Is Côte D'Ivoire a new high hybridization zone for the two major malaria vectors, Anopheles coluzzii and An. gambiae (Diptera, Culicidae)?

Anopheles gambiae and An. coluzzii are very closely related and recently differentiated species representing the main malaria vectors in the Afrotropical region and responsible of up to >3 infective bites/person/night in Côte D'Ivoire, where prevention and control has stagnated in recent years. The aim of the present study was to genetically and ecologically characterize An. gambiae and An. coluzzii populations from two villages of Côte D'Ivoire, lying in the coastal forest belt and 250 km inland in the Guinean savannah mosaic belt, respectively. Results reveal high frequencies of both species in both study sites and high frequencies of hybrids (4-33%) along the whole year of sampling. Consistently with observations for the well-known high hybridization zone at the far-west of the species range, hybrid frequencies were higher in the coastal village and highest when the two species occurred at more balanced frequencies, supporting the "frequency-dependent hybridization" ecological speciation theory. Pilot genotyping revealed signatures of genomic admixture in both chromosome-X and -3. Coupled with previous reports of hybrids in the region, the results point to the coastal region of Côte D'Ivoire as a possible regions of high hybridization. Preliminary characterization of parameters relevant for malaria transmission and control (e.g. possibly higher sporozoite rates and indoor biting preferences in hybrids than in the parental species) highlight the possible relevance of the breakdown of reproductive barriers between An. gambiae and An. coluzzii not only in the field of ecological evolution, but also in malaria epidemiology and control.

A PCR-RFLP method for genotyping of inversion 2Rc in Anopheles coluzzii

BACKGROUND

Genotyping of polymorphic chromosomal inversions in malaria vectors such as An. coluzzii Coetzee & Wilkerson is important, both because they cause cryptic population structure that can mislead vector analysis and control and because they influence epidemiologically relevant eco-phenotypes. The conventional cytogenetic method of genotyping is an impediment because it is labor intensive, requires specialized training, and can be applied only to one gender and developmental stage. Here, we circumvent these limitations by developing a simple and rapid molecular method of genotyping inversion 2Rc in An. coluzzii that is both economical and field-friendly. This inversion is strongly implicated in temporal and spatial adaptations to climatic and ecological variation, particularly aridity.

METHODS

Using a set of tag single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) strongly correlated with inversion orientation, we identified those that overlapped restriction enzyme recognition sites and developed four polymerase chain reaction (PCR) restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) assays that distinguish alternative allelic states at the tag SNPs. We assessed the performance of these assays using mosquito population samples from Burkina Faso that had been cytogenetically karyotyped as well as genotyped, using two complementary high-throughput molecular methods based on tag SNPs. Further validation was performed using mosquito population samples from additional West African (Benin, Mali, Senegal) and Central African (Cameroon) countries.

RESULTS

Of four assays tested, two were concordant with the 2Rc cytogenetic karyotype > 90% of the time in all samples. We recommend that these two assays be employed in tandem for reliable genotyping. By accepting only those genotypic assignments where both assays agree, > 99% of assignments are expected to be accurate.

CONCLUSIONS

We have developed tandem PCR-RFLP assays for the accurate genotyping of inversion 2Rc in An. coluzzii. Because this approach is simple, inexpensive, and requires only basic molecular biology equipment, it is widely accessible. These provide a crucial tool for probing the molecular basis of eco-phenotypes relevant to malaria epidemiology and vector control.

A Novel Allele Specific Polymerase Chain Reaction (AS-PCR) Assay to Detect the V1016G Knockdown Resistance Mutation Confirms Its Widespread Presence in Aedes albopictus Populations from Italy

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based genotyping of mutations in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel (vssc) associated with resistance to pyrethroid insecticides is widely used and represents a potential early warning and monitoring system for insecticide resistance arising in mosquito populations, which are vectors of different human pathogens. In the secondary vector Aedes albopictus-an Asian species that has invaded and colonized the whole world, including temperate regions-sequencing of domain II of the vssc gene is still needed to detect the V1016G mutation associated with pyrethroid resistance. In this study we developed and tested a novel allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR) assay to genotype the V1016G mutation in this species and applied it to the analysis of wild populations from Italy. The results confirm the high accuracy of the novel AS-PCR and highlight frequencies of the V1016G allele as >5% in most sampling sites, with peaks of 20-45% in coastal touristic sites where pyrethroid treatments are extensively implemented, mostly for mosquito nuisance reduction. The high frequency of this mutation observed in Italian Ae. albopictus populations should serve as a warning bell, advocating for increased monitoring and management of a phenomenon which risks neutralizing the only weapon today available to counteract (risks of) arbovirus outbreaks.

Behavioural plasticity of Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles arabiensis undermines LLIN community protective effect in a Sudanese-savannah village in Burkina Faso

BACKGROUND

Despite the overall major impact of long-lasting insecticide treated nets (LLINs) in eliciting individual and collective protection to malaria infections, some sub-Saharan countries, including Burkina Faso, still carry a disproportionately high share of the global malaria burden. This study aims to analyse the possible entomological bases of LLIN limited impact, focusing on a LLIN-protected village in the Plateau Central region of Burkina Faso.

METHODS

Human landing catches (HLCs) were carried out in 2015 for 12 nights both indoors and outdoors at different time windows during the highest biting activity phase for Anopheles gambiae (s.l.). Collected specimens were morphologically and molecularly identified and processed for Plasmodium detection and L1014F insecticide-resistance allele genotyping.

RESULTS

Almost 2000 unfed An. gambiae (s.l.) (54% Anopheles coluzzii and 44% Anopheles arabiensis) females landing on human volunteers were collected, corresponding to a median number of 23.5 females/person/hour. No significant differences were observed in median numbers of mosquitoes collected indoors and outdoors, nor between sporozoite rates in An. coluzzii (6.1%) and An. arabiensis (5.5%). The estimated median hourly entomological inoculation rate (EIR) on volunteers was 1.4 infective bites/person/hour. Results do not show evidence of the biting peak during night hours typical for An. gambiae (s.l.) in the absence of bednet protection. The frequency of the L1014F resistant allele (n = 285) was 66% in An. coluzzii and 38% in An. arabiensis.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed biting rate and sporozoite rates are in line with the literature data available for An. gambiae (s.l.) in the same geographical area before LLIN implementation and highlight high levels of malaria transmission in the study village. Homogeneous biting rate throughout the night and lack of preference for indoor-biting activity, suggest the capacity of both An. coluzzii and An. arabiensis to adjust their host-seeking behaviour to bite humans despite bednet protection, accounting for the maintenance of high rates of mosquito infectivity and malaria transmission. These results, despite being limited to a local situation in Burkina Faso, represent a paradigmatic example of how high densities and behavioural plasticity in the vector populations may contribute to explaining the limited impact of LLINs on malaria transmission in holo-endemic Sudanese savannah areas in West Africa.

Highly specific PCR-RFLP assays for karyotyping the widespread 2Rb inversion in malaria vectors of the Anopheles gambiae complex

Background

Chromosomal inversion polymorphisms play a role in adaptation to heterogeneous environments. Inversion polymorphisms are implicated in the very high ecological flexibility of the three main malaria vector species of the Afrotropical Anopheles gambiae complex, facilitating the exploitation of anthropogenic environmental modifications and promoting a strong association with humans. In addition to extending the species’ spatial and temporal distribution, inversions are associated with epidemiologically relevant mosquito behavior and physiology, underscoring their medical importance. We here present novel PCR-RFLP based assays strongly predictive of genotype for the cosmopolitan 2Rb inversion in An. coluzzii and An. gambiae, a development which overcomes the numerous constraints inherent to traditional cytological karyotyping.

Methods

We designed PCR-RFLP genotyping assays based on tag SNPs previously computationally identified as strongly predictive (> 95%) of 2Rb genotype. We targeted those tags whose alternative allelic states destroyed or created the recognition site of a commercially available restriction enzyme, and designed assays with distinctive cleavage profiles for each inversion genotype. The assays were validated on 251 An. coluzzii and 451 An. gambiae cytologically karyotyped specimens from nine countries across Africa and one An. coluzzii laboratory colony.

Results

For three tag SNPs, PCR-RFLP assays (denoted DraIII, MspAI, and TatI) reliably produced robust amplicons and clearly distinguishable electrophoretic profiles for all three inversion genotypes. Results obtained with the DraIII assay are ≥ 95% concordant with cytogenetic assignments in both species, while MspAI and TatI assays produce patterns highly concordant with cytogenetic assignments only in An. coluzzii or An. gambiae, respectively. Joint application of species-appropriate pairs of assays increased the concordance levels to > 99% in An. coluzzii and 98% in An. gambiae. Potential sources of discordance (e.g. imperfect association between tag and inversion, allelic dropout, additional polymorphisms in the restriction target site, incomplete or failed restriction digestion) are discussed.

Conclusions

The availability of highly specific, cost effective and accessible molecular assays for genotyping 2Rb in An. gambiae and An. coluzzii allows karyotyping of both sexes and all developmental stages. These novel tools will accelerate deeper investigations into the role of this ecologically and epidemiologically important chromosomal inversion in vector biology.

Fine-Mapping Complex Inversion Breakpoints and Investigating Somatic Pairing in the Anopheles gambiae Species Complex Using Proximity-Ligation Sequencing

Chromosomal inversions are fundamental drivers of genome evolution. In the main Afrotropical malaria vector species, belonging to the Anopheles gambiae species complex, inversions play an important role in local adaptation and have a rich history of cytological study. Despite the importance and ubiquity of some chromosomal inversions across the species complex, inversion breakpoints are often challenging to map molecularly due to the presence of large repetitive regions. Here, we develop an approach that uses Hi-C sequencing data to molecularly fine-map the breakpoints of inversions. We demonstrate that this approach is robust and likely to be widely applicable for both identification and fine-mapping inversion breakpoints in species whose inversions have heretofore been challenging to characterize. We apply our method to interrogate the previously unknown inversion breakpoints of 2Rbc and 2Rd in An. coluzzii We found that inversion breakpoints occur in large repetitive regions, and, strikingly, among three inversions analyzed, two breakpoints appear to be reused in two separate inversions. These breakpoint-adjacent regions are strongly enriched for the presence of a 30 bp satellite repeat sequence. Because low frequency inversion breakpoints are not correlated with genomic regions containing this satellite, we suggest that interrupting this particular repeat may result in arrangements with higher relative fitness. Additionally, we use heterozygous individuals to quantitatively investigate the impacts of somatic pairing in the regions immediately surrounding inversion breakpoints. Finally, we discuss important considerations for possible applications of this approach for inversion breakpoint identification in a range of organisms.

A novel nested polymerase chain reaction assay targeting Plasmodium mitochondrial DNA in field-collected Anopheles mosquitoes

Sensitive techniques for the detection of Plasmodium (Aconoidasida: Plasmodiidae) sporozoites in field-collected malaria vectors are essential for the correct assessment of risk for malaria transmission. A real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) protocol targeting Plasmodium mtDNA proved to be much more sensitive in detecting sporozoites in mosquitoes than the widely used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay targeting Plasmodium circumsporozoite protein (CSP-ELISA). However, because of the relatively high costs associated with equipment and reagents, RT-PCRs are mostly used to assess the outcomes of experimental infections in the frame of research experiments, rather than in routine monitoring of mosquito infection in the field. The present authors developed a novel mtDNA-based nested PCR protocol, modified from a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for Plasmodium recognition in human blood samples, and compared its performance with that of routinely used CSP-ELISAs in field-collected Anopheles coluzzii (Diptera: Culicidae) samples. The nested PCR showed 1.4-fold higher sensitivity than the CSP-ELISA. However, nested PCR results obtained in two laboratories and in different replicates within the same laboratory were not 100% consistent, probably because the copy number of amplifiable Plasmodium mtDNA was close in some specimens to the threshold of nested PCR sensitivity. This implies that Plasmodium-positive specimens should be confirmed by a second nested PCR to avoid false positives. Overall, the results emphasize the need to use molecular approaches to obtain accurate estimates of the actual level of Plasmodium circulation within malaria vector populations.

Unexpectedly high Plasmodium sporozoite rate associated with low human blood index in Anopheles coluzzii from a LLIN-protected village in Burkina Faso

Despite the effectiveness of mass distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) in reducing malaria transmission in Africa, in hyperendemic areas such as Burkina Faso the burden of malaria remains high. We here report the results of a 4-month survey on the feeding habits and Plasmodium infection in malaria vectors from a village in Burkina Faso one year following a national LLIN distribution programme. Low values of human blood index (HBI) observed in the major malaria vectors in the area (Anopheles coluzzii: N = 263, 20.1%; An. arabiensis: 5.8%, N = 103) are consistent with the hypothesis that LLINs reduced the availability of human hosts to mosquitoes. A regression meta-analysis of data from a systematic review of published studies reporting HBI and sporozoite rates (SR) for An. gambiae complex revealed that the observed SR values (An. coluzzii: 7.6%, N = 503; An. arabiensis: 5.3%, N = 225) are out of the ranges expected based on the low HBI observed. We hypothesize that a small fraction of inhabitants unprotected by bednets acts as a "core group" repeatedly exposed to mosquito bites, representing the major Plasmodium reservoir for the vectors, able to maintain a high risk of transmission even in a village protected by LLINs.

Profiles of soluble proteins in chemosensory organs of three members of the afro-tropical Anopheles gambiae complex

In female mosquitoes, host-seeking and preference as well as several other important behaviors are largely driven by olfaction. Species of the Afrotropical Anopheles gambiae complex display divergent host-preference that are associated with significant differences in their vectorial capacity for human malaria. Olfactory sensitivity begins with signal transduction and activation of peripheral sensory neurons that populate the antennae, maxillary palps and other appendages. We have used shotgun proteomics to characterize the profile of soluble proteins of antennae and maxillary palps of three different species: An. coluzzii, An. arabiensis and An. quadriannulatus that display remarkable differences in anthropophilic behavior. This analysis revealed interspecific differences in the abundance of several proteins that comprise cuticular components, glutathione S-transferase and odorant binding proteins, the latter of which known to be directly involved in odor recognition.

Evaluation of a protocol for remote identification of mosquito vector species reveals BG-Sentinel trap as an efficient tool for Anopheles gambiae outdoor collection in Burkina Faso

Background

Feasibility and costs of monitoring efforts aimed to monitor mosquito species are strictly dependent on the presence of skilled entomologists directly in the field. However, in several contexts this is not possible or easy to organize, thus limiting the possibility to obtain crucial information on presence/abundance of potential disease vectors and of new invasive species. Digital imaging approaches could be extremely useful in the frame of medical entomology to overcome this limit. This work describes a surveillance approach to collect and morphologically identify host-seeking malaria vectors based on remote transmission of digital images of specimens collected with ad hoc modified traps.

Methods

CDC light trap (CDC) and the BG-Sentinel trap (BG), both baited with BG-lure and CO₂, were modified in order to have collected mosquitoes immobilized on a bi-dimensional surface. The performance of the two traps in the field was comparatively tested by Latin-square experiments in two villages of Burkina Faso under low and high mosquito densities. The efficiency of identifications based the inspection of digital images versus microscopic identifications of collected specimens was compared.

Results

A total of 1,519 mosquitoes belonging to 16 species were collected, of which 88.5% were microscopically identified as Anopheles gambiae s.l. (mainly Anopheles coluzzii, 85.7%). During dry season BG collected 15 times more females than CDC outdoors, whereas indoors the BG collected 0.4 times less than CDC. During rainy season the ratio BG/CDC was 6.4 and 0.7 outdoors and indoors, respectively. The efficiency of digital images versus microscopic identifications of collected specimens was 97.9%, 95.6% and 81.5% for Culicidae, Anophelinae and An. gambiae s.l., respectively.

Conclusions

Results strongly encourage the use of BG-trap for collecting host-seeking An. gambiae particularly in the outdoor environment, providing new perspectives to the challenge of collecting this fraction of the biting population, whose epidemiological relevance is increasing due to the success of large-scale implementation of indoor malaria vector control strategies. Moreover, results show that the transmission of digital images of specimens collected by the ad hoc modified host-seeking traps efficiently allows identification of malaria vectors, thus opening the perspective to easily carry out mosquito monitoring also in the absence of entomologists directly in the field.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12936-015-0674-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Sticky Resting Box, a new tool for studying resting behaviour of Afrotropical malaria vectors

BACKGROUND

Monitoring densities of adult mosquito populations is a major challenge in efforts to evaluate the epidemiology of mosquito-borne diseases, and their response to vector control interventions. In the case of malaria, collection of outdoor-resting Anophelines is rarely incorporated into surveillance and control, partially due to the lack of standardized collection tools. Such an approach, however, is increasingly important to investigate possible changes in mosquito behaviour in response to the scale up of Insecticide Treated Nets and Indoor Residual Spraying. In this study we evaluated the Sticky Resting Box (SRB) - i.e. a sticky variant of previously investigated mosquito Resting Box, which allows passive collection of mosquitoes entering the box - and compared its performance against traditional methods for indoor and outdoor resting mosquito sampling.

METHODS

Daily collections were carried out in two neighbouring villages of Burkina Faso during rainy season 2011 and dry season 2012 by SRB located indoors and outdoors, and by Back-Pack aspiration inside houses (BP) and in ad hoc built outdoor pit-shelters (PIT).

RESULTS

Overall, almost 20,000 Culicidae specimens belonging to 16 species were collected and morphologically identified. Malaria vectors included Anopheles coluzzii (53%), An. arabiensis (12%), An. gambiae s.s. (2.0%) and An. funestus (4.5%). The diversity of species collected in the two villages was similar for SRB and PIT collections outdoors, and significantly higher for SRB than for BP indoors. The population dynamics of An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes, as obtained by SRB-collections was significantly correlated with those obtained by the traditional methods. The predicted mean estimates of An. gambiae s.l. specimens/sampling-unit/night-of-collections was 6- and 5-times lower for SRB than for BP indoors and PIT outdoors, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the daily performance of SRB in terms of number of malaria vectors/trap was lower than that of traditionally used approaches for in- and outdoor collections. However, unlike these methods, SRB could be set up to collect mosquitoes passively over at least a week. This makes SRB a promising tool for passively monitoring anopheline resting populations, with data presented here providing guidance for how to set up SRB-based collections to acquire information comparable to those obtained with other methods.

Molecular characterization and evolution of a gene family encoding male-specific reproductive proteins in the African malaria vector Anopheles gambiae

Background

During copulation, the major Afro-tropical malaria vector Anopheles gambiae s.s. transfers male accessory gland (MAG) proteins to females as a solid mass (i.e. the "mating plug"). These proteins are postulated to function as important modulators of female post-mating responses. To understand the role of selective forces underlying the evolution of these proteins in the A. gambiae complex, we carried out an evolutionary analysis of gene sequence and expression divergence on a pair of paralog genes called AgAcp34A-1 and AgAcp34A-2. These encode MAG-specific proteins which, based on homology with Drosophila, have been hypothesized to play a role in sperm viability and function.

Results

Genetic analysis of 6 species of the A. gambiae complex revealed the existence of a third paralog (68-78% of identity), that we named AgAcp34A-3. FISH assays showed that this gene maps in the same division (34A) of chromosome-3R as the other two paralogs. In particular, immuno-fluorescence assays targeting the C-terminals of AgAcp34A-2 and AgAcp34A-3 revealed that these two proteins are localized in the posterior part of the MAG and concentrated at the apical portion of the mating plug. When transferred to females, this part of the plug lies in proximity to the duct connecting the spermatheca to the uterus, suggesting a potential role for these proteins in regulating sperm motility. AgAcp34A-3 is more polymorphic than the other two paralogs, possibly because of relaxation of purifying selection. Since both unequal crossing-over and gene conversion likely homogenized the members of this gene family, the interpretation of the evolutionary patterns is not straightforward. Although several haplotypes of the three paralogs are shared by most A. gambiae s.l. species, some fixed species-specific replacements (mainly placed in the N- and C-terminal portions of the secreted peptides) were also observed, suggesting some lineage-specific adaptation.

Conclusions

Progress in understanding the signaling cascade in the A. gambiae reproductive pathway will elucidate the interaction of this MAG-specific protein family with their female counterparts. This knowledge will allow a better evaluation of the relative importance of genes involved in the reproductive isolation and fertility of A. gambiae species and could help the interpretation of the observed evolutionary patterns.

Comparative analyses reveal discrepancies among results of commonly used methods for Anopheles gambiaemolecular form identification

BACKGROUND

Anopheles gambiae M and S molecular forms, the major malaria vectors in the Afro-tropical region, are ongoing a process of ecological diversification and adaptive lineage splitting, which is affecting malaria transmission and vector control strategies in West Africa. These two incipient species are defined on the basis of single nucleotide differences in the IGS and ITS regions of multicopy rDNA located on the X-chromosome. A number of PCR and PCR-RFLP approaches based on form-specific SNPs in the IGS region are used for M and S identification. Moreover, a PCR-method to detect the M-specific insertion of a short interspersed transposable element (SINE200) has recently been introduced as an alternative identification approach. However, a large-scale comparative analysis of four widely used PCR or PCR-RFLP genotyping methods for M and S identification was never carried out to evaluate whether they could be used interchangeably, as commonly assumed.

RESULTS

The genotyping of more than 400 A. gambiae specimens from nine African countries, and the sequencing of the IGS-amplicon of 115 of them, highlighted discrepancies among results obtained by the different approaches due to different kinds of biases, which may result in an overestimation of MS putative hybrids, as follows: i) incorrect match of M and S specific primers used in the allele specific-PCR approach; ii) presence of polymorphisms in the recognition sequence of restriction enzymes used in the PCR-RFLP approaches; iii) incomplete cleavage during the restriction reactions; iv) presence of different copy numbers of M and S-specific IGS-arrays in single individuals in areas of secondary contact between the two forms.

CONCLUSIONS

The results reveal that the PCR and PCR-RFLP approaches most commonly utilized to identify A. gambiae M and S forms are not fully interchangeable as usually assumed, and highlight limits of the actual definition of the two molecular forms, which might not fully correspond to the two A. gambiae incipient species in their entire geographical range. These limits are discussed and operational suggestions on the choice of the most convenient method for large-scale M- and S-form identification are provided, also taking into consideration technical aspects related to the epidemiological characteristics of different study areas.

Towards a fuller understanding of mosquito behaviour: use of electrocuting grids to compare the odour-orientated responses of Anopheles arabiensis and An. quadriannulatus in the field

The epidemiological role of and control options for any mosquito species depend on its degree of 'anthropophily'. However, the behavioural basis of this term is poorly understood. Accordingly, studies in Zimbabwe quantified the effects of natural odours from cattle and humans, and synthetic components of these odours, on the attraction, entry and landing responses of Anopheles arabiensis Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) and Anopheles quadriannulatus Theobald. The numbers of mosquitoes attracted to human or cattle odour were compared using electrocuting nets (E-nets), and entry responses were gauged by the catch from an odour-baited entry trap (OBET) relative to that from an odour-baited E-net. Landing responses were estimated by comparing the catches from E-nets and cloth targets covered with an electrocuting grid. For An. arabiensis, E-nets baited with odour from a single ox or a single man caught similar numbers, and increasing the dose of human odour from one to three men increased the catch four-fold. For An. quadriannulatus, catches from E-nets increased up to six-fold in the progression: man, three men, ox, and man + ox, with catch being correlated with bait mass. Entry responses of An. arabiensis were stronger with human odour (entry response 62%) than with ox odour (6%) or a mixture of cattle and human odours (15%). For An. quadriannulatus, the entry response was low (< 2%) with both cattle and human odour. Anopheles arabiensis did not exhibit a strong entry response to carbon dioxide (CO2) (0.2-2 L/min). The trends observed using OBETs and E-nets also applied to mosquitoes approaching and entering a hut. Catches from an electrocuting target baited with either CO2 or a blend of acetone, 1-octen-3-ol, 4-methylphenol and 3-n-propylphenol - components of natural ox odour - showed that virtually all mosquitoes arriving there alighted on it. The propensity of An. arabiensis to enter human habitation seemed to be mediated by odours other than CO2 alone. Characterizing 'anthropophily' by comparing the numbers of mosquitoes caught by traps baited with different host odours can lead to spurious conclusions; OBETs baited with human odour caught around two to four times more An. arabiensis than cattle-baited OBETs, whereas a human-baited E-net caught less ( approximately 0.7) An. arabiensis than a cattle-baited E-net. Similar caution is warranted for other species of mosquito vectors. A fuller understanding of how to exploit mosquito behaviour for control and surveys requires wider approaches and more use of appropriate tools.

Distribution of knock-down resistance mutations in Anopheles gambiae molecular forms in west and west-central Africa

Background

Knock-down resistance (kdr) to DDT and pyrethroids in the major Afrotropical vector species, Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto, is associated with two alternative point mutations at amino acid position 1014 of the voltage-gated sodium channel gene, resulting in either a leucine-phenylalanine (L1014F), or a leucine-serine (L1014S) substitution. In An. gambiae S-form populations, the former mutation appears to be widespread in west Africa and has been recently reported from Uganda, while the latter, originally recorded in Kenya, has been recently found in Gabon, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. In M-form populations surveyed to date, only the L1014F mutation has been found, although less widespread and at lower frequencies than in sympatric S-form populations.

Methods

Anopheles gambiae M- and S-form specimens from 19 sites from 11 west and west-central African countries were identified to molecular form and genotyped at the kdr locus either by Hot Oligonucleotide Ligation Assay (HOLA) or allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR).

Results

The kdr genotype was determined for about 1,000 An. gambiae specimens. The L1014F allele was found at frequencies ranging from 6% to 100% in all S-form samples (N = 628), with the exception of two samples from Angola, where it was absent, and coexisted with the L1014S allele in samples from Cameroon, Gabon and north-western Angola. The L1014F allele was present in M-form samples (N = 354) from Benin, Nigeria, and Cameroon, where both M- and S-forms were sympatric.

Conclusion

The results represent the most comprehensive effort to analyse the overall distribution of the L1014F and L1014S mutations in An. gambiae molecular forms, and will serve as baseline data for resistance monitoring. The overall picture shows that the emergence and spread of kdr alleles in An. gambiae is a dynamic process and that there is marked intra- and inter-form heterogeneity in resistance allele frequencies. Further studies are needed to determine: i) the importance of selection pressure exerted by both agricultural and public health use of pyrethroid insecticides, ii) the phenotypic effects, particularly when the two mutations co-occur; and iii) the epidemiological importance of kdr for both pyrethroid- and DDT-based malaria control operations, particularly if/when the two insecticides are to be used in concert.

Distribution and chromosomal characterization of the Anopheles gambiae complex in Angola

Mosquitoes of the Anopheles gambiae complex (N = 1,336) were sampled (2001-2005) across Angola to identify taxa, study inversion polymorphisms, and detect the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium falciparum. Anopheles gambiae s.s. was found in all sites; it was characterized as M-form in localities of the tropical dry and semi-desertic belts, whereas the S-form was predominant in comparatively more humid and less anthropized sites. Both forms were characterized by low degrees of chromosomal polymorphism based solely on the 2La inversion, a pattern usually associated with An. gambiae populations from forested, humid, and derived savanna areas. Unexpectedly, this pattern was also observed in M-form populations collected in dry/pre-desertic areas, where this form largely predominates over An. arabiensis, which was also detected in central/inland sites. Anopheles melas was found in northern coastal sites. Three of 534 An. gambiae s.s. were positive for P. falciparum CS-protein, whereas none of the 105 An. melas were positive.

Differential introgression of chromsomal regions between Anopheles gambiae and An. arabiensis

Evidence for introgression between Anopheles gambiae and An. arabiensis has accumulated for some time. We examined the fate of introgressed DNA directly, using microsatellite markers located throughout the genome. Introgressed X chromosomes were removed within two generations. Furthermore, substantial differences in introgressive capacity between the two autosomes were found. After introgression from An. arabiensis into An. gambiae, most introgressed alleles at third chromosome markers, particularly those on 3R, decreased steadily, indicating selection against them. No such pattern was observed for 2L markers and several 2R markers. The frequency of introgressed alleles on 2L were close to the original frequency even after 19 generations, whereas only two 2R markers showed a modest decrease. Even though limited information was available on the reciprocal cross, the pattern appears to be identical. Although the decrease in frequency of the introgressed X chromosome can be attributed to the presence of sterility and inviability effects, the variation in introgressive capacity of the autosomes does not appear to be explained by the presence of inversion polymorphisms, or regions causing hybrid sterility and inviability. These results can have some important implications for the spread of insecticide resistance and the control of these vector populations via the release of transgenic mosquitoes.