Arabinogalactan proteins in maize coleoptiles: developmental relationship to cell death during xylem differentiation but not to extension growth

The spatial and temporal expression of arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) in the coleoptile of maize seedlings was investigated with monoclonal antibodies (MAC207, JIM13, JIM14) raised against particular AGP epitopes in carrot. MAC207 binds to a buffer-soluble AGP fraction of 90-210 kDa that also reacts with beta-glucosyl Yariv reagent and the lectin RCA120. Immunogold-labelling showed that the MAC207 epitope is exclusively localized in the plasma membrane. JIM13 binds to a 120 kDa component of the buffer-soluble AGP fraction localized in the plasma membrane of future sclerenchyma cells and secondary-wall thickenings of future tracheids of vascular bundles. JIM14 binds to a 50 kDa component of the salt-extractable fraction from cell walls localized in the innermost wall layer of sclerenchyma cells. These AGP epitopes demonstrate different temporal expression patterns which do not correlate with extension growth. Auxin had no effect on the amount of soluble AGP from coleoptile sections, containing the growth-controlling epidermis but no vascular bundles, as measured by crossed electrophoresis. Moreover, incorporation of radioactive arabinose, galactose or proline into this fraction was not stimulated by auxin. These results contradict the hypothesis that AGPs function as wall-loosening agents in auxin-mediated extension growth. The results are compatible with the notion that AGPs serve as developmental markers defining particular features of future cell differentiation. The specific association of the epitopes recognized by JIM13 and JIM14 with disintegrating cells suggests that the related AGPs identify those cells of the coleoptile which are committed to programmed cell death.

Unilateral reorientation of microtubules at the outer epidermal wall during photo- and gravitropic curvature of maize coleoptiles and sunflower hypocotyls

Auxin (indole-3-acetic acid) controls the orientation of cortical microtubes (MT) at the outer wall of the outer epidermis of growing maize coleoptiles (Bergfeld, R., Speth, V., Schopfer, P., 1988, Bot. Acta 101, 57-67). A detailed time course of MT reorientation, determined by labeling MT with fluorescent antibodies, revealed that the auxin-mediated movement of MT from the longitudinal to the transverse direction starts after less than 15 min and is completed after 60 min. This response was used for a critical test of the functional involvement of auxin in tropic curvature. It was found that phototropic (first phototropic curvature) as well as gravitropic bending are correlated with a change of MT orientation from transverse to longitudinal at the slower-growing organ flank whereas the transverse MT orientation is maintained (or even augmented) at the faster-growing organ flank. These directional changes are confined to the MT subjacent to the outer epidermal wall. The same basic results were obtained with sunflower hypocotyls subjected to phototropic or gravitropic stimulation. It is concluded that auxin is, in fact, involved in asymmetric growth leading to tropic curvature. However, our results do not allow us to discriminate between an uneven distribution of endogenous auxin or an even distribution of auxin, the activity of which is modulated by an unevenly distributed inhibitor of auxin action.

Role of cell-wall biogenesis in the initiation of auxin-mediated growth in coleoptiles of Zea mays L

The involvement of cell-wall polymer synthesis in auxin-mediated elongation of coleoptile segments from Zea mays L. was investigated with particular regard to the growth-limiting outer epidermis. There was no effect of indole acetic acid (IAA) on the incorporation of labeled glucose into the major polysaccharide wall fractions (cellulose, hemicellulose) within the first 2 h of IAA-induced growth. 2,6-Dichlorobenzonitrile inhibited cellulose synthesis strongly but had no effect on IAA-induced segment elongation even after a pretreatment period of 24 h, indicating that the growth response is independent of the apposition of new cellulose microfibrils at the epidermal cell wall. The incorporation of labeled leucine into total and cell-wall protein of the epidermis was promoted by IAA during the first 30 min of IAA-induced growth. Inhibition of IAA-induced growth by protein and RNA-synthesis inhibitors (cycloheximide, cordycepin) was accompanied by an inhibition of leucine incorporation into the epidermal cell wall during the first 30 min of induced growth but had no effect on the concomitant incorporation of monosaccharide precursors into the cellulose or hemicellulose fractions of this wall. It is concluded that at least one of the epidermal cell-wall proteins fulfills the criteria for a 'growth-limiting protein' induced by IAA at the onset of the growth response. In contrast, the synthesis of the polysaccharide wall fractions cellulose and hemicellulose, as well as their transport and integration into the growing epidermal wall, appears to be independent of growth-limiting protein and these processes are therefore no part of the mechanism of growth control by IAA.

Recovery of plastids from photooxidative damage: Significance of a plastidic factor

It was inferred from previous findings that a plastid-derived factor (plastidic factor) is involved in the transcriptional control of nuclear genes coding for proteins destined for the chloroplast. Photooxidative damage to the plastid destroys the ability of the organelle to give off this factor. Cytosolic enzyme levels are not impaired if plastids are damaged, and morphogenesis of seedlings is normal. The only exception found so far is nitrate reductase, a cytosolic enzyme, which is regulated by the cellas if it were a plastidic protein. In the present study we have shown that the plastids in the mesophyll of mustard (Sinapis alba L.) cotyledons, damaged by 3 h photooxidation in red light (6.8 W·m(-2)) and then returned to darkness or to continuous, non-photooxidative far-red light (cFR), recover from photooxidative damage. The rate of recovery is stimulated by phytochrome (operationally, cFR). Since the cytosolic enzyme nitrate reductase is affected by the different treatments in principally the same way as the levels of plastidic enzymes, we conclude that it is recovery of the plastids' ability to give off the plastidic factor rather than structural recovery which leads to recovery of gene expression and protein (and chlorophyll) re-accumulation. The extent of recovery varied according to the enzyme and this variation could be explained by different plastidic-factor requirements for gene expression. This explanation was confirmed by measurements of translatable mRNAs. It was found that LHCP-gene expression (light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b-binding protein of photosystem II) is far more sensitive to photooxidative damage of the plastids than SSU-gene expression (small subunit of ribulose-1.5-bisphosphate carboxylase). Correspondingly, recovery is expressed to a much greater extent in the latter than in the former case.

Cooperation of epidermis and inner tissues in auxin-mediated growth of maize coleoptiles

The function of the epidermis in auxinmediated elongation growth of maize (Zea mays L.) coleoptile segments was investigated. The following results were obtained: i) In the intact organ, there is a strong tissue tension produced by the expanding force of the inner tissues which is balanced by the contracting force of the outer epidermal wall. The compression imposed by the stretched outer epidermal wall upon the inner tissues gives rise to a wall-pressure difference which can be transformed into a water-potential difference between inner tissues and external medium (water) by removal of the outer epidermal wall. ii) Peeled segments fail to respond to auxin with normal growth. The plastic extensibility of the inner-tissue cell walls (measured with a constant-load extensiometer using living segments) is not influenced by auxin (or abscisic acid) in peeled or nonpeeled segments. It is concluded that auxin induces (and abscisic acid inhibits) elongation of the intact segment by increasing (decreasing) the extensibility specifically in the outer epidermal wall. In addition, tissue tension (and therewith the pressure acting on the outer epidermal wall) is maintained at a constant level over several hours of auxin-mediated growth, indicating that the inner cells also contribute actively to organ elongation. However, this contribution does not involve an increase of cell-wall extensibility, but a continuous shifting of the potential extension threshold (i.e., the length to which the inner tissues would extend by water uptake after peeling) ahead of the actual segment length. Thus, steady growth involves the coordinated action of wall loosening in the epidermis and regeneration of tissue tension by the inner tissues. iii) Electron micrographs show the accumulation of striking osmiophilic material (particles of approx. 0.3 μm diameter) specifically at the plasma membrane/cell-wall interface of the outer epidermal wall of auxin-treated segments. iv) Peeled segments fail to respond to auxin with proton excretion. This is in contrast to fusicoccin-induced proton excretion and growth which can also be readily demonstrated in the absence of the epidermis. However, peeled and nonpeeled segments show the same sensitivity to protons with regard to the induction of acid-mediated in-vivo elongation and cell-wall extensibility. The observed threshold at pH 4.5-5.0 is too low to be compatible with a 'second messenger' function of protons also in the growth response of the inner tissues. Organ growth is described in terms of a physical model which takes into account tissue tension and extensibility of the outer epidermal wall as the decisive growth parameters. This model states that the wall pressure increment, produced by tissue tension in the outer epidermal wall, rather than the pressure acting on the inner-tissue walls, is the driving force of growth.

Expression of nuclear genes as affected by treatments acting on the plastids

In a preceding paper (Oelmüller and Mohr 1986, Planta 167, 106-113) it was shown that in the cotyledons of the mustard (Sinapis alba L.) seedling the integrity of the plastid is a necessary prerequisite for phytochrome-controlled appearance of translatable mRNA for the nuclear-encoded small subunit (SSU) of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase and the light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b-binding protein of photosystem II (LHCP). It was concluded that a signal from the plastid is essential for the expression of nuclear genes involved in plastidogenesis. The present study was undertaken to characterize this postulated signal. Chloramphenicol, an inhibitor of intraplastidic protein synthesis and Norflurazon, an inhibitor of carotenoid synthesis (to bring about photooxidative sensitivity of the plastids) were applied. We obtained the following major results. (i) After a brief period of photooxidative damage a rapid decrease of the above translatable mRNAs was observed.

CONCLUSION

the signal is short-lived and thus required continually. (ii) Once the plastids became damaged by photooxidation, no recovery with regard to nuclear gene expression was observed after a transfer to non-damaging light conditions.

CONCLUSION

even a brief period of damage suffices to prevent production of the signal. (iii) Chloramphenicol inhibited nuclear gene expression (SSU, LHCP) and plastidic development when applied during the early stages of plastidogenesis. Once a certain stage had been reached (between 36-48 h after sowing at 25° C) nuclear gene expression became remarkably insensitive toward inhibition of intraplastidic translation.

CONCLUSION

a certain developmental stage of the plastid must be reached before the signal is released by the plastid. (iv) Under the growth conditions we adopted in our experiments the plastids in the mesophyll cells of mustard cotyledons developed essentially between 36 and 120 (-144) h after sowing. Only during this period could translatable mRNAs for SSU and LHCP be detected.

CONCLUSION

the signal is released by the plastids only during this time span.

Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase capacity and chlorophyll content in developing seedlings of Chenopodium rubrum L. growing under light of different qualities and fluence rates

In order to evaluate the aclimation of Chenopodium seedlings to different quantum fluence rates of R and BL, kinetics of Rubisco capacity, Chl content and chloroplast structure were studied. Under monochromatic light photoreceptors are stimulated selectively and their influence on biosynthetis capacities during chloroplast development can be studied.R irradiations saturate Rubisco capacity even at the lowest quantum fluence rates applied, whereas Chl a+b synthesis depends strongly upon fluence rate of R. Under BL irradiations, both Rubisco capacity and Chl content are fluence rate dependent. R irradiations favour Chl b synthesis relative to Chl a, whereas under BL Chl a content is high relative to Chl b. Under R irradiation Pfr is the main photoreceptor involved in regulation of Rubisco capacity whereas under BL a specific BL absorbing photoreceptor may control the response. From the fluence rate dependency under BL irradiations it is concluded that the blue region of the day light spectrum may be the sensor for monitoring fluence rate and causing the characteristic changes in shade and high/low WL adaptation with respect to Rubisco levels in Chenopodium.

Transitory development of rough endoplasmic reticulum aggregates during embryo maturation in seeds of mustard (Sinapis alba L.)

During the final period of maturation of mustard (Sinapis alba L.) seeds conspicuous aggregates of rough endoplasmic reticulum are found specifically in some tissues of the differentiation zone of the radicle. The appearance of these structures is temporally correlated with the disappearance of single-stranded reticulum and the onset of seed dehydration. These aggregates can be demonstrated also in the dry, mature seed and during the first few hours after imbibition with water; they disappear however during germination. In germinated root tips reformation of the aggregates can be induced by severe water stress. It is concluded that the observed membrane aggregates represent a storage form of rough endoplasmic reticulum during periods of low protoplasmic hydration.

Photooxidative destruction of chloroplasts and its consequences for cytosolic enzyme levels and plant development

Mustard (Sinapis alba L.) seedlings were grown in the presence of herbicides (Difunon, Norflurazon) which inhibit carotenoid synthesis without affecting development, in darkness or in continuous far-red light. In strong white light (12,000 lx) the cotyledons of the herbicide-treated seedlings did not contain normal chloroplasts, but only small chlorophyll-free rudiments whose internal structure had almost disappeared. The plastid marker enzyme NADP-dependent glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase was almost lacking. Plastid ribosomes and ribosomal RNAs were no longer detectable nor could synthesis of mature plastidal ribosomal RNAs be detected. Cytosolic ribosomes and rRNAs were not affected. Plastid DNA was apparently still intact as shown by restriction analysis. The appearance of marker enzymes of glyoxisomes, mitochondria and cytosol was not impaired while the level of marker enzymes of peroxisomes was drastically lowered. Accumulation of anthocyanin in mustard cotyledons was normal after a short, transient delay. Levels of representative enzymes of flavonoid biogenesis (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, chalcone synthase) were somewhat increased rather than inhibited in the cotyledons of herbicide-treated, white-light-grown seedlings. The growth rate of hypocotyl and cotyledons was inhibited to the same extent in the herbicide-treated, white-light-grown seedling, although light inhibits growth of hypocotyls and promotes growth of cotyledons. Analysis of the data shows that photomorphogenesis of a herbicide-treated, white-light-grown seedling is normal, and is thus independent of plastid gene expression However, a 'factor' which coacts multiplicatively with phytochrome in determining the growth rate of the organs seems to originate from the plastids. Biogenesis of anthocyanin and synthesis of major enzymes of the flavonoid pathway are not affected adversely by a photooxidative elimination of plastid gene expression.

Phytochrome-mediated delay of plastid senescence in mustard cotyledons: changes in pigment contents and ultrastructure

Changes in pigment contents and ultrastructure have followed in cotyledons of mustard (Sinapis alba L.) seedlings during dark-mediated senescence. The seedlings were kept in white light for 7 d, treated with 5 min long wavelength far-red light and then kept in darkness up to 14 d after sowing. Under these conditions the chloroplasts remain stable for 2 d before a sequential plastidal disintegration commences. The data indicate a selective breakdown of the light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b protein. Phytochrome retards the differential loss of chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids and preserves the fine structure of chloroplasts.

Formation of protein storage bodies during embryogenesis in cotyledons of Sinapis alba L

An electron microscopic investigation of fine structural changes in post-meristematic cotyledon mesophyll cells during the period of storage protein accumulation (16-32 d after pollination) showed that the rough ER, the Golgi apparatus and the developing vacuome are intimately involved in the formation of storage protein bodies (aleurone bodies). At the onset of storage protein accumulation (16-18 d after pollination) storage protein-like material appears within Golgi vesicles and preformed vacuoles. At a later stage (24 d after pollination) similar material can also be detected within vesicles formed directly by the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It is concluded that there are two routes for storage protein transport from its site of synthesis at the ER to its site of accumulation in the vacuome. The first route involves the participation of dictyosomes while the second route bypasses the Golgi apparatus. It appears that the normal pathways of membrane flow in the development of central vacuoles in post-meristematic cells are used to deposit the storage protein within the protein bodies. Thus, the protein body can be regarded as a transient stage in the process of vacuome development of these storage cells.

Inhibition of carotenoid biosynthesis by the herbicide SAN 9789 and its consequences for the action of phytochrome on plastogenesis

Treatment of the mustard (Sinapis alba L.) seedling with the herbicide SAN 9789 inhibits synthesis of colored carotenoids and interferes with the formation of plastid membrane lipids without affecting growth and morphogenesis significantly. In farred light, which is hardly absorbed by chlorophyll, development of plastid ultrastructure, synthesis of ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase and synthesis of chlorophyll are not affected by SAN 9789. It is concluded that normal phytochrome actions on plastid structural development, protein and chlorophyll syntheses are not affected by the absence of carotenoids provided that there is no significant light absorption in chlorophyll. The findings show that the inhibition of synthesis of one set of plastid membrane components (the carotenoids) does not stop synthesis of other components such as chlorophyll and does not halt membrane assembly. Supplementary experiments with the closely related compound SAN 9785, which affects the amount and composition of plastid lipids but not carotenoid and chlorophyll syntheses, suggest that the effect of the herbicide SAN 9789 is due exclusively to its inhibition of synthesis of colored carotenoids. In the presence of SAN 9789 white or red light at high fluence rate causes photodestruction of chlorophyll and ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase and photodecomposition of thylakoids. These effects are interpreted as resulting exclusively from the self-photooxidation and photosensitizing action of chlorophyll once the protection by carotenoids of chlorophyll against self- and sensitized photooxidation is lost.

Formation of oleosomes (storage lipid bodies) during embryogenesis and their breakdown during seedling development in cotyledons of Sinapis alba L

Electron microscopic and biochemical investigations of developing embryonic mustard cotyledons provided no evidence for the widely accepted hypothesis that oleosomes of fat-storing tissues originate from the endoplasmic reticulum and are surrounded by a unit- or half-unit membrane. In contrast, it was found that the first lipid droplets appear (about 12-14 d after pollination) in the ground cytoplasm near the surface of plastids. Subsequently these nascent lipid droplets, which lack any detectable boundary structure at this stage, become encircled by a cisterna of rough endoplasmic reticulum. At the same time an osmiophilic coat of about 3 nm thickness becomes detectable at the lipid/water interface. In the cotyledon cells of germinating seedlings a centrifugally moving front of fat degradation moves from the central vacuoles(s) towards the cell periphery, leaving behind collapsed coats of oleosomes which are depleted of their lipid contents (saccules). Although saccules appear tripartite in cross section, they are structurally different from endoplasmic reticulum membranes. The oleosome coats can be isolated from oleosome preparations by extracting lipids with organic solvents. The coat material is insoluble in detergents like Triton X-100 or deoxycholate and shows a tripartite, lamellar structure (similar to collapsed saccules) under the electron microscope. Upon dissolution with dodecylsulfate, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed a polypeptide composition (9 major bands) which is qualitatively different from that of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Also the buoyant densities of defatted oleosome coats and defatted endoplasmic reticulum membranes are very different. It is concluded that oleosome lipids accumulate in the ground cytoplasm and are bounded by a lamellar structure originating de novo from proteinaceous elements synthesized by specific regions of the endoplasmic reticulum.

Phytochrome-mediated control of grana and stroma thylakoid formation in plastids of mustard cotyledons

The etioplast»chloroplast transition in the cotyledons of mustard seedlings (Sinapis alba L.) has been studied by electron microscopy. It was found that the active form of phytochrome, established by a red light pulse pretreatment, increases the initial rate and eliminates the lag of grana and stroma thylakoid formation after the onset of white light 60 h after sowing. The effect of a pretreatment with 15 s red light pulses is fully reversible by 756 nm light pulses. This reversibility is lost within 5 min. Evidence is presented which suggests that the time course of grana and stroma thylakoid formation is not correlated with the time course of the dispersal of the prolamellar body. The different functions of phytochrome and chlorophyll in controlling thylakoid formation are discussed.

Pattern formation underlying phytochrome-mediated anthocyanin synthesis in the cotyledons ofSinapis alba L

The ability to respond to phytochrome (Pfr, the far-red light absorbing from of phytochrome) with anthocyanin synthesis appears first in some marginal regions of the abaxial epidermis of the mustard cotyledons and from there spreads gradually over the entire tissue (transient phase). The pertinent pattern is independent of environmental influences such as light quality and nutritional culture conditions. The competence for Pfr in the epidermal cells, with regard to the initial action of Pfr (concerning anthocyanin synthesis), appears considerably earlier than the ability for actual anthocyanin synthesis. An electron microscopical study of the ultrastructural changes occurring in vacuoles and plastids of the epidermal cells during the transient phase showed that a correlation only exists between the differentiation of central cell vacuoles, originating from the aleurone vacuoles, and the appearance of the ability to accumulate anthocyanin. It is suggested that the formation of a central cell vacuole is a prerequisite for anthocyanin accumulation in the epidermal cells of the mustard seedling cotyledons.

Light control of plastogenesis and ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase levels in mustard seedling cotyledons

We have studied the problem whether the phytochrome-mediated accumulation of ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase ("carboxylase"; EC 4.1.1.39) in the cotyledons of sinapis alba L. is related to size, ultrastructure, or organization of the plastid compartment. We have shown that under different light conditions (e.g. continuous far-red light, continuous white light) which lead to conspicuously different plastids the time course of the enzyme levels remains precisely the same. It is concluded that the onset and the rate of carboxylase accumulation is not related to the organizational state of the plastid compartment as discernible under the electron microscope.

Phytochrome-mediated transformation of glyoxysomes into peroxisomes in the cotyledons of mustard (Sinapis alba L.) seedlings

The specific changes in the temporal pattern of glyoxysomal and peroxisomal enzymes in dark-grown and continuously far-red irradiated mustard seedlings are accompanied by specific changes in the spatial associations of microbodies with other cell organelles which can be quantitatively estimated from electron micrographs. The association (surface contact) with oleosomes (lipid bodies) and with plastids have been used as operational criteria for the glyoxysomal and peroxisomal engagement, respectively, of individual microbodies. The time course of these specific associations during the phytochrome-mediated changeover from glyoxysomal to peroxisomal character reveals the transient formation of functionally intermediary microbodies ("glyoxyperoxisomes") which are associated to oleosomes as well as to plastids. In continuous far-red light, up to 50% of the microbody profiles detectable on electron micrographs fall into this category, compared to about 10% in darkness. It is concluded that peroxisomes of cotyledons neither originate de novo as an independent population nor are formed from pre-existing glyoxysomes by repackaging of enzymes. We suggest rather that a transition from glyoxysomal to peroxisomal enzyme formation in the presence of continuous turnover of microbody particles leads to a gradual replacement of microbodies of glyoxysomal character by microbodies of intermediary character and ultimately by microbodies of peroxisomal character.

[Effect of chloramphenicol and cycloheximide on chloroplast development and morphogenesis in sporelings of dryopteris]

Morphogenesis and differentiation of the young gametophytes (=sporelings) of Dryopteris filix-mas are controlled by light. Blue light leads to the formation of "normal" two-dimensional prothallia; under red light, however, the gametophytes grow as cellular filaments. Morphogenesis in blue light is connected with an increase in protein synthesis; in red light the protein content of the sporelings is markedly lower. The size of the chloroplasts is correlated with the protein content of the sporelings.In the present paper the diverse effect of chloramphenicol (CAP) and actidione (cycloheximide, ACT) was studied in connection with the formation of chloroplasts. ACT blocks the growth of the gametophytes, while the chloroplasts remain functional. On the other hand, CAP does not influence morphogenesis of the gametophytes. In particular the activity of the dividing apical cells remains untouched. Even when the light quality is changed during the development the corresponding specific effect of the light quality on morphogenesis is normal. The chloroplasts, however, become smaller, probably by inhibition of synthesis of structural proteins. But their synthetic activity is not completely suppressed. The specific blue or red light dependent morphogenesis is not changed, when protein synthesis in the chloroplasts is inhibited.