Chemical Control of Water Loss in Growing Plants

Immersing the roots of growing strawberry plants in aqúeous solutions of 8-hydroxyquinoline sulfate closes the stomata, reduces water loss, and increases the time before complete wilting under drought conditions. Under such drought conditions plant survival and vigor are increased. Prolonged closing of the stomata seems to be the principal mode of action of the chemical.

Estimating the heritability of female lifetime fecundity in a locally adapted Drosophila melanogaster population

The heritability of genome-wide fitness that is expected in finite populations is poorly understood, both theoretically and empirically, despite its relevance to many fundamental concepts in evolutionary biology. In this study, we used two independent methods of estimating the heritability of lifetime female fecundity (the predominant female fitness component in this population) in a large, outbred population of Drosophila melanogaster that had adapted to the laboratory environment for over 400 generations. Despite strong directional selection on adult female fecundity, we uncovered high heritability for this trait that cannot be explained by antagonistic pleiotropy with juvenile fitness. The evolutionary significance of this high heritability of lifetime fecundity is discussed.

Blood pressure reduction during treatment for alcohol dependence: results from the Combining Medications and Behavioral Interventions for Alcoholism (COMBINE) study

AIMS

Heavy drinking is associated with hypertension. This study evaluated blood pressure changes occurring during treatment for alcohol dependence.

PARTICIPANTS

Subjects included 1383 people participating in the Combining Medications and Behavioral Interventions for Alcoholism (COMBINE) study, a large multi-center treatment study for alcohol dependence.

MEASUREMENTS

Methods appropriate for repeated-measures data were used to assess the relationship of percentage of drinking days (PDD) to systolic and diastolic blood pressure over a 16-week treatment period. Modification of these associations by demographic and other variables was assessed.

FINDINGS

Blood pressure reduction was evident only in people who were above the median blood pressure at baseline. In this group, systolic blood pressure decreased by an average of 12 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure decreased by an average of 8 mmHg. Blood pressure reduction occurred during the first month of treatment. This effect was similar regardless of age, sex, body mass index, reported history of hypertension and use of anti-hypertensive medications. An observed association between blood pressure and PDD in Caucasians was not evident in African Americans due largely to their lower pre-treatment blood pressure.

CONCLUSIONS

Reduction in alcohol consumption has a potent anti-hypertensive effect in alcoholics with higher blood pressure. For hypertensive, alcohol-dependent people, treatment for alcoholism should be considered a major component of anti-hypertensive therapy.

Alcohol consumption, %CDT, GGT and blood pressure change during alcohol treatment

AIMS

Blood pressure (BP) changes in alcohol-dependent individuals during a 12-week alcohol relapse prevention study were examined in light of drinking status and biomarkers of alcohol consumption [carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (%CDT) and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT)].

METHODS

Of 160 randomized alcoholic individuals, 120 who had hypertension and in whom daily drinking data was available, at 6 and 12 weeks of treatment were included. The impact of alcohol consumption on change in systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) was examined. Further analysis determined the relationship between BP and alcohol-use biomarkers.

RESULTS

A significant effect of complete abstinence on both SBP (-10 mmHg; P = 0.003) and DBP (-7 mmHg; P = 0.001) when compared to any drinking (SBP and DBP = -1 mmHg) was observed. At week 12, participants with a positive %CDT (> or =2.6) had 7 mmHg greater SBP (P = 0.01) and DBP (P < 0.001) than those with negative %CDT. Participants with positive GGT (> or =50 IU) had 10 mmHg greater SBP (P = 0.12) and 9 mmHg greater DBP (P = 0.03) than those with negative GGT. The percent change in SBP was correlated with percent change in %CDT (P = 0.003) but not GGT (P = ns). The percent change in DBP was correlated with both percent change in %CDT (P < 0.0001) and GGT (P = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

Abstinence from alcohol significantly decreased the BP and a positive relationship between BP and both alcohol-use biomarkers was illustrated. Since %CDT is more specific than GGT for heavy alcohol consumption, clinicians may monitor the role of alcohol in hypertension using %CDT as a supplemental aid, providing an objective assessment of drinking to influence BP treatment decisions.

Dimensions and classes of psychosis in a population cohort: a four-class, four-dimension model of schizophrenia and affective psychoses

BACKGROUND

Classification of psychosis lacks a biological basis and current diagnostic categories may obscure underlying continuities. Data reduction methods of symptom profiles within a population-based cohort of people with a wide range of affective and non-affective psychoses may permit an empirical classification of psychosis.

METHOD

OPCRIT (operational criteria) analysis was performed on 387 adults aged 18-65 years in an attempted ascertainment of all patients with psychosis from a geographical area with a stable population. The data were analysed firstly using principal components analysis with varimax rotation to identify factors, and secondly to establish latent classes. Information relating to key variables known to be of relevance in schizophrenia was coded blind to the establishment of the classes and dimensions.

RESULTS

Striking correspondence was obtained between the two methods. The four dimensions emerging were labelled 'depression', 'reality distortion', 'mania' and 'disorganization'. Latent classes identified were 'depression', 'bipolar', 'reality distortion/depression' and 'disorganization'. The latent classes corresponded well with DSM-III-R diagnoses, but also revealed groupings usually obscured by diagnostic boundaries. The latent classes differed on gender ratio, fertility, age of onset and self-harming behaviour, but not on substance misuse or season of birth.

CONCLUSIONS

Both dimensional and categorical approaches are useful in tapping the latent constructs underlying psychosis. Broad agreement with other similar studies suggests such findings could represent discrete pathological conditions. The four classes described appear meaningful, and suggest that the term non-affective psychosis should be reserved for the disorganization class, which represents only a subgroup of those with schizophrenia.

Childhood behaviour, psychotic symptoms and psychosis onset in young people at high risk of schizophrenia: early findings from the edinburgh high risk study

BACKGROUND

Several studies suggest that many patients with schizophrenia have pre-morbid neurodevelopmental abnormalities. This study examines how behavioural abnormalities are associated with mild psychotic symptoms and later schizophrenic illness.

METHODS

Maternal ratings on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) of the early behaviour of 155 subjects were obtained at entry to the Edinburgh study of people at high risk of schizophrenia. These maternal ratings were compared in those with and without psychotic symptoms and used to predict the later onset of psychosis.

RESULTS

The CBCL syndrome scores for the children prior to age 13 did not distinguish any of the study groups at entry to the study. In the ratings made for the subjects when aged from 13 to 16, delinquent behaviour and 'other problems' were weakly associated with these symptoms. However, with the exception of somatic symptoms and thought problems, the age 13-16 scales were significant predictors of later schizophrenic illness. This was true also for some of the ratings prior to age 13.

CONCLUSIONS

Various behaviours, in particular, withdrawn and delinquent-aggressive behaviour in adolescents at risk of schizophrenia may predict later onset of the illness. These behaviours, however, are far less predictive of isolated psychotic symptoms prior to psychosis onset.

A study of the attribution style, self-efficacy, and dietary restraint in female binge and non-binge eaters

The purpose of this study was to identify the role that attribution style and self-efficacy expectations have in overweight binge and non-binge eaters. The subjects were women (n=210) enrolled for weight control treatment, who completed a questionnaire to assess attribution style and self efficacy expectations. They were categorized into three binge eating disorder (BED) groups: non-BED, borderline BED and BED. The results of the ANOVA analysis indicated that the borderline and BED groups were significantly similar in terms of all measures of attribution and self-efficacy; and logistic regression analysis that the odds of being borderline BED or BED were greater if an individual had internal attributions, and more likely in the presence of diminished self-efficacy expectations. The subjects with low levels of eating self-efficacy and internal, global, and uncontrollable attributions were also more likely to have borderline BED and BED. The implications of the borderline BED category are discussed in relationship to the DSM-IV BED diagnosis.

Structured and nonstructured exercise in a corporate wellness program. A comparison of physiological outcomes

The devastating effects from cardiovascular disease are the largest contributors to employers' health care costs, insurance premiums, disability insurance, and worker's compensation. The purpose of this study was to establish baseline data regarding physiological outcomes comparing two participant groups in a corporate wellness program. Results suggest that a corporate wellness program can be beneficial in assisting employees to improve their health behaviors and outcomes.

Expert witness billing practices revisited: a pilot study of further data

This pilot study follows up an earlier study of the strategies and rationales by which psychiatric expert witnesses bill for their time on a case. Questionnaires were answered by participants at a workshop at the Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law (AAPL). In this follow-up, additional novel billing issues were addressed, some subtler than in the original study. In addition, responses to one question supported the previous finding that experts billed more reasonably when a case was simple. Additional issues included use of fee agreements and returning an unpaid-for case. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Expanding the criteria for defining success when evaluating weight loss intervention programs

In order to evaluate outcomes among former participants in a residential weight loss program, attendees were surveyed from 1 to 5 years post-intervention. A total of 187 respondents were studied for weight changes and behavioral practices. Diet practices were assessed by number of servings per day using the Food Guide Pyramid recommendations as a guideline for indicating fruit and vegetable intake. Exercise behaviors were measured in frequency, duration, and intensity, and a weighted score was computed to obtain units for describing physical activity. Maintaining a 10% weight loss from the program entry weight, consuming five or more servings per day of fruits and/or vegetables (5-a-day) and maintaining an "active" level of physical activity were included in criteria for describing intervention success. Those meeting two of the three criteria were categorized as "successful," which included 35.8% of the study population. Because each of these behaviors (5-a-day, active lifestyle, and modest weight loss maintenance) result in independent risk reduction, it is recommended that future weight loss intervention evaluations expand the criteria for describing successful impacts and outcomes to include not only weight maintenance, but also physical activity and diet compliance behaviors.

Differences between patients with schizophrenia within and without a high security psychiatric hospital

OBJECTIVE

To report and discuss differences between schizophrenic patients in the community and those in maximum security care.

METHOD

Comparison of 193 community schizophrenic patients with 169 in high security care. Data included case notes, interviews and cognitive tests.

RESULTS

Compared to high security patients, community patients tended to be female and married. They had higher school achievement, higher premorbid IQ and better occupational levels, were less likely to have a family history of alcohol abuse, to have had police contact and to have attempted suicide. They had more frequent shorter psychiatric admissions and fewer current and lifetime schizophrenic symptoms. Logistic regression models discriminated the groups with considerable accuracy.

CONCLUSION

Patients needing high security care may be recognizable when schizophrenia is first diagnosed. Progression to the State Hospital seems to result from schizophrenia together with other factors such as deprivation rather than from a worse schizophrenic process per se.

"Telling tales out of court": a pilot study of experts' disclosures about opposing experts

A pilot questionnaire surveyed forensic psychiatrists and psychologists about information they would feel it appropriate to disclose to their retaining attorneys about an opposing expert witness. A spectrum of hypothetical disclosures was offered, varying in their relevance to the case at hand and in their degree of "public" versus "personal" information. Respondents agreed significantly that "public" information could be disclosed to one's attorney, but responses about disclosing "personal" information varied widely. The findings and their implications are briefly discussed.

Self-efficacy in overweight individuals with binge eating disorder

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the relationship between self-efficacy judgments in obese individuals with binge eating disorder, "borderline" binge eating disorder, and no binge eating problems.

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Before participation in a residential weight management program, 79 male and female subjects were administered the Weight Efficacy Lifestyle Questionnaire (WEL) and the Binge Eating Scale (BES). Based on DSM-IV diagnostic questions, subjects were categorized as BED, Borderline BED, or non-BED.

RESULTS

Krusal-Wallace Rank-Order analysis of variance revealed significant negative associations between binge eating and total WEL scores as well as the subscales of Negative Emotions, Social Pressure, Physical Discomfort, and Positive Activities. Differences were significant between the BED and the Borderline BED groups with the exception of the Social Pressure scale and the Total WEL scores. BED diagnosis as well as severity of binge eating were strongly associated with low self-efficacy ratings.

DISCUSSION

These results indicate that obese individuals with binge eating disorder demonstrate lower self-efficacy than those without this condition and that self-efficacy is related to the severity of binge eating.

Epidemiology of IgA nephropathy in central and eastern Kentucky for the period 1975 through 1994. Central Kentucky Region of the Southeastern United States IgA Nephropathy DATABANK Project

Population-based incidence data for IgA nephropathy (IgAN) are available for some countries but not for the United States. The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of IgAN in central and eastern Kentucky for 5- and 10-yr periods between 1975 and 1994 and to examine differences among patient groups between those periods. The incidence of IgAN was 5.4 cases per one million population per year (MPPY) for period 1A (1975 through 1979), increasing to 12.4 cases per MPPY for period 2B (1990 through 1994) (P < 0.001). Males had a 2.7 times higher incidence than females for period 1 (1975 through 1984) and 2.2 times higher for period 2 (1985 through 1994). For period 1A, the incidence for Fayette County, which includes the city of Lexington, was lower than that of the rest of the study area (P=0.26), whereas for period 2 the incidence was higher for Fayette County (P=0.052). During period 1, the highest incidence of IgAN for any age and gender group was 24.3 cases per MPPY for males ages 30 through 39. For period 2, the incidence for males was similar for each decade between ages 20 and 59 (approximately 19 cases per MPPY). No African-American was diagnosed during period 1, but in period 2 incidences for blacks and whites were similar (10.7 and 10.2 cases per MPPY, respectively). For the last 5 yr of the study (1990 through 1994), the incidence of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) due to IgAN was 5.5 cases per MPPY: 8.4 for males and 2.7 for females. The incidence of IgAN in Kentucky for period 2B was still much lower than that in European studies, but the incidence of ESRD due to IgAN may be similar. Thus, IgAN may be as important a condition with respect to ESRD in Kentucky as it is in other regions of the world.

The relationship of parental style to depression and self-esteem in adulthood

Previous studies have implicated low parental care and parental overprotection as risk factors for depression in adulthood. The present study further examined the association between perceived parental style and depression in two samples of medical students. In general, both low maternal and paternal care were associated with depression. Furthermore, maternal overprotection in the U.S. sample and paternal overprotection in the Scottish sample were also associated with depression. However, when results were analyzed separately for men and women, clear gender differences emerged, indicating that the observed relationships were occurring chiefly in the men, although there were some indications that low paternal care was associated with depression in women. Because such gender differences have not been previously reported, women medical students may be a unique group with respect to these relationships. Also intriguing was that although parental style characteristics demonstrated significant associations with self-esteem, this was clearly true only for men and not for women. Finally, the study provided the first partial support for the hypothesis that self-esteem mediates the relationship between parental style and depression.

Increased recognition of IgA nephropathy in African-American children

Based upon the percentage of cases of IgA nephropathy (IgAN) in biopsy series, a lower prevalence has been assumed for African-Americans compared with Americans of European descent. This may be due to a racial difference in the basic underlying pathology of IgAN or to racial differences in patterns of referral and biopsy selection practices. Over the past decade (1985-1994), we have found similar incidences of IgAN in Caucasian and African-American children from Shelby County, Tennessee. The incidence was 3.0 cases per million per year for Caucasian and 5.7 cases per million per year for African-American children. IgAN may be more common in African-American children than previously appreciated. Population-based incidence studies will be necessary to determine whether or not our experience has become a more widespread phenomenon.

Redefining success in eating disorders

Currently our definitions of treatment success for obesity and eating disorders are too simplistic and narrow in scope. More varied treatment outcome targets include body-related measures, medical health variables, exercise and eating habits, psychological health factors, body image, and quality of life measures. A new system of redefining success is offered based on the need for a uniform model of eating disorders, the need for an emphasis on progress not perfection, the need to view eating disorders as chronic conditions, and the need to match treatment modules to patient needs.

Drinking, smoking, and illicit drug use among 15 and 16 year olds in the United Kingdom

OBJECTIVE

To examine patterns of self reported drinking, smoking, and illicit drug use among a representative United Kingdom sample of people born in 1979.

DESIGN

Cross sectional, single phase survey based on a stratified cluster sample of 70 United Kingdom secondary schools during March and April 1995. Pupils completed a 406 item standardised questionnaire under examination conditions.

SETTING

United Kingdom state and private secondary schools.

SUBJECTS

7722 pupils aged 15 and 16.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Reported use of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs.

RESULTS

Almost all the pupils had drunk alcohol, 36% (2772/7689) had smoked cigarettes in the past 30 days, and 42.3% (3264/7722) had at some time used illicit drugs, mainly cannabis. 43% (1546/3546) of boys and 38% (1529/4009) of girls had tried cannabis. Higher levels of smoking were associated with poorer school performance (20.4% (783/3840) with average performance v 44.1% (214/486) with below average performance, F = 79.06, P < 0.01). Levels of drug use in 15 and 16 year olds in 1995 were higher in Scotland than in England, Wales, or Northern Ireland.

CONCLUSIONS

Drug experimentation was high among 15 and 16 year olds, and use of cannabis was particularly high among smokers. Cigarette smoking was more common among girls than boys.

Feed the hungry bee: using positive peer reports to improve social interactions and acceptance of a socially rejected girl in residential care

We studied how rewarding peers for publicly reporting positive aspects of a socially rejected girl's behavior affected her social interactions and acceptance. The results indicated that positive peer reports reduced negative social interactions (to near zero) and increased positive interactions (to above 70%). In addition, social acceptance ratings of the girl increased from pre- to postintervention.

IgA nephropathy: long-term prognosis for pediatric patients

OBJECTIVE

The determination of the ultimate prognosis for patients with IgA nephropathy diagnosed in childhood requires long-term follow-up of identified patients. The purpose of this study was to obtain such follow-up for patients from two centers where the disease has been diagnosed for more than 20 years.

METHODS

Clinical data at the apparent onset of symptoms and renal histologic data were obtained for 103 patients in whom IgA nephropathy was diagnosed before age 18 years. Clinical status at last follow-up was obtained from office records or from direct contact with the patient. Predicted kidney survival was determined by the Kaplan-Meier method. Follow-up of more than 10 years from the time of biopsy was available for 40 of the patients.

RESULTS

Fourteen of the patients have progressed to end-stage renal disease; three others have progressive chronic renal insufficiency as defined by an estimated creatinine clearance of less than 50 ml/min per 1.73 m2. Severity of the renal histologic findings and the degree of proteinuria at the time of biopsy were associated with poor outcome. For all patients, predicted kidney survival from the time of apparent onset was 94% at 5 years, 87% at 10 years, 82% at 15 years, and 70% at 20 years. Age at clinical onset and gender were not associated with poor outcome, but black race and severity of renal histologic findings were.

CONCLUSION

With follow-up into adulthood, the outcome for pediatric patients with IgA nephropathy appears to be as serious as that reported in adult patients. Follow-up of a pediatric patient with persistent clinical findings should be maintained after the patient's care is transferred to a physician caring for adults.

Partners in adversity. V: Support, personality and coping behaviour at the time of crisis

This paper presents further results from a study of married women in Edinburgh who had just suffered an adverse experience: either their husband's non-fatal myocardial infarction, their husband's death or their own arrival in a Women's Aid refuge for battered women. Interviews were carried out 4-6 weeks following the adverse experience and, where possible, again approximately 3 months later. Symptoms were assessed using the 30-item General Health Questionnaire and criterion-based measures of depression and anxiety derived from it. The extent and nature of crisis support from household members and from groups of people outside the household, and also of failures in expected support, was measured at first interview. A modified version of Tyrer and Alexander's (1979) personality schedule was administered at the follow-up interview, and the resulting personality data were then reduced to six factors using principal components analysis. An interviewer assessment of how well the subject was coping was made at both interviews. The vast majority of the sample received extensive practical and emotional support from family and friends, and perhaps because such positive support was so prevalent, variations in it seemed to have little effect on symptoms. However, subjects who were unexpectedly 'let down' or criticised by friends or family tended to show higher symptom levels, although, surprisingly, this was less true for the bereaved wives than for the others. The six personality factors that emerged were labelled nervousness (similar to neuroticism) impulsivity, social withdrawal, helplessness, inferiority and aggressiveness. There was evidence that subjects high on nervousness remained symptomatic longer following the adverse experience. The aggressiveness factor showed a curvilinear trend with high and low aggressives showing higher symptom levels than middle aggressives. However, for the coronary wives the trend was linear with low aggressives having high symptoms. Subjects low on impulsivity were more affected by being 'let down' by friends and family. The interviewer-assessed coping measure was linearly related to nervousness and showed a curvilinear relationship with aggressiveness.

The first year at medical school: some findings and student perceptions

This paper will first summarize briefly some results from parallel studies of first-year medical students at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland and University of Houston, Texas, USA. These findings have been presented more fully elsewhere (Surtees & Miller 1990; Miller & Surtees 1991; Miller & Lloyd 1991; Miller 1994) and here the emphasis will be on the Edinburgh results. Following this, some new material will be set down, reflecting the Edinburgh students' comments to the interviewers about their courses.

Partners in adversity. III. Mood status after the event

This paper presents further results from a longitudinal study of three groups of married women undertaken in Edinburgh. Each group shared a common stressful experience. In the first group the marital partner had recently died; in the second the marital partner had recently experienced a myocardial infarction (MI) and the third group consisted of women recently entering a Women's Aid refuge. Interviews were completed shortly following the adverse experiences and where possible again about 3 months later. This report presents details of the (self-reported) mood status of the respondents at both assessment occasions in terms of the degree, form and change in symptomatic distress over what were equivalent time periods for the three groups. Mood status was determined on the basis of the conventionally scored 30-item GHQ (General Health Questionnaire) and according to a criterion-based scoring procedure. On this basis at initial interview almost 8 out of 10 of the widows were above the advised GHQ cut-point, almost 6 out of 10 of the refuge seekers and over 4 out of 10 of the coronary wives. At follow-up these proportions had almost halved for the widows and coronary wives but had changed very little for those few refuge-seekers successfully re-interviewed. According to a criterion-based measure at initial interview, the recent widows had an anxiety rate 5.2 times and a depression rate ten times that of a general population sample of women. Details of the changes in mood status amongst the groups over the follow-up are presented.

Partners in adversity. IV. Coping and mood

This paper presents details of an interviewer-based measure of coping, completed in the context of a study examining the mental health of three groups of married women following their exposure to recent severe adversity. For one group a marital partner had recently died and for another group a marital partner had recently experienced a myocardial infarction. The third group consisted of those women recently entering a Women's Aid refuge. Initial interviews were completed about 6 weeks following event experience. Coping and mood state were re-assessed about 4 months after the events that had recruited the samples to the study. The measures of coping response were adapted from the coping domains of 'fighting spirit', 'helplessness', 'fatalism', 'avoidance' and 'anger/frustration' assessed in the Mental Adjustment to Cancer Scale. Details are provided of the construction of a summary measure of coping response based upon the above domains and of its relationship with follow-up mood state after allowance for mood levels at initial interview.

CO2 Exchange and Growth of the Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Plant Opuntia ficus-indica under Elevated CO2 in Open-Top Chambers

CO2 uptake, water vapor conductance, and biomass production of Opuntia ficus-indica, a Crassulacean acid metabolism species, were studied at CO2 concentrations of 370, 520, and 720 [mu]L L-1 in open-top chambers during a 23-week period. Nine weeks after planting, daily net CO2 uptake for basal cladodes at 520 and 720 [mu]L L-1 of CO2 was 76 and 98% higher, respectively, than at 370 [mu]L L-1. Eight weeks after daughter cladodes emerged, their daily net CO2 uptake was 35 and 49% higher at 520 and 720 [mu]L L-1 of C02, respectively, than at 370 [mu]L L-1. Daily water-use efficiency was 88% higher under elevated CO2 for basal cladodes and 57% higher for daughter cladodes. The daily net CO2 uptake capacity for basal cladodes increased for 4 weeks after planting and then remained fairly constant, whereas for daughter cladodes, it increased with cladode age, became maximal at 8 to 14 weeks, and then declined. The percentage enhancement in daily net CO2 uptake caused by elevated CO2 was greatest initially for basal cladodes and at 8 to 14 weeks for daughter cladodes. The chlorophyll content per unit fresh weight of chlorenchyma for daughter cladodes at 8 weeks was 19 and 62% lower in 520 and 720 [mu]L L-1 of CO2, respectively, compared with 370 [mu]L L-1. Despite the reduced chlorophyll content, plant biomass production during 23 weeks in 520 and 720 [mu]L L-1 of CO2 was 21 and 55% higher, respectively, than at 370 [mu]L L-1. The root dry weight nearly tripled as the C02 concentration was doubled, causing the root/shoot ratio to increase with CO2 concentration. During the 23-week period, elevated CO2 significantly increased CO2 uptake and biomass production of O. ficus-indica.

Effect of parity on periparturient neutrophil function in dairy cows

Impairment of periparturient neutrophil function in dairy cows has been described. This may contribute to increased susceptibility of cows to bacterial infections during the periparturient period. Susceptibility to many complications of the postpartum period is influenced by parity. The aim of this experiment was to determine whether parity influenced periparturient neutrophil function in Holstein cows. Cows (n = 46, of which 26 were calving for the first, second or third time, and 20 were of more advanced parity) were sampled during the last prepartum week, the first postpartum week, 3 weeks postpartum and 6 weeks postpartum. Neutrophils were isolated by centrifugation and hypotonic lysis of erythrocytes. Neutrophil superoxide anion production was determined by the superoxide dismutase inhibitable reduction of ferricytochrome c, and stimulus-induced shape change was determined at 0, 30, 60 and 120 s after exposure to zymosan activated bovine plasma. Superoxide anion production was significantly depressed in the first postpartum week in all cows. At this time, superoxide anion production was significantly lower in cows in their fourth or greater lactation than in cows in the first three lactations. Neutrophil shape change responsiveness was also influenced by parity; immediately prepartum, the shape change responsiveness differed between groups at 120 s after application of the stimulus, and during the first postpartum week shape change responsiveness was less in cows of advanced parity at 30, 60 and 120 s after application of the stimulus. We concluded that cows in the fourth or greater lactation suffered more profound periparturient impairment of neutrophil function than younger cows and that this may be a factor mediating their increased susceptibility to some postpartum complications.

Partners in adversity: I. Study design and context

This paper presents results from a longitudinal study of three groups of married women undertaken in Edinburgh. Each study group was identified through their common experience of a particular stressful situation. Recruitment to the two principal study groups required that a marital partner had either recently died or had recently experienced a myocardial infarction (MI). The third group consisted of those women recently entering a Women's Aid refuge. Interviews were completed with 64 bereaved women, 143 women shortly following their partner's MI and 32 women entering a refuge. Where possible, follow-up interviews were undertaken about three months following the first interview. Detailed assessments were made of the 'target' stressful experiences, of any others that had occurred, and of the course and nature of the respondent's mental health during the study period. Additional assessments included measures of style of coping and of the support resources available and utilized. This report presents details of the design and methodology of the study and of the respondents' experiences of the specific stressors that recruited them to the study. It also provides the background to an examination and analysis of the sequencing of adverse experiences reported in the companion paper.

Partners in adversity: II. Measurement and description of stressful event sequences ('complexes')

Three groups of married women were studied with each defined by their experience of a different stressful incident (the target event). In the first (the Coronary Group), the husband had suffered a non-fatal myocardial infarction whilst in the second (the Bereaved Group), he had recently died. In the third (the Refuge Group) the subject had just entered a refuge run by Women's Aid in order to flee from her husband. This paper concentrates on the description and measurement of the sequence of these experiences and of others occurring within the same study time. The Bedford College core rating scheme together with other ratings were applied. In the Coronary group, the target event was rated as a severe threat in 46.9% of cases, and also rated as being of uncertain outcome and hopeless. Over one quarter of the sample received other ratings such as subject-focused and choice of action. Virtually all the bereavements were rated severe threat, loss, hopeless and subject-focused. The refuge target events were mostly rated of only moderate threat but differed widely on other characteristics. In the 6 months prior to the target event, other severe events tended to occur most frequently to the Refuge group and least frequently to the Coronary group. However, these other severe events were mostly connected with the target event and what had lead up to it. Issues concerning the measurement of the principal study events and the other stressors experienced are discussed.

The response of juvenile and small adult western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) to nitrate and ammonium fertilization

Effects of nitrate-N and ammonium-N fertilization on foliar nitrogen concentrations, carbon dioxide assimilation, leaf conductance, transpiration, intercellular carbon dioxide, xylem pressure potentials, specific leaf mass, and growth were measured on naturally established juvenile and small adult Juniperus occidentalis growing in central Oregon where ammonium-N was the dominant form of soil nitrogen throughout the summer. Fertilization with both forms of nitrogen increased foliar nitrogen concentrations in juveniles and small adults in May; concentrations in small adult foliage from the nitrate-N treatment were still higher than controls in September. Both forms of nitrogen reduced carbon dioxide assimilation and potential photosynthetic nitrogen-use efficiency. The negative relationship between nitrogen addition and carbon dioxide assimilation was more apparent in juveniles than in small adults; negative effects were more pronounced in the ammonium-N treatment than in the nitrate-N treatment. Leaf conductance and transpiration were also reduced, but reductions of water loss were greater than were negative effects of fertilization on carbon gain; thus water-use efficiency of juvenile and small adults increased in May and July. The depression in gas exchange processes was detectable for a longer period during the summer in juveniles than in small adult J. occidentalis. Branchlet elongation of juvenile and small adult J. occidentalis was increased with nitrate-N and ammonium-N addition, but variability reduced significance levels. Juniperus occidentalis appears to be adapted to utilize low, ambient levels of soil nitrate at the research site and did not preferentially utilize ammonium. Key words: gas exchange, water relations, foliar nitrogen, growth.

Treatment of essential tremor with methazolamide

We treated 28 patients (16 women and 12 men) who had essential tremor with methazolamide. Their median age was 69 years (range, 34 to 89 years), and the median duration of tremor was 16 years (range, less than 1 to 69 years). Fifteen cases were familial and 13 were sporadic. Improvement in 10 patients who continued taking the drug ranged from moderate to complete relief. In addition, four patients had marked improvement and two had moderate improvement but discontinued use of the drug because of side effects. Five patients with a mild response and seven with no response also discontinued methazolamide therapy. The maximal mean daily dose was 203 mg for all patients and 129 mg (maintenance dose) for the patients who continued taking the drug. Side effects consisted primarily of somnolence, nausea, epigastric discomfort, anorexia, paresthesias, and numbness. No aplastic anemia was noted in any of the patients. The median duration of follow-up was 6 months (range, 10 weeks to 29 months). The therapeutic effect seemed unrelated to a family history of tremor, the effect of alcohol, or the responsiveness to propranolol or primidone. Methazolamide may be an effective drug in the treatment of some patients with essential tremor, particularly those with head and voice tremor.

Social support and its interactions with personality and childhood background as predictors of psychiatric symptoms in Scottish and American medical students

Two samples of first year medical students were studied, one in Houston, Texas, the other in Edinburgh, Scotland. Personality, measured on entry, and social support, measured prior to first year examinations, were used to predict scores at the latter time on anxiety self-ratings, depression self-ratings and the General Health Questionnaire. At both centres social support was implicated in symptomatology, but many significant effects were centre specific. Presence of a local friend in whom to confide, was important in Houston, while support from a relative and superficial support from classmates were salient in Edinburgh. In general, presence of support was associated with lower symptoms, but there were important exceptions similar in both centres. Students who did not have a boy/girl friend during the study period were less anxious than the rest. Regarding personality, students high on suspiciousness were more anxious and depressed when they had high levels of support. Among reserved (aloof and introspective) students both gain and loss of a boy/girl friend during the year were strongly associated with depressed mood. It is concluded that, particularly for students high in suspiciousness, reserve and shyness, the costs of social relationships sometimes outweigh the benefits.

Psychological symptoms and their course in first-year medical students as assessed by the Interval General Health Questionnaire (I-GHQ)

Evidence is presented concerning the concurrent validity of the Interval General Health Questionnaire. This was used to describe the timing and course of spells of depression and anxiety symptoms in first-year medical students over their initial six months at university. A small subgroup of students who were continuously symptomatic were distinguished from other groups by the presence of a number of factors: they were slow to make friends, had inappropriate support from relatives, had a tendency to have rows, had steady girl/boyfriends and had 'vulnerable' personalities. By contrast, a large subgroup who were well throughout had experienced caring childhood backgrounds, seldom had girl/boyfriends, showed little tendency to have rows and had 'resilient' personalities. Other subgroups are also described. It is suggested that students who suffer from chronic minor symptomatic distress could be recognised early on and offered appropriate support from counselling services.

Parkinson's disease monotherapy with controlled-release MK-458 (PHNO): double-blind study and comparison to carbidopa/levodopa

The potent and selective dopamine D-2 agonist, MK-458 [PHNO; (+)-4-propyl-9-hydroxynaphthoxazine] was administered as monotherapy to nine patients with Parkinson's disease in a double-blind, placebo-controlled 12-week investigation; ten other patients were randomized to placebo. MK-458 was formulated as a controlled-release preparation, using a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-lactase (HPMC) matrix. Patients receiving MK-458/HPMC improved on a variety of measures of parkinsonism, compared to their baseline scores; in contrast, only trivial improvement was seen within the placebo group. We subsequently compared the anti-Parkinson response to MK-458/HPMC with the response to chronic carbidopa/levodopa monotherapy in an open label trial. Carbidopa/levodopa improved parkinsonism to a significantly greater degree than MK-458/HPMC. Doses of MK-458 used in these studies (up to 60 mg per day) were substantially higher than those in previously reported preliminary studies of this medication. We conclude that monotherapy with MK-458/HPMC results in a significant anti-Parkinson effect; however, the response falls short of that seen with carbidopa/levodopa.

Affective disorders among women in the general population and among those referred to psychiatrists. Clinical features and demographic correlates

In a study comparing depressive disorders detected in a field survey (n = 90) with patients referred to a specialist treatment setting (n = 63), the clinical features and demographic correlates of 'cases' of affective disorders proved to be similar. However, those in treatment settings appeared to have more people achieving definite case status. Hospital-referred cases were also more likely than community cases to be older and single, and this difference persisted even after controlling for chronicity of symptoms.

The Interval General Health Questionnaire

An adaptation of the LIFE procedure was used with a self-report questionnaire to assess 173 medical students, close to their enrollment and again about six months later. The assessment procedure enabled changes in symptoms of anxiety and depression over the interval between interviews to be recorded and the subsequent classification of the symptom patterns into course categories. While women scored markedly higher than men at initial assessment, this was not so at follow-up. Almost 25% of students reported the co-occurrence of at least five psychological symptoms at some time during the six months. For many students these were of a persistent nature. The adapted GHQ meets the dual demands of restricted interview time and the need to assess the more minor psychological conditions.

Emergence of alcohol expectancies in childhood: a possible critical period

Previous investigations with adolescents (aged 12-19) have shown alcohol-related expectancies to develop in childhood prior to significant drinking experience and to covary directly with drinking behavior. To chart the development of alcohol expectancies in children as young as age 6, a procedure was developed to be as independent as possible of age-related variation in reading and language development. This instrument was administered to 114 elementary school children of both genders, distributed across grades 1 to 5. Psychometric analysis provided evidence of the test's reliability and validity. Evaluation of the developmental pattern produced two primary findings: (1) there was an overall trend of increasingly positive expectancies with age; and (2) strikingly, the bulk of the increase was observed in the third and fourth grades. Children's expectancies may be less differentiated than adolescent or adult expectancies. These findings suggest that the precursors for later alcohol use and abuse are formed in childhood and that prevention efforts may need to begin as early as third grade.

Self-esteem, life stress and psychiatric disorder

Using a special subsample from a survey of women in Edinburgh investigations were carried out into (a) which types of life event are associated with lowered self-esteem; (b) the role of life events and self-esteem in onset of psychiatric disorder; and (c) the additional significance of prior psychiatric consultation in determining onset. Stressors involving impaired relationships with others were the only ones clearly associated with lowered self-esteem. Minor psychiatric illness was predicted by stress of uncertain outcome, and, to a lesser extent, by impaired relationship stress. Onset of major depression was best predicted by an interaction between total stress experienced and low self-esteem. There was evidence that such onset involves a pre-existing low level of self-esteem on which life stress impinges, rather than life stress generating low self-esteem and then onset. A small group of subjects characterised by low self-esteem, prior psychiatric consultation and maladaptive coping seemed to be fluctuating in and out of psychiatric illness irrespective of stress.

Ethylenediaminetetra(methylenephosphonic acid): genotoxicity, biodistribution, and subchronic and chronic toxicity in rats

Ethylenediaminetetra(methylenephosphonic acid), EDITEMPA, was tested for oral toxicity in rats in a 13-wk feeding study (at doses of 0, 5, 50 and 500 mg/kg/day) and in a chronic feeding study (at doses of 0, 4, 20 and 100 mg/kg/day). EDITEMPA was also tested for genotoxicity in the Ames, mouse lymphoma, unscheduled DNA synthesis, and in vivo cytogenetics assays. Additionally, absorption, distribution and excretion (ADE) studies were conducted following administration of [14C]EDITEMPA to rats by gavage and via the feed and drinking-water. The principal finding in the 13-wk study was mild anaemia in male and female rats given 500 mg/kg/day, which was resolved during a 9-wk recovery period. In the chronic study, there was no substantial evidence of any treatment-related toxicity or carcinogenicity. Differences in survival of control and treated females (noted late in the study) were interpreted to represent unusually good survival in controls; however, a compound-related increase in mortality could not be completely ruled out. Tests for genotoxicity were all negative. ADE studies revealed that [14C]EDITEMPA was poorly absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract and that most of the absorbed dose was rapidly excreted by the kidneys or sequestered in bone. The gavage route of administration led to four- to six-fold increases in bone EDITEMPA levels as compared with administration in the feed and drinking-water, respectively. These results suggest that no significant toxicity or carcinogenicity concerns arise from EDITEMPA when it is administered in the feed at the concentrations tested. Reversible anaemia was seen only at very high doses and was interpreted as being secondary to EDITEMPA's ability to interfere with iron absorption and utilization. Localization of EDITEMPA in bone indicated a high degree of affinity for mineralizing tissues, consistent with its chelating properties. There was, however, no effect on bone resorption or mineralization. A comparison of human drinking-water levels of 3500 ppm EDITEMPA (based on a no-effect level of 100 mg/kg/day in rats) with the estimated worst-case exposure in humans of 0.01 ppm suggested a safety margin greater than 1 x 10(5).

Hospital-treated and general-population morbidity from affective disorders. Comparison of prevalence and inception rates

In this study, we compare the rates of psychiatric disorders found among women in a random sample of the general population with those of patients referred to specialist services. Both these groups were drawn from the same geographical area. The ratio of prevalence rates is less than the ratio between inception rates in the two groups. When only those with affective disorders were considered, the results revealed that the point prevalence in the treated-disorders group was only 1% of the community-group prevalence, while the inception into care in the former group was nearly 6% of that in the latter. Single women and older women were over-represented in the hospital sample.

Self-appraisal, anxiety and depression in women. A prospective enquiry

Depressive illness is known to be associated with low self-evaluation, but it has been suggested that there may be a reciprocal connection as well, such that low self-appraisal (in the absence of illness) makes the subsequent onset of depression more likely. A prospective study, using a community sample of 376 women, provided data about clinical state over a period of 18 months, and self-appraisal questionnaire scores were determined on two occasions separated by 6 months. There was no evidence that low self-evaluation predicted future episodes of depressive illness, except in women who reported previous psychological episodes for which they had sought medical help, and, even for those with previous episodes, much of the predictive power of low self-esteem was accounted for by individuals who were subsequently recognised to have been in the early stages of illness. Conversely, there was little evidence that prior episodes predicted future illness in people with high self-esteem. One explanation of the findings is that recurrent episodes of illness cause progressive impairment of self-appraisal, but other possibilities are also considered. Women who had recovered from illnesses detected at the first interview still had significantly less self-confidence 6 months later than those who were well throughout.

Life events, psychiatric illness and the irritable bowel syndrome

The frequency, severity, and characteristics of psychiatric illness and stressful life situations were assessed in 134 patients aged 18-60 years referred to a gastrointestinal clinic by their general practitioner. A functional disorder of the gastrointestinal tract was established in 72%. A formal psychiatric assessment in 64 randomly selected patients revealed a previous or current psychiatric disorder in 54% of the functional group and 12.5% of the organic group. Stressful life events before referral were assessed by a modification of the Bedford College methodology. Anxiety provoking life situations were found in 30%, a proportion which was not significantly different in the two groups. Psychiatric illness episodes and/or anxiety provoking situations, preceded the onset of bowel symptoms in two-thirds of the functional group, however, but in none of the organic group. Life situations alone did not appear to be associated with functional disorders unless they provoked an anxiety state.