased depending on the elapsed time before separation from blood cells, but such changes in EDTA-plasma were negligible up to 4 h at 25 degrees C. Our new ELISA is an accurate and useful method for quantifying human eotaxin in blood and demonstrates that the process of preparing blood samples affects the measurement of the eotaxin levels.

The pharmacokinetics of ceftazidime during hemodiafiltration in critically ill patients

We studied the pharmacokinetics of ceftazidime in 3 critically ill patients undergoing continuous hemodiafiltration (CHDF). Blood samples were obtained from both the arterial and venous sites of the CHDF system 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, and 12 h after the start of ceftazidime administration. Pharmacokinetic variables were calculated by fitting individual concentration-time curves to a two-compartment open model. The elimination phase half-life was 6.86 h, and the total elimination rate constant was 0.17 h(-1). Six hours after the start of administration, the ceftazidime concentration in the arterial site decreased from the peak level of 77.5+/-31.4 (mean+/-standard deviation [SD]) microg/ml to 26.2+/-2.5 microg/ml. The ceftazidime concentration examined in 2 cases decreased to 14.7+/-5.8 microg/ml after 12 h. The results suggested that ceftazidime should be administered at 1 g/day in patients with severe infection during CHDF.

Secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine is a functional ligand for the CC chemokine receptor CCR7

Secondary Lymphoid-tissue Chemokine (SLC) is a recently identified CC chemokine that is constitutively expressed in various lymphoid tissues and is a potent and specific chemoattractant for lymphocytes. The SLC gene and the gene encoding another lymphocyte-specific CC chemokine, EBI1-ligand chemokine (ELC), form a mini-cluster at human chromosome 9p13. Here, we show that SLC is a high affinity functional ligand for chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) that is expressed on T and B lymphocytes and a known receptor for ELC. SLC induced a vigorous calcium mobilization in murine L1.2 cells stably expressing human CCR7. SLC tagged with the secreted form of alkaline phosphatase (SLC-SEAP) showed specific binding to CCR7 that was fully competed by SLC with an IC50 of 0.5 nM. SLC also induced a vigorous chemotactic response in CCR7-expressing L1.2 cells with a typical bell-shaped dose-response curve and a maximal migration at 10 nM. When assessed using CCR7-transfected L1.2 cells, SLC and ELC were essentially equivalent in terms of cross desensitization in calcium mobilization via CCR7, cross-competition in binding to CCR7, and induction of chemotaxis via CCR7. SLC and ELC were also shown to fully share receptors expressed on cultured normal T cells known to express CCR7. Notably, however, SLC was somehow less efficient in cross-desensitization against ELC in calcium mobilization and in cross-competition with ELC for binding when assessed using cultured normal T cells. Thus, SLC and ELC, even though sharing only 32% amino acid identity, constitute a genetically and functionally highly related subgroup of CC chemokines.

The effects of eotaxin on the surface adhesion molecules of endothelial cells and on eosinophil adhesion to microvascular endothelial cells

Eosinophil recruitment occurs in tissues as the result of allergic diseases. Human eotaxin is thought to be specific to eosinophils. In this study, we examined the effects of human eotaxin on the expression of adhesion molecules on nasal microvascular endothelial cells and on eosinophil adhesion to endothelial cells. Eotaxin upregulated the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on human nasal mucosal microvascular endothelial cells (HMMEC), but not human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The eotaxin-induced eosinophil adhesion to HMMEC was increased at 10 ng/ml and significantly increased at the concentration of 100 ng/ml. On HUVEC, however, eotaxin did not induce increases of eosinophil adhesion. Anti-ICAM-1 and anti-VCAM-1 mAbs significantly decreased eotaxin-induced eosinophil adhesion. These results suggest that eotaxin regulates eosinophil accumulation to the nasal mucosa through its effect on the adhesion molecules on microvascular endothelial cells.

Molecular cloning of a novel human CC chemokine EBI1-ligand chemokine that is a specific functional ligand for EBI1, CCR7

By searching the expressed sequence tag (EST) data base, we identified partial cDNA sequences encoding a novel human CC chemokine. We determined the complete cDNA sequence that encodes a highly basic polypeptide of a total 98 amino acids with 20 to 30% identity to other human CC chemokines. We termed this novel chemokine from EBI1-Ligand Chemokine as ELC (see below). The ELC mRNA was most strongly expressed in the thymus and lymph nodes. Recombinant ELC protein was expressed as a fusion protein with the Flag tag (ELC-Flag). For receptor-binding assays, recombinant ELC protein fused with the secreted form of alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) was used. By stably expressing five CC chemokine receptors (CCR1 to 5) and five orphan receptors, ELC-SEAP was found to bind specifically to an orphan receptor EBI1. Only ELC-Flag, but not MCP-1, MCP-2, MCP-3, eotaxin, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta, RANTES (regulated on activation normal T cell expressed and secreted), thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC), or liver and activation-regulated chemokine (LARC), competed with ELC-SEAP for EBI1. ELC-Flag-induced transient calcium mobilization and chemotactic responses in EBI1-transfected cells. ELC-Flag also induced chemotaxis in HUT78 cells expressing endogenous EBI1 at high levels. By somatic hybrid and radiation hybrid analyses, the gene for ELC (SCYA19) was mapped to chromosome 9p13 instead of chromosome 17q11.2 where the genes for CC chemokines are clustered. Taken together, ELC is a highly specific ligand for EBI1, which is known to be expressed in activated B and T lymphocytes and strongly up-regulated in B cells infected with Epstein-Barr virus and T cells infected with herpesvirus 6 or 7. ELC and EBI1 may thus play roles in migration and homing of normal lymphocytes, as well as in pathophysiology of lymphocytes infected with these herpesviruses. We propose EBI1 to be designated as CCR7.

Identification of a mouse eosinophil receptor for the CC chemokine eotaxin

The CC chemokine eotaxin is a selective chemoattractant for eosinophils in vitro and induces eosinophil migration in vivo. Here we show that the mouse orphan receptor previously named macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha receptor-like 2 is a functional eotaxin receptor. For consistency with other nomenclature, we have renamed the receptor mouse CC chemokine receptor 3. Human and mouse eotaxin, but not other chemokines, induced transient increases in [Ca2+]i in human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing the receptor. RNA for the receptor was abundant in primary eosinophils, but at low levels in neutrophils and macrophages. These properties make this receptor the best known candidate to mediate mouse eosinophil responses to eotaxin.

Molecular cloning of human eotaxin, an eosinophil-selective CC chemokine, and identification of a specific eosinophil eotaxin receptor, CC chemokine receptor 3

The CC chemokine eotaxin is a selective chemoattractant for guinea pig eosinophils, first purified from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in a guinea pig model of allergic airway inflammation. We have now isolated the gene and cDNA for a human counterpart of eotaxin. The gene maps to chromosome 17 and is expressed constitutively at high levels in small intestine and colon, and at lower levels in various other tissues. The deduced mature protein sequence is 66% identical to human monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and 60% identical to guinea pig eotaxin. Recombinant human eotaxin produced in insect cells induced a calcium flux response in normal human eosinophils, but not in neutrophils or monocytes. The response could not be desensitized by pretreatment of eosinophils with other CC chemokines, suggesting a unique receptor. In this regard, we show that human eotaxin is a potent and highly specific agonist for CC chemokine receptor 3, a G protein-coupled receptor selectively expressed in human eosinophils. Thus eotaxin and CC chemokine receptor 3 may be host factors highly specialized for eosinophil recruitment in inflammation, and may be good targets for the development of selective drugs for inflammatory diseases where eosinophils contribute to pathogenesis, such as asthma.

Vitamin D receptor contains multiple dimerization interfaces that are functionally different

The vitamin D receptor mediates the signal of 1 alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 by binding to vitamin D responsive elements in DNA as a homodimer or as a heterodimer composed of one vitamin D receptor subunit and one retinoid X receptor subunit. We have mapped the dimerization interfaces of the vitamin D receptor that is involved in homo- or heterodimer formation in the absence of DNA. While deletion of the first zinc finger region of vitamin D receptor diminished homodimerization activity, it did not affect heterodimerization. In contrast, a deletion just beyond the zinc finger region affected heterodimerization with retinoid X receptor, but not homodimerization. The zinc finger region alone could form a homodimer with full-length vitamin D receptor, but not a heterodimer with retinoid X receptor. The carboxy-terminal region was also necessary for heterodimer formation. This region showed only a weak dimerization activity in the absence of ligand, but this was dramatically increased in the presence of ligand for both homo- and heterodimerization. These results suggest that the vitamin D receptor has at least three dimerization interfaces whose functions are apparently distinguishable. These are located in the first zinc finger region, the region just beyond this zinc finger and in the carboxy-terminal region.

Difference and similarity of DNA sequence recognized by VDR homodimer and VDR/RXR heterodimer

Nuclear receptors for the thyroid hormone and vitamin A and D cooperate with the retinoid X receptor (RXR) in activating the transcription. Although the hormone response elements for these receptors have been proposed in which spacing of the direct repeated motifs determine the specificity (so called 3-4-5 rule), vitamin D response elements (VDREs) in the natural context consist of often imperfect direct repeats. Vitamin D receptor (VDR) alone can bind to the mouse osteopontin (mSPP-1) VDRE, which contains a direct repeat separated by 3 nucleotides, but not to the rat osteocalcin (rOST) VDRE having inexact direct repeat. The presence of RXR not only allows the VDR to bind to the rOST VDRE, but also increases the binding affinity for the mSPP-1 VDRE. The RXR/VDR heterodimer exhibits the similar affinity constants for the mSPP-1 VDRE and the rOST VDRE, in spite of the apparently different affinities for two VDREs of the VDR homodimer. A random oligonucleotide selection procedure revealed that the consensus sequence selected by the RXR homodimer is the direct repeat spaced by one A residue. In contrast, the sequences preferentially selected by the VDR homodimer and the VDR/RXR heterodimer are similar, which are the direct repeats spaced by 3 nucleotides. The difference and similarity of DNA sequence recognition are discussed.

Vitamin D receptor zinc finger region binds to a direct repeat as a dimer and discriminates the spacing number between each half-site

1 alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3, the most active metabolite of vitamin D3, is a multifunctional agent. The actions of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 are mediated through its receptor that activates the specific genes in a ligand-dependent manner. In order to investigate the details of DNA binding properties of vitamin D receptor, we have developed the overexpression and purification system of vitamin D receptor DNA binding domain. The purified peptide could specifically bind to the osteopontin-derived vitamin D responsible element (VDRE) but not to the osteocalcin and the calbindin D-9k-derived VDREs, as determined by bandshift analysis. The osteopontin VDRE contains a direct repeat of GGTTCA motif separated by 3 nucleotides, whereas the osteocalcin and calbindin D-9k VDREs have inadequate direct repeat. Further analyses using synthetic oligonucleotides revealed that vitamin D receptor DNA binding domain could discriminate the spacing number between the consensus steroid-responsible element motif and had different affinities to direct repeats that consisted of various related sequences. These studies give insight into ways in which vitamin D receptor mediates the signal of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3.

Suppression of macrophage Ia antigen expression by endogenous interferon-alpha/beta

Exogenous interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) and interferon-beta (IFN-beta) (type I IFNs) are known to suppress the IFN-gamma-dependent expression of class II MHC (Ia) antigens on macrophages (M phi). We report here that the endogenous type I IFNs produced by M phi in response to IFN inducers regulate Ia expression of the M phi themselves. Coculture of M phi with IFN-gamma and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I):poly(C)] resulted in the reduction of Ia expression in comparison with those cultured without poly(I):poly(C). Pretreatment of M phi with poly(I):poly(C) or a bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is also a potent IFN inducer, in vitro or in vivo, before being exposed to IFN-gamma was also effective in suppressing the Ia expression. Such suppression was abolished by the addition of anti-IFN-alpha/beta antibodies to the M phi culture along with IFN-gamma. M phi cultured with L-cell conditioned medium (LCM) containing M-CSF were less capable of expressing Ia antigens than those cultured without LCM. The Ia-expressing ability of LCM-treated M phi was also restored by the addition of anti-IFN-alpha/beta antibodies. M phi in the early stage of sterile inflammation were less responsive to IFN-gamma than those in the late stage. These results suggest that endogenous type I IFNs, which are produced in response to natural or synthetic IFN-inducers, regulate M phi Ia expression in an autocrinal manner.

Interferon-alpha and interferon-beta induce Ia expression in limited protein synthesis condition

We investigated the regulatory effect of interferons (IFNs) on macrophage (m phi) Ia antigen expression. Unlike type II IFN (IFN-gamma), type I IFNs (IFN-alpha and IFN-beta) were incapable of inducing the accumulation of Ia mRNA. However, when cultured with type I IFN plus cycloheximide (CHX), M phi accumulated significant amounts of Ia-specific mRNA, which was translated into Ia molecules expressed on the cell surface after the removal of CHX. Significant enhancement of Ia mRNA accumulation and the Ia expression were observed also in M phi stimulated with IFN-gamma plus CHX. Type I IFNs suppressed IFN-gamma-dependent Ia expression through the inhibition of Ia mRNA accumulation, but such suppression was not directed to the post-transcriptional step in M phi that had accumulated Ia mRNA in response to stimulation by type I or type II IFN plus CHX. These results seem to indicate that type I IFNs can induce Ia mRNA accumulation but that they also induce some inhibitory protein, the synthesis of which precedes it and is dominant, so that the Ia expression is masked.

Suppression of macrophage Ia antigen expression by endogenous interferon-alpha/beta

Exogenous interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) and interferon-beta (IFN-beta) (type I IFNs) are known to suppress the IFN-gamma-dependent expression of class II MHC (Ia) antigens on macrophages (M phi). We report here that the endogenous type I IFNs produced by M phi in response to IFN inducers regulate Ia expression of the M phi themselves. Coculture of M phi with IFN-gamma and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I):poly(C)] resulted in the reduction of Ia expression in comparison with those cultured without poly(I):poly(C). Pretreatment of M phi with poly(I):poly(C) or a bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is also a potent IFN inducer, in vitro or in vivo, before being exposed to IFN-gamma was also effective in suppressing the Ia expression. Such suppression was abolished by the addition of anti-IFN-alpha/beta antibodies to the M phi culture along with IFN-gamma. M phi cultured with L-cell conditioned medium (LCM) containing M-CSF were less capable of expressing Ia antigens than those cultured without LCM. The Ia-expressing ability of LCM-treated M phi was also restored by the addition of anti-IFN-alpha/beta antibodies. M phi in the early stage of sterile inflammation were less responsive to IFN-gamma than those in the late stage. These results suggest that endogenous type I IFNs, which are produced in response to natural or synthetic IFN-inducers, regulate M phi Ia expression in an autocrinal manner.

Neuraminidase-treated macrophages stimulate allogenic CD8+ T cells in the presence of exogenous interleukin 2

Prior work has shown that purified, resident, and inflammatory peritoneal macrophages are weak stimulators of the allogeneic MLR. We have identified conditions whereby thioglycollate-elicited macrophages become stimulatory, but primarily for the CD8+ T cell subset. The conditions were to treat the macrophages with neuraminidase and to supplement the MLR with rIL-2. These treatments together led to proliferative and cytotoxic responses by isolated CD8+ but not CD4+ T cells. Likewise when MHC-congenic strains were evaluated, an MLR was observed across isolated class I but not class II MHC barriers. Pretreatment of the macrophages with IFN-gamma further enhanced expression of class I MHC products and stimulatory activity, but did not seem essential. While these treatments did not render macrophages stimulatory for an MLR in purified CD4+ cells, blastogenesis of CD4+ cells was observed when the MLR involved bulk T cells. Small allogeneic B lymphocytes behaved similarly to macrophages, in the pretreatment with neuraminidase and supplementation with rIL-2 rendered B cells stimulatory for allogeneic, enriched, CD8+, but not CD4+, T cells. Spleen adherent cells, which are mixtures of macrophages and dendritic cells, stimulated both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and neither neuraminidase nor exogenous IL-2 was required. We think that these data suggest that most macrophages and small B cells lack three important functions of dendritic cells: a T cell-binding function that can be remedied by neuraminidase treatment, a T cell growth factor-inducing function that can be bypassed with exogenous IL-2, and an IL-2 responsiveness function that is required by CD4+ lymphocytes.

Down-regulation of macrophage Ia mRNA expression by interferon (IFN)-alpha and IFN-beta mediated by de novo synthesized protein

We investigated the regulation of class I and class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigen expression of murine peritoneal macrophages (M phi) by interferons (IFNs) at the mRNA level. Enhancement of class I antigen expression by IFNs (IFN-alpha, beta, and gamma), induction of class II antigen expression by IFN-gamma, and inhibition of class II antigen expression by IFN-alpha or IFN-beta all corresponded to steady-state levels of these MHC-specific mRNAs. Cycloheximide (CHX), a protein synthesis inhibitor, was used to elucidate whether IFN regulation of MHC mRNA expression depends on the newly synthesized proteins. CHX concentration was carefully chosen so that M phi viability was not decreased, total protein synthesis was considerably but not completely inhibited, and suppression of surface class II expression was virtually perfect. Under these conditions CHX did not affect the levels of either class I or class II mRNA, but it prevented IFN-beta from interfering with class II mRNA induction by IFN-gamma. These results indicate that the augmentation of induction and/or accumulation of MHC mRNA by IFNs is not dependent on the de novo synthesis of protein, but the down-regulation of class II mRNA level by IFN-beta is mediated by some newly synthesized protein(s).

Effect of recombinant human interferon-alpha A/D on in vivo murine tumor cell growth

We investigated the effect of human recombinant interferon-alpha A/D A/D-IFN), which is known to delay the growth of murine tumor cells, on the growth of S1 and R1 subline cells of murine Meth A fibrosarcoma in the peritoneal cavity of mice. In vitro growth of S1 cells was sensitive to, and that of R1 cells was resistant to, the direct effect of A/D-IFN, as with murine natural IFN-alpha/beta, which was used originally to isolate these sublines. In vivo, however, the growth of not only S1 cells but also R1 cells was suppressed by the administration of A/D-IFN, and the survival time of tumor-bearing mice was prolonged. Although A/D-IFN had a direct effect on S1 cells in vivo, R1 cells were susceptible only to the indirect effect via the host cells. Macrophages (M phi) harvested from the peritoneal cavity of A/D-IFN-treated mice bearing ascitic R1 cells were very effective in suppressing the in vitro growth of R1 cells; those from non-R1-bearing A/D-IFN-treated mice were less effective. The results of in vitro experiments indicate that M phi are very probably activated by the synergism of A/D-IFN and M phi diameter-activating factor(s) produced by lymphoid cells in tumor-bearing mice.

Contrasting effect of alpha/beta- and gamma-interferons on expression of macrophage Ia antigens

IFN-gamma is known to induce the expression of Ia antigens on macrophages. We found that murine IFN-alpha and -beta blocked the effects of IFN-gamma in a dose-dependent manner. The antagonistic effect of IFN-alpha and -beta was observed even when macrophages were prestimulated with IFN-gamma. These inhibitory effects of IFN-alpha or -beta were blocked by their respective antibodies. The block exerted by IFN-alpha/beta was similar whether Ia levels were monitored by immunofluorescence with anti-Ia mAb, or by stimulation of freshly sensitized, alloreactive T lymphoblasts. Adherent macrophage-rich populations from newborn mice were incapable of expressing Ia antigens following stimulation with IFN-gamma, and would inhibit the response of adult macrophages to this lymphokine. Addition of anti-IFN-beta mAb, but not anti-IFN-alpha allowed newborns' macrophages to express Ia in response to IFN-gamma, and ablated the suppressive activity toward adult cells. These results indicate that IFN-alpha and -beta, which can be produced in the course of self-defense responses and during ontogeny, may contribute to the down-regulation of macrophage Ia expression.