Investigating the Potential Role of IKZF3 in HPV-Associated Carcinogenesis

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE(S)

HPVs cause approximately 5% of all human cancers. They encode two viral transforming proteins, E6 and E7, that are consistently expressed in these cancers. The HPV E6 and E7 proteins contribute to carcinogenesis by binding and functionally compromising multiple cellular regulatory proteins, most prominently the p53 and retinoblastoma (pRB) tumor suppressors, respectively. To discover additional cellular regulatory circuits that are dysregulated by E6 and E7 expression, we performed RNA sequencing analyses of HPV16 E6 and E7 expressing primary human genital epithelial cells. These experiments revealed that the Ikaros Zinc Finger 3 (IKZF3) transcription factor is highly upregulated in HPV16 E6/E7 expressing keratinocytes as compared to control keratinocytes. IKZF3 plays a key role in lymphocyte development, and when over-expressed or mutated, contributes to hematopoietic malignancies. IKZF3 is expressed at a very low level in normal epithelial cells, but the expression is upregulated in solid tumors, including invasive breast, cervical, and lung cancers. IKZF3 expression in these tumors causes upregulation of lymphocyte-specific genes, conferring lymphocyte-like behavior referred to as "lymphocyte mimicry," which presumably enables cancer cell survival in the bloodstream, thus potentially contributing to cancer metastasis. There is an FDA-approved drug, lenalidomide, that targets IKZF3 for degradation. Hence, we set out to determine whether IKZF3 might contribute to cervical carcinogenesis.

MATERIALS/METHODS

We treated HPV16-positive SiHa and CaSki cervical cancer cells with 10 uM of lenalidomide for 12 hours. Cells were treated with equal amounts of DMSO as a negative control. Then, IKZF3 and E7 mRNA expression were determined using qRT-PCR after 12 hours of treatment. Gene expression was analyzed relative to GAPDH, and the results were analyzed using 2-way ANOVAs with Dunnett's correction for multiple comparisons. Western Blot experiments were performed to examine IKZF3, pRB, E7, and p53 (to indirectly assess E6) protein expression levels after 12 hours of lenalidomide treatment. Actin protein was used as a loading control. Each of these experiments were performed 3 times, qRT-PCR experiments were each performed in triplicate, and the results were graphed using a scientific 2-D graphing and statistics software.

A RESULTS

Although Western Blot showed that IKZF3 protein levels were significantly decreased by lenalidomide treatment, there was no change in pRB, E7, and p53 protein expression upon IKZF3 depletion. Similarly, there was no decrease in E7 mRNA expression.

CONCLUSION

We showed by western blotting that targeting IKZF3 for proteasome-mediated degradation with lenalidomide effectively decreased the steady-state levels of IKZF3. However, we did not consistently observe an associated decrease in HPV gene expression. We are currently analyzing the transcriptome changes that IKZF3 depletion causes in cervical carcinoma cells to determine whether this may affect anoikis resistance.

Anthropogenic impacts on threatened species erode functional diversity in chelonians and crocodilians

The Anthropocene is tightly associated with a drastic loss of species worldwide and the disappearance of their key ecosystem functions. The orders Testudines (turtles and tortoises) and Crocodilia (crocodiles, alligators, and gharials) contain numerous threatened, long-lived species for which the functional diversity and potential erosion by anthropogenic impacts remains unknown. Here, we examine 259 (69%) of the existing 375 species of Testudines and Crocodilia, quantifying their life history strategies (i.e., trade-offs in survival, development, and reproduction) from open-access data on demography, ancestry, and threats. We find that the loss of functional diversity in simulated extinction scenarios of threatened species is greater than expected by chance. Moreover, the effects of unsustainable local consumption, diseases, and pollution are associated with life history strategies. In contrast, climate change, habitat disturbance, and global trade affect species independent of their life history strategy. Importantly, the loss of functional diversity for threatened species by habitat degradation is twice that for all other threats. Our findings highlight the importance of conservation programmes focused on preserving the functional diversity of life history strategies jointly with the phylogenetic representativity of these highly threatened groups.

Methane emissions from abandoned coal and oil and gas developments in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia

Energy reserves have been exploited in the Atlantic Canadian provinces since the early 1600s, and many fossil fuel extraction sites have been abandoned over this long history of energy development. Oil, natural gas, and coal extraction sites are a source of greenhouse gas emissions, particularly for methane (CH₄). In this study, we used multiple sampling methods to measure CH₄ from abandoned coal mine openings in Nova Scotia and a legacy oilfield in New Brunswick. Atmospheric and shallow soil gases were sampled around legacy sites using flux rate chamber measurements (spatial and temporal) and plot-scale atmospheric gas surveys, in addition to regional gas screening surveys over larger populations of sites to confirm whether small-scale observations were reflected regionally. Only one oil and gas site (2.4 ± 3.1⋅ 10² mg m^- 2 day^- 1) and one abandoned coal mine opening (1.0 ± 1.1⋅ 10² mg m^- 2 day^- 1) were affected by soil CH₄ migration, though rates of leakage were minimal and would rank as low severity on industrial scales. Plot-scale atmospheric gas screening showed super-ambient CH₄ concentrations at 5 sites in total (n = 16), 2 coal adits and 3 abandoned oil and gas wells. Regional gas screening surveys suggest that 11% of legacy oil and gas sites have some emission impacts, compared with 1-2% of legacy coal sites. These frequencies are close, albeit lower than the 15% of legacy oil and gas sites and 10% of abandoned coal mine openings flagged from our aggregated small-scale observations. These sites may emit less than other developments studied to date either because more time has elapsed since extraction, or because differences in regional geology reduce the likelihood of sustained emissions. This study provides valuable information to help understand the methane emission risks associated with legacy energy sites.

Metrics of progress in the understanding and management of threats to Australian birds

Although evidence-based approaches have become commonplace for determining the success of conservation measures for the management of threatened taxa, there are no standard metrics for assessing progress in research or management. We developed 5 metrics to meet this need for threatened taxa and to quantify the need for further action and effective alleviation of threats. These metrics (research need, research achievement, management need, management achievement, and percent threat reduction) can be aggregated to examine trends for an individual taxon or for threats across multiple taxa. We tested the utility of these metrics by applying them to Australian threatened birds, which appears to be the first time that progress in research and management of threats has been assessed for all threatened taxa in a faunal group at a continental scale. Some research has been conducted on nearly three-quarters of known threats to taxa, and there is a clear understanding of how to alleviate nearly half of the threats with the highest impact. Some management has been attempted on nearly half the threats. Management outcomes ranged from successful trials to complete mitigation of the threat, including for one-third of high-impact threats. Progress in both research and management tended to be greater for taxa that were monitored or occurred on oceanic islands. Predation by cats had the highest potential threat score. However, there has been some success reducing the impact of cat predation, so climate change (particularly drought), now poses the greatest threat to Australian threatened birds. Our results demonstrate the potential for the proposed metrics to encapsulate the major trends in research and management of both threats and threatened taxa and provide a basis for international comparisons of evidence-based conservation science.

Finite element modeling, validation, and parametric investigations of a retinal reattachment stent

A new retinal reattachment surgical procedure is based on a stent that is deployed to press the retina back in place. An eye-stent finite element model studied the strain induced by the stent on retina. Finite element model simulations were performed for several stent geometric configurations (number of loops, wire diameter, and intraocular pressure). The finite element model was validated against experiment. Parametric studies demonstrated that stents could be successfully designed so that the maximum strain would be below permanent damage strain threshold of 2%.

The Prevalence of Grass Pollen-Related Allergic Rhinoconjunctivitis in Elite Amateur Irish Athletes

Allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (AR/C), has been shown to impact upon athletic performance. The championships of the unique, amateur Irish sports of hurling and Gaelic football (collectively known as GAA) take place during the prime pollen months of summer. Elite GAA players must perform optimally when most exposed to pollen. Elite GAA subjects (n=254) underwent skin prick testing to 6 aeroallergens and completed a validated questionnaire (AQUA), producing a score indicating likelihood of having allergy. The prevalence of allergy (positive to at least one aeroallergen on SPT and positive AQUA score) was 27.1% (n=69). Sixteen and a half percent (n=42) of the subjects tested had grass pollen AR/C while 22% (n=54) had house dust mite AR/C, though none were on standard medical therapies or had used allergen-specific immunotherapy. Grass pollen AR/C prevalence appears as common in elite Irish athletes as it is in other countries. It appears to be mild rather than well controlled in these subjects.

Factors facilitating and constraining the delivery of effective teacher training to promote health and well-being in schools: a survey of current practice and systematic review

Background

Schools are an important setting for health promotion and teachers have an integral role to play in promoting children and young people’s health and well-being. Adequate initial teacher training (ITT) and continuing professional development in health is therefore important.

Objectives

To conduct a survey of initial teacher training providers in England and a systematic review of effectiveness to assess how health and well-being is covered on courses, and to identify barriers and facilitators to effective training.

Methods

Methods included an online questionnaire survey with a sample of 220 ITT course managers in England; interviews with a purposive sample of 19 of the course managers responding to the questionnaire; and a two-stage systematic review comprising a descriptive map of the characteristics of international research studies of health teacher training and a detailed synthesis of a subset of studies specifically on pre-service training. Databases (including MEDLINE, EMBASE, The Campbell Library and PsycINFO) were searched from the period of database inception up to May 2011.

Results

The overall response rate for the survey was 34%. The majority (89%) of respondents agreed that it was either important or very important to cover health within the ITT curriculum. The most commonly covered topics on courses wereEvery Child Matters(100%), child protection (100%), emotional health (99%) and antibullying (97%). Fewer course managers reported covering healthy eating (63%), sex and relationships (62%), drugs (56%), alcohol (41%) and smoking (34%). Many interviewees expressed a holistic view of education and believed that health was important in the ITT curriculum. However, there was variability in how health was addressed across and within institutions. Trainee teachers' experience of addressing child health on school placement was also variable. Facilitators to covering health included interests and backgrounds of ITT staff; staff health-related professional experience; availability of health expertise from external agencies; supportive government policy frameworks; and interprofessional and interdepartmental working. The main barriers were limited curriculum time; health being perceived to be a lower priority than other aspects of training; health no longer a high government priority in education; and lack of funding. A total of 170 studies met the eligibility criteria for the descriptive map. The majority covered teacher training in relation to sexual and reproductive health, drugs and alcohol or mental and emotional health. A total of 21 publications (20 studies) were prioritised for the synthesis. All were evaluations of health training for pre-service teachers, and just under half were from the UK. Twelve studies reported outcomes (impact of training on teachers, but not pupils), many of which were single cohort before-and-after studies. Sixteen studies reported processes. Following training there were some increases in trainee teachers' factual knowledge of health and a general increase in their confidence to address health issues. In general, training was acceptable and well received by trainees. Evidence suggested that effective training should include practical experience and skills and be personally relevant and take into account individual needs. Barriers to health training identified from the studies included lack of time, balancing breadth and depth, and variation in training provision.

Conclusions

Among those surveyed there appears to be general support for health and well-being in ITT. However, further research on the longer-term impact of ITT around health and well-being is needed, particularly in the early career period. The main limitation of this research was the low response rate (34%) to the survey.

Study registration

PROSPERO number CRD42012001977.

Funding

The National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.

Linear attenuation coefficients for compensator based IMRT

With rapid technological improvements in computer driven 3-D radiotherapy treatment planning systems (RTPS) the use of compensating filters for intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) will dramatically increase the ease of treatment. The procedure for commissioning .decimal (Sanford, Florida) compensators involved the measurement of the effective linear attenuation coefficients for aluminium and brass. Field sizes to be measured vary from small square field size of 5 cm to the larger square field size of 25 cm with additional measurements at each 5 cm2 increments. The energies commissioned where 6 MV and 18 MV photons. The depth of measurements varied from 5 cm to 10 cm within phantom material and the source surface distance varied from 100 cm to 90 cm. The beam quality was measured by obtaining percentage depth dose (PDD) curves for the various field sizes with and without the compensating material. Results of the series of measurements showed no significant differences in the effective linear attenuation coefficients with respect to chamber depth and source surface distance with constant energy and field size. The main factor that was shown to influence the effective linear attenuation coefficient was field size variation. A correlation was shown between the effective linear attenuation coefficient and field size, up to a field size of 15 cm x 15 cm. Our results showed that for optimal patient treatments using IMRT compensating filters, there is a need for establishing two field size dependent linear attenuation coefficients.

Biological activities of a recombinant adenovirus p53 (SCH 58500) administered by hepatic arterial infusion in a Phase 1 colorectal cancer trial

The major focus of intrahepatic arterial (IHA) administration of adenoviruses (Ad) has been on safety. Currently, there is little published data on the biological responses to Ad when administered via this route. As part of a Phase I study, we evaluated biological responses to a replication-defective adenovirus encoding the p53 transgene (SCH 58500) when administered by hepatic arterial infusion to patients with primarily colorectal cancer metastatic to the liver. In analyzing biological responses to the Ad vector, we found that both total and neutralizing Ad antibodies increased weeks after SCH 58500 infusion. The fold increase in antibody titers was not dependent on SCH 58500 dosage. The proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) transiently peaked within 6 h of dosing. The cytokine sTNF-R2 showed elevation by 24 h post-treatment, and fold increases were directly related to SCH 58500 doses. Cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, and sTNF-R1 showed no increased levels over 24 h. Predose antibody levels did not appear to predict transduction, nor did serum Ad neutralizing factor (SNF). Delivery of SCH 58500 to tumor tissue occurred, though we found distribution more predominantly in liver tissues, as opposed to tumors. RT-PCR showed significantly higher expression levels (P<0.0001, ANOVA) for adenovirus type 2 and 5 receptor (CAR) in liver tissues, suggesting a correlation with transduction. Evidence of tumor-specific apoptotic activity was provided by laser scanning cytometry, which determined a coincidence of elevated nuclear p53 protein expression with apoptosis in patient tissue. IHA administration of a replication defective adenovirus is a feasible mode of delivery, allowing for exogenous transfer of the p53 gene into target tissues, with evidence of functional p53. Limited and transient inflammatory responses to the drug occurred, but pre-existing immunity to Ad did not preclude SCH 58500 delivery.

Biochemical and molecular diagnosis of lipoamide dehydrogenase deficiency in a North American Ashkenazi Jewish family

A late-onset presentation of lipoamide dehydrogenase (E3) deficiency is described in a North American Ashkenazi Jewish (AJ) family. Diagnosis was made by urine organic acid and molecular analyses.

An IMRT dose distribution study using commercial verification software

The introduction of IMRT requires users to confirm that the isodose distributions and relative doses calculated by their planning system match the doses delivered by their linear accelerators. To this end the commercially available software, VeriSoft (PTW-Freiburg, Germany) was trialled to determine if the tools and functions it offered would be of benefit to this process. The CMS XiO (Computerized Medical System, St. Louis, MO) treatment planning system was used to generate IMRT plans that were delivered with an upgraded Elekta SL15 linac. Kodak EDR2 film sandwiched in RW3 solid water (PTW-Freiburg, Germany) was used to measure the IMRT fields delivered with 6 MV photons. The isodose and profiles measured with the film generally agreed to within +/- 3% or +/- 3 mm with the planned doses, in some regions (outside the field) the match fell to within +/- 5%. The isodose distributions of the planning system and the film could be compared on screen, allowing for electronic records of the comparison to be kept if desired. The features of this software would be of benefit to an IMRT QA program.

Pelvic organ descent in young nulligravid women

OBJECTIVE

There is little information available on what constitutes "normal" pelvic organ mobility. This study presents normal values for urethral, bladder, cervical, and rectal descent on Valsalva.

STUDY DESIGN

One hundred eighteen nulligravid white women aged 18 to 24 years were recruited for a prospective observational study. Translabial ultrasound was undertaken supine and after voiding, with the most effective of at least 3 Valsalva maneuvers used for evaluation.

RESULTS

Urethral rotation on Valsalva varied from 0 to +90 degrees (mean 32 degrees), bladder neck descent from 1.2 to 40.2 mm (mean 17.4 mm). The cervix descended to between 59 and 0 mm above the symphysis pubis (mean 30.8 mm); the rectal ampulla descended to between 54 mm above and 22 mm below the symphyseal margin (mean 7.8 mm). In a test-retest series, intraclass correlations were between 0.64 and 0.89, implying good-to-excellent repeatability of the ultrasound assessment.

CONCLUSION

A wide range of values was obtained for all parameters. A significant congenital contribution to the phenotype of female pelvic organ prolapse appears likely.

Dentist on TV

Why is it that dentistry just doesn't seem to cut the mustard when the programme planners are looking to fill next year's schedules?

Biological thermal detection in infrared imaging snakes. 1. Ultramicrostructure of pit receptor organs

The receptor organs of snakes with "thermal vision" were studied with ultra-high-resolution scanning probe microscopy (SPM) at close to in vivo conditions to elucidate their surface morphology and materials properties critical for prospective biomimetic design of "soft matter"-based infrared (IR) sensors. The surfaces of living tissues were scanned under wet ambient conditions in physiological solution, and the resulting parameters were compared with SPM data obtained for chemically treated (formaldehyde-fixed) tissue in ambient air and TEM studies in high vacuum. We found that the microstructural parameters for the living tissue are similar to ones observed for the formaldehyde-fixed snake tissues. However, previous data obtained from TEM analysis in high vacuum underestimated actual dimensions of surface microstructures. The average spacing of the nanopit array observed within receptor surface areas, which was suggested to play a critical role in selective IR adsorption, was determined to be 520 nm. This value is close to the grating spacing required for efficient reflection of electromagnetic radiation characteristic for sunlight without affecting IR adsorbance.

ALVAC-SIV-gag-pol-env-based vaccination and macaque major histocompatibility complex class I (A*01) delay simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac-induced immunodeficiency

T-cell-mediated immune effector mechanisms play an important role in the containment of human immunodeficiency virus/simian immunodeficiency virus (HIV/SIV) replication after infection. Both vaccination- and infection-induced T-cell responses are dependent on the host major histocompatibility complex classes I and II (MHC-I and MHC-II) antigens. Here we report that both inherent, host-dependent immune responses to SIVmac251 infection and vaccination-induced immune responses to viral antigens were able to reduce virus replication and/or CD4+ T-cell loss. Both the presence of the MHC-I Mamu-A*01 genotype and vaccination of rhesus macaques with ALVAC-SIV-gag-pol-env (ALVAC-SIV-gpe) contributed to the restriction of SIVmac251 replication during primary infection, preservation of CD4+ T cells, and delayed disease progression following intrarectal challenge exposure of the animals to SIV(mac251 (561)). ALVAC-SIV-gpe immunization induced cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses cumulatively in 67% of the immunized animals. Following viral challenge, a significant secondary virus-specific CD8+ T-cell response was observed in the vaccinated macaques. In the same immunized macaques, a decrease in virus load during primary infection (P = 0.0078) and protection from CD4 loss during both acute and chronic phases of infection (P = 0.0099 and P = 0.03, respectively) were observed. A trend for enhanced survival of the vaccinated macaques was also observed. Neither boosting the ALVAC-SIV-gpe with gp120 immunizations nor administering the vaccine by the combination of mucosal and systemic immunization routes increased significantly the protective effect of the ALVAC-SIV-gpe vaccine. While assessing the role of MHC-I Mamu-A*01 alone in the restriction of viremia following challenge of nonvaccinated animals with other SIV isolates, we observed that the virus load was not significantly lower in Mamu-A*01-positive macaques following intravenous challenge with either SIV(mac251 (561)) or SIV(SME660). However, a significant delay in CD4+ T-cell loss was observed in Mamu-A*01-positive macaques in each group. Of interest, in the case of intravenous or intrarectal challenge with the chimeric SIV/HIV strains SHIV(89.6P) or SHIV(KU2), respectively, MHC-I Mamu-A*01-positive macaques did not significantly restrict primary viremia. The finding of the protective effect of the Mamu-A*01 molecule parallels the protective effect of the B*5701 HLA allele in HIV-1-infected humans and needs to be accounted for in the evaluation of vaccine efficacy against SIV challenge models.

Biological thermal detection: micromechanical and microthermal properties of biological infrared receptors

Bioinspired design of biomimetic sensors relies upon the complete understanding of properties and functioning of biological analogues in conjunction with an understanding of their microstructural organization at various length scales. In the spirit of this approach, the microscopic properties of infrared (IR) receptors of snakes with "infrared vision" were studied with scanning thermal microscopy and micromechanical analysis. Low surface thermal conductivity of 0.11 W/(m K) was measured for the IR receptor surfaces as compared to the nonspecific skin areas. This difference in surface thermal conductivity should result in a significant local temperature gradient around the receptor areas. Micromechanical analysis showed that pit organs were more compliant than surrounding skin areas with an elastic modulus close to 40 MPa. In addition, the maximum elastic modulus was detected for the outermost layer with gradually reduced elastic resistance for the interior. The porous microstructure of the underlying tissue combined with the highly branched microfibrillar network (Biomacromolecules 2001, 2, 757) is thought to be responsible for such a combination of biomaterial properties. Considering these biomaterials features, we postulated a possible design of an artificial photothermal detector inspired by the microstructure of natural receptors. This bioinspired design would include a microfabricated cavity filled with an ordered lattice of microspheres with a gradient periodicity from the surface to the interior. Such a "photonic cavity" could provide an opportunity for multiple scattering at wavelength tuned to 8-12 microm as a range of highest sensitivity.

Structural and biologic characterization of pegylated recombinant IFN-alpha2b

The type I interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) family is a family of natural small proteins that have clinically important anti-infective and antitumor activity. We have developed a semisynthetic protein-polymer conjugate of IFN-alpha2b (Intron A) by attaching a 12,000-Da monomethoxypolyethylene glycol (PEG-12000) polymer to the protein. PEG conjugation is thought to increase the serum half-life and thereby prolong patient exposure to IFN-alpha2b without altering the biologic potency to the protein. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS), high-performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC), circular dichroism (CD) analysis and tryptic digestion peptide analysis of PEG Intron demonstrated that the IFN-alpha2b protein was approximately 95% monopegylated and that the primary, the secondary, and the tertiary structures were unaltered. Pegylation did not affect the epitope recognition of antibodies used for Intron A quantitation. An extensive analysis of the pegylated positional isomers revealed that approximately 50% of PEG Intron was monopegylated on the His(34) residue of the IFN-alpha2b protein. The highest antiviral activity of the pegylated positional isomers for PEG Intron was associated with the His(34) pegylated isomer. The specific activity for PEG Intron in an antiviral cytopathic protection assay was 28%, relative to Intron A. However, the potency of PEG Intron, defined as bioactivity independent of protein concentration, was comparable to Intron A at both the molecular and cellular levels in a battery of in vitro assays. Equivalent units of PEG Intron and Intron A were indistinguishable for the induction of several key IFN-induced genes, including 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase (2',5'-OAS) and protein kinase R (PKR), in Molt 4 cells. The antiviral dose-response curves revealed that there were no significant differences between PEG Intron and Intron A. This demonstrated that the introduction of more IFN-alpha2b protein associated with equivalent unit dosing of PEG Intron did not create any antagonism or agonism in the antiviral assay. In assays for the immune response, PEG Intron and Intron A displayed comparable potency for both natural-killer (NK) and lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cell cytolytic activity and for the induction of class I major histocompatibility protein. These results demonstrate that PEG Intron maintains an in vitro biologic potency profile for both antiviral and immunotherapeutic activity that is highly comparable to that of Intron A.

Biological activities and molecular targets of the human papillomavirus E7 oncoprotein

The human papillomavirus (HPV) E7 protein is one of only two viral proteins that remain expressed in HPV-associated human cancers. HPV E7 proteins share structural and functional similarities with oncoproteins encoded by other small DNA tumor viruses such as adenovirus E1A and SV40 large tumor antigen. The HPV E7 protein plays an important role in the viral life cycle by subverting the tight link between cellular differentiation and proliferation in normal epithelium, thus allowing the virus to replicate in differentiating epithelial cells that would have normally withdrawn from the cell division cycle. The transforming activities of E7 largely reflect this important function.

The training plan

A training plan needs to be a working document that helps ensure the appropriate training for everyone in the organization is carried out.

Learning styles

Before we can draw up our plan we need to first look at learning itself, and be aware that a number of different learning styles exist which can influence our choice of appropriate training.

Analysing information

The process of gathering information should remain completely separate from the process of analysing it, or else assumptions can be made that might lead the organisation into some hasty training without appreciating the full picture.

Macrophage-derived chemokine gene expression in human and macaque cells: mRNA quantification using NASBA technology

Macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) is a CC-chemokine that inhibits infection by both macrophage- and T cell-tropic strains of HIV-1. This suppressor activity has led to great interest in fully characterizing the role of MDC in the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection. Methods for the quantitation of constitutive levels of MDC protein in vivo are lacking. In this report, we describe the development and performance of a NASBA-based assay for the quantification of MDC mRNA expression in human and macaque cells. Although the constitutive in vivo levels of MDC mRNA in macaque and human T lymphocytes were low, in vitro activation of these cells greatly increased MDC transcription. Levels in the human and macaque cells were comparable under all conditions tested. Positive correlations between MDC transcription and protein expression were observed. The results indicate that this assay is extremely sensitive and reproducible over a five log dynamic range, and effectively quantifies MDC mRNA in resting and activated T cells. This assay may therefore permit characterization of the role of MDC in HIV-1/SIV pathogenesis, and in vaccine-induced immune responses.