Breast stroma plays a dominant regulatory role in breast epithelial growth and differentiation: implications for tumor development and progression

Although growth factors and extracellular matrix (ECM) are recognized as important contributors to breast epithelial growth, morphogenesis, hormone responsiveness, and neoplastic progression, the influence of functional interactions between breast stromal and epithelial cells on these processes has not been defined. Using a novel three-dimensional cell-cell interaction model, we have compared the abilities of different mesenchymal cell types, including breast fibroblasts derived from reduction mammoplasty and tumor tissues, and human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVECs) to induce three-dimensional morphogenesis and growth of normal MCF10A and preneoplastic MCF10AT1-EIII8 (referred as EIII8) human breast epithelial cells. Our data demonstrate a requirement for organspecific fibroblasts in the induction of epithelial morphogenesis. Whereas inclusion of normal reduction mammoplasty fibroblasts inhibit or retard morphological conversion and growth of MCF10A and EIII8 cells, respectively, tumor-derived breast fibroblasts evoke ductal-alveolar morphogenesis of both MCF10A and EIII8 cells. The growth and morphogenesis inhibitory effects of normal fibroblasts remain even in the presence of estrogen because they are able to suppress the estrogen-induced growth of EIII8 cells, whereas tumor fibroblasts support and maintain estrogen responsiveness of EIII8 cells. The inductive morphogenic effects of tumor fibroblasts on EIII8 cells is further augmented by the inclusion of HUVECs because these cocultures undergo a dramatic increase in proliferation and branching ductal-alveolar morphogenesis that is accompanied by an increase in invasion, degradation of coincident ECM, and expression of MMP-9. Therefore, tumor fibroblasts confer morphogenic and mitogenic induction of epithelial cells, and further enhancement of growth and progression requires active angiogenesis. These data illustrate the importance of structural and functional interactions between breast stromal and epithelial cells in the regulation of breast epithelial growth and progression.

Regulated CYP19 aromatase transcription in breast stromal fibroblasts

Extraglandular estrogen synthesis mediates the proliferation of estrogen-responsive breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Aromatase, the cytochrome P450 Cyp19 enzyme, catalyzes the rate-limiting step in estrogen biosynthesis. Activity is present in both normal and neoplastic breast tissue, and Cyp19 protein is localized by immunohistochemistry predominantly in breast stromal fibroblasts. In cultured breast stromal fibroblasts, both activity and Cyp19 messenger ribonucleic acid are increased to a substantial degree by hormonal and growth factor regulators of transcription. Transcriptional regulation of CYP19 is complex in breast tissues, in which exon switching in the usage of alternative first exons occurs from predominantly EI.4 in breast tissue from cancer-free women to predominantly EI.3 and PII in breast tumors and quadrants with or without tumor. The present study questioned whether the first exon switch occurs as a result of an inherent difference between fibroblasts in normal and tumor tissues or because of differences in local regulators between these tissues. To distinguish between these two possibilities, we examined fibroblasts cultured from breast tumor, benign breast, and reduction mammoplasty tissues for the ability of various CYP19 transcriptional regulators to modulate first exon EI.3, EI.4, and PII usage. A semiquantitative RT-PCR method was used to identify transcripts containing six of the nine known CYP19 first exons. Combinations of cAMP and Dex regulated transcription from first exons EI.3, EI.4, and PII in fibroblasts cultured from all tissues, but not in reduction mammoplasty epithelial cells. These results provide evidence that the fibroblasts from these breast tissues are not inherently different in transcriptional regulation of CYP19 first exon usage and that transcriptional regulatory molecules are likely to mediate the exon switch phenomenon.

[Aromatase gene expression and its modifying factors in breast tumor tissue]

Aromatase (CYP 19) gene expression was studied in 70 breast tumors. When RNA-dot-blot or rt-polymerase chain reaction were used expression frequency was 60.4 and 91.7%, respectively. An analysis of individual variants of non-coding exon of aromatase gene confirmed that, unlike normal mammary tissue, tumor switched from activation of exon I.4 ("sensitive" to glucocorticoids) to exons II ("sensitive" to cAMP) or I.3. This difference was relatively somewhat more pronounced in the Russian material. Direct correlation between aromatase enzymatic activity and expression of exons II and I.3 in tumor tissue appeared more significant than that of aromatase gene coding site. An evaluation of the expression of adenylate cyclase G-protein alpha-subunit genes established an inverse correlation between expression of Gi2a and exon I.3. Breast tumors with elevated basal aromatase activity were more sensitive to aromatase inhibitors (letrozole, 4-OHA) in vitro although no relationship between use of CYP19 (aromatase) 5' exon variant and in vitro inhibition of aromatase was detected. A correlation was observed between expression of aromatase gene and variants of its 5' exon, on the one hand, and age, tumor grade, steroid receptor presence and tumor lymphocytic infiltration, on the other. To summarize, local estrogen production in breast tumor tissue is regulated by a wide range of factors expression both aromatase gene influencing and its enzymatic activity, thus providing leverage on both.

Expression of transforming growth factor-beta receptor type II and tumorigenicity in human breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 cells

To analyze transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) response during MCF-7 cell progression, early passage (MCF-7E, < 200 passage) and late passage (MCF-7L, > 500 passage) cells were compared. MCF-7E cells showed an IC50 of approximately 10 ng/ml of TGF-beta1, whereas MCF-7L cells were insensitive. MCF-7E cells contained approximately threefold higher levels of TGF-beta receptor type II (TbetaRII) mRNA than MCF-7L, but their TbetaRI levels were similar. MCF-7E parental cells showed higher TbetaRII promoter activity than MCF-7L cells, which could be attributed to changes in Sp1 nuclear protein levels. Receptor cross-linking studies indicated that the cell surface receptor levels parallel mRNA levels in both cell lines. Limiting dilution clones of MCF-7E cells were established to determine the heterogeneity of TbetaRII expression in this cell line, and they showed varying degrees of TbetaRII expression. Fibronectin was induced at higher levels in cells expressing higher TbetaRII levels. All three TGF-beta isoforms were detected in limiting dilution clones and parental cells, but TGF-beta1 was more abundant relative to TGF-beta2 or 3, and no correlation between TGF-beta isoform profile with TGF-beta sensitivity was found. MCF-7L cells were tumorigenic and formed xenografts rapidly and progressively, whereas MCF-7E parental and limiting dilution clonal cells showed transient tumor formation followed by regression. These results indicate that decreased TbetaRII transcription in breast cancer cells leads to a loss of TbetaRII expression, resulting in cellular resistance to TGF-beta which contributes to escape from negative growth regulation and tumor progression.

Estrogen production via the aromatase enzyme in breast carcinoma: which cell type is responsible?

Studies of breast tumor homogenates from women with breast cancer have demonstrated the synthesis of estrogens in situ through the enzyme aromatase. The present series of investigations sought to determine which cell type within the tumor is responsible for local estrogen biosynthesis, and whether or not the amount produced is biologically important. Accordingly, we utilized an indirect immunohistochemical scoring method (H-score) to determine the relative amount of enzyme present in tumor epithelial and stromal cells. This revealed a value of 13 for tumor stromal cells and 4.8 for the epithelial component. Contributing to this difference is the fact that a greater percentage of cells in the tumor were stromal (45%) than epithelial (37%). To obtain direct evidence that tumor stromal cells could synthesize estrogens, we isolated and grew these cells in tissue culture. Stromal cells originating from within the tumor could be stimulated by known enhancers of transcription to produce nearly as much aromatase as is found in placental microsomes. Stromal cells isolated from benign tissue distal to the tumor exhibited properties similar to those of the tumor stroma. Epithelial cells, in contrast, did not respond to these enhancers and had low levels of aromatase basally. To obtain proof of the principle that local estrogen synthesis can be biologically meaningful, we measured tumor tissue estradiol levels and growth rates in aromatase-transfected MCF-7 cells implanted into nude mice. Local synthesis resulted in tumor levels ranging from 300 to 800 pg/g and growth rates substantially higher than in non-aromatase-containing tumors. These data suggest that tumor stromal cells contribute the major portion of estrogen synthesized in tumors, and that this local synthesis can increase tumor estradiol levels and growth rates.

Aromatase activity and expression in breast cancer and benign breast tissue stromal cells

In situ estrogen synthesis by hormone-dependent breast cancers could potentially regulate cellular proliferation through autocrine or paracrine mechanisms. Several biochemical studies have demonstrated activity of the enzyme aromatase, the rate-limiting step for estrogen synthesis, in breast tumor homogenates. Prior immunohistochemical studies in breast neoplasms demonstrated aromatase antibody binding to both stroma and parenchyma, but biochemically measured enzyme activity significantly correlated only with the level of staining in the stromal component. The present study sought to provide more direct evidence of the predominant role for stromal cell aromatase in breast tumor tissue. Accordingly, breast tumor stromal and epithelial cells were examined for aromatase enzyme activity and messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression. Stromal and epithelial cells from benign tissue served as a means of comparing activity and regulation in benign and tumor tissue. Enzyme activity in stromal cells from breast tumor tissue was low basally, but increased by 30- to 1200-fold when induced by dexamethasone. Combining dexamethasone with phorbol esters and cAMP produced an additional 1.2- to 4.1-fold stimulation. Analyses of exons III/V and exons IX/X demonstrated that aromatase mRNA expression was also substantially increased by these treatments. Increases in enzyme activity and mRNA expression in cells from benign breast stroma paralleled those observed in tumor stroma, although the increases in enzyme activity were generally lower. In contrast to the responses observed in stromal cells, epithelial cells from breast tumor or nonmalignant breast tissue were unresponsive to dexamethasone, either added alone or in combination with phorbol esters and cAMP. This study provides direct biochemical evidence that aromatase is present in stroma within breast tumors, as in surrounding tissues, and suggests that estrogen synthesis within the tumor may modulate tumor growth via a paracrine mechanism.

Activated c-Ha-ras is not sufficient to produce the preneoplastic phenotype of human breast cell line MCF10AT

MCF10AT cells are human breast epithelial cells which are able to establish preneoplastic lesions in immune deficient mice. Although, the preneoplastic phenotype was observed following transfection with a mutated c-Ha-ras (codon 12 valine), clones of MCF10AT are unable to form lesions in vivo. Restriction size fragment analysis was used to confirm that a clone unable to form the preneoplastic lesions retained the activated c-HA-ras and confirmed that the insertion site of the activated c-Ha-ras was the same for the clone as for MCF10AT1 which was selected for its ability to form lesions in vivo. Western blotting with antibody specific for the codon 12 valine c-Ha-ras demonstrated that p21 protein was comparable as well. Thus, the activated c-Ha-ras is not sufficient for the preneoplastic phenotype of human breast stem cell line MCF10AT.

INT2 and ERBB2 amplification and ERBB2 expression in breast tumors from patients with different outcomes

The relationships of INT2 and ERBB2 amplification and of ERBB2 overexpression in primary breast tumors to prognostic factors, recurrence, and survival have generated considerable controversy. The rationale for this study is that long-term, recurrence-free survival is a more direct criterion for testing the validity of a tumor marker than correlation either with prognostic factors or with short-term recurrence and survival. We examined the association of recurrence with INT2 and ERBB2 amplification and ERBB2 expression by comparing primary breast tumors from patients surviving without recurrence for > or = 8.5 years after diagnosis, the LTS group, to tumors from patients recurring within two years, the RR group. The RR (N = 63) and LTS (N = 61) samples were coded and examined for amplification by Southern blotting and for expression by immunohistochemistry. Comparison between the RR and LTS groups demonstrated that INT2 amplification was associated with a significantly (P = 0.018) higher (5.6-fold) risk of recurrence, an association that remained significant after controlling for lymph node (LN), tumor size (TS), and histograde (HG) status. ERBB2 amplification and expression were not associated with a higher recurrence risk. Survival analyses within the RR group, however, demonstrated significantly shorter survival time among cases with than without ERBB2 amplification (P = 0.018, median survival 16 vs 25 months), or ERBB2 expression (P = 0.019, median survival 15 vs 25 months), but not INT2 amplification. Univariate Cox proportional hazards regression models also demonstrated significantly shorter survival among cases with ERBB2 amplification (P = 0.016) or expression (P = 0.049), that remained significant in multivariate analyses (P = 0.022) for ERBB2 amplification. These results indicate a significant positive association between INT2 amplification and risk for tumor recurrence in the RR as compared to the LTS group. The relationship of ERBB2 amplification or overexpression to patient outcome is more complex. ERBB2 amplification and expression have a significant relationship with shorter survival among patients recurrent within two years, but their occurrence in tumors from women surviving without recurrence for > or = 8.5 years suggests that ERBB2 status is not predictive of shorter survival for all breast cancers.

Xenograft model of progressive human proliferative breast disease

BACKGROUND

Progression of proliferative breast disease has been associated with increased risk for development of invasive carcinoma. Cell lines have been developed to facilitate the study of this process. Human cell line MCF10A originated from spontaneous immortalization of breast epithelial cells obtained from a patient with fibrocystic disease, and cell lines MCF10AneoN and MCF10AneoT were created by stable transfection of these cells with the neomycin-resistance gene and either the HRAS gene or the mutated T-24 HRAS gene, respectively.

PURPOSE

Our goal was to develop an experimental model of progressive human proliferative breast disease.

METHODS

MCF10A, MCF10AneoN, and MCF10AneoT cells were injected subcutaneously into the dorsal flank of male nude/beige (C57/BALB/c nu/nu bg/bg) mice (12 mice for each cell type). These mice were examined periodically for formation and persistence or growth of palpable nodules. One mouse per group was killed 1 week after cell injection; thereafter, mice were observed as long as possible. Cells were recovered from palpable lesions by enzymatic dissociation of the excised lesions. Cells re-established in tissue culture from a week-14 tumor (MCF10AneoT.TG1) were injected into 12 male nude/beige mice. Southern blot hybridization analysis of the HRAS gene locus and cytogenetic analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Transplanted MCF10A and MCF10AneoN cells formed transient, small palpable nodules that regressed and disappeared during the 4th and 5th weeks. In 10 of the 12 mice, T-24 HRAS gene-transfected MCF10A cells (MCF10AneoT) formed small, flat nodules that persisted for at least 1 year. Three of these xenografts became carcinomas. One (removed 7 weeks after transplantation) was an undifferentiated carcinoma composed of polygonal cells with large, vesicular nuclei and numerous mitoses. The second (removed after 14 weeks) was an invasive squamous cell carcinoma. The third (removed after 56 weeks) was a moderately differentiated adenocarcinoma. Initially, xenografts of MCF10AneoT.TG1 cells showed intraductal proliferative changes; after 23 weeks, the lesions showed histologic features resembling those seen in atypical hyperplasia of the human breast, and later lesions showed characteristics of carcinoma in situ. The MCF10 lineage of cells of three MCF10AneoT.TG1 xenografts was confirmed by DNA fingerprinting and karyotype analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

MCF10AneoT and MCF10AneoT.TG1 comprise a transplantable xenograft model that produces a broad spectrum of human proliferative breast disease.

IMPLICATIONS

The reproducible establishment of representative stages in early breast cancer progression from the MCF10 model offers a new opportunity to analyze critical events of carcinogenesis and progression in breast cancer.

A new infectious mammary tumor virus in the milk of mice implanted with C4 hyperplastic alveolar nodules

We have previously characterized an infectious mouse mammary tumor virus [(MMTV(SW)] which induces a strong superantigen response in vivo. Here we describe the isolation and characterization of MMTV(C4) which was derived from milk of mice implanted with hyperplastic alveolar nodules. MMTV(C4) stimulates V beta 2 expressing T cells after local injection in vivo. Comparison with known open reading frame (orf) sequences revealed high homology to Mtv-6, an endogenous virus interacting with V beta 3-expressing T cells. The carboxyl-terminal amino acids were, however, altered. High homology including the carboxyl-terminal orf amino acids were found with MMTV(C3H-K). We show here that MMTV(C3H-K) has lost its superantigen function. Sequence comparisons permitted the characterization of few key amino acids which could be important for T cell receptor interaction and superantigen processing.

Genetic markers as prognostic indicators in breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Identifying markers that have the potential to predict tumor behavior is important in breast cancer because of the variability in clinical disease progression. Genetic alterations in tumors may appear as changes in total DNA content, individual chromosomes, single genes, or gene expression. Alteration in DNA content is an imprecise but accessible measurement of the genome. Diploid tumors have been associated with a better clinical outcome, and increased ploidy correlates with other indicators of poor prognosis. Concurrent analysis of DNA content with markers of genetic expression is feasible (e.g., myc oncogene) and may increase its prognostic power. Chromosomal studies could provide a more precise tool for localizing genetic damage, but there is little cytogenetic information about primary breast cancers, no convincing evidence has emerged to target locations in the karyotype that appear specifically altered, and many primary and cultured breast cancers contain cells that appear chromosomally normal. Attempts to define molecular markers have used probes of different chromosomal sites, some chosen because of logical associations with hormonal activity, known oncogenes, or tumor-suppressor genes, and some by chance. Currently, to the authors' knowledge, none has shown uniform changes by mutation, loss, or overexpression in all breast cancers, although a remarkable number of loci are altered to some extent. These lesions must be associated with particular disease subsets or, retrospectively, with differential survival if they are to have prognostic value.

METHODS

The authors examined several loci (ERBB2, INT2, MUC1) for gene amplification or loss of heterozygosity by Southern blotting and for gene expression by immunohistochemistry in breast tumors from patient groups selected by survival.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

A retrospective series showed gene amplification at the erbB2 locus in 22% of rapidly recurrent (RR) tumors and 13% of tumors from long-term tumor-free survivors (LTS), but the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.18). The erbB2 product was displayed histochemically with equal frequency between those with RR tumors and LTS patients. Moreover, the correlation was poor between different analytic measures on the same tumors. This result was tested using a prospective study of erbB2 to correlate DNA analysis with western blot findings and frozen and fixed histochemical results. Another oncogene, int2, showed significant correlation between amplification and recurrence; 16% of RR tumors showing genetic amplification (P = 0.02). Loci on other chromosomes, 1 (muc1) and 17 (cmm86), also are being investigated in groups selected for differences in survival.

Characterization of epithelial phenotypes in mortal and immortal human breast cells

We have previously described the mortal human breast epithelial culture MCF-10M, that was derived from fibrocystic breast tissue, was cultivated in medium with low calcium content for over 2 years, and spontaneously gave rise to the immortal MCF-10 cell line. The emergence of immortalized cells, characterized by growth in conventional calcium levels, from mortal cells has proven to be a reproducible event. Here we report the establishment of a second immortal line from MCF-10M, designated MCF-10-2, and establishment of the MCF-12 immortal line after long-term cultivation of MCF-12M mortal cells from reduction mammoplasty tissue. DNA fingerprinting demonstrated the independent, human origin and lineage of the MCF-10-2 and MCF-12 cell lines. Both lines require cortisol and EGF for maximal growth. The expression in these cultures of in vivo breast epithelial phenotypes was analyzed using 2-dimensional gel Western blots and immunoperoxidase staining with antibodies to cytokeratins and polymorphic epithelial mucin. MCF-10M and MCF-12M retain the cytokeratin profile of the luminal cell (7, 8, 18, 19), and also express cytokeratin 14, found predominantly in basal cells. The immortal lines express a similar profile, except that cytokeratin 19, a component of the fully differentiated luminal cell, is not expressed in the more uniform population seen in MCF-10 and MCF-12, but is retained in the morphologically mixed, less-selected population of MCF-10-2. Epitopes on the polymorphic epithelial mucin, recognized by antibodies HMFG 1, HMFG 2 and SM-3, were detected in the mortal cultures and in the immortal lines, indicating the occurrence of both normal and abnormal mucin processing. MCF-10, MCF-10-2 and MCF-12 cells do not form tumors in nude mice, but appear to organize as duct-like structures before regressing in the 5th week post injection.

Expression of endogenous Mtv provirus transcripts in BALB/c splenic lymphocytes

The presence of antigen(s) related to the exogenous milk-transmitted murine mammary tumor virus on the surface of BALB/c splenic lymphocytes has been documented previously. Since the BALB/c strain lacks murine mammary tumor virus, the presence of murine mammary tumor virus-related antigen(s) on lymphocytes has been ascribed to expression of germinally transmitted Mtv transcripts and proviruses were characterized to evaluate this hypothesis. Transcripts from genomic size Mtv provirus(es) accumulated in the spleen in an age-dependent manner. Two novel Mtv transcripts of 7.8 and 6.4 kb were observed in the spleen. These observations indicate that the transcriptional and translational expression of an endogenous Mtv occurs in normal cells of the lymphoreticular lineage.

Isolation and characterization of a spontaneously immortalized human breast epithelial cell line, MCF-10

Two sublines of a breast epithelial cell culture, MCF-10, derived from human fibrocystic mammary tissue exhibit immortality after extended cultivation in low calcium concentrations (0.03-0.06 mM) and floating transfers in low calcium (MCF-10F), or by trypsin-Versene passages in the customary (normal) calcium levels, 1.05 mM (MCF-10A). Both sublines have been maintained as separate entities after 2.3 years (849 days) in vitro and at present have been in culture for longer than 4 years. MCF-10 has the characteristics of normal breast epithelium by the following criteria: (a) lack of tumorigenicity in nude mice; (b) three-dimensional growth in collagen; (c) growth in culture that is controlled by hormones and growth factors; (d) lack of anchorage-independent growth; and (e) dome formation in confluent cultures. Cytogenetic analysis prior to immortalization showed normal diploid cells; although later passages showed minimal rearrangement and near-diploidy, the immortal cells were not karyotypically normal. The emergence of an immortal culture in normal calcium media was not an inherent characteristic of the original tissue from which MCF-10 was derived since reactivated cryo-preserved cells from cultures grown for 0.3 and 1.2 years in low calcium were incapable of sustained growth in normal calcium.

Molecular cloning and sequencing of the MTV-1 LTR: evidence for a LTR sequence alteration

The vertically transmitted Mtv-1 provirus is the primary causative factor of mammary neoplasia in certain C3Hf strains that lack the horizontally transmitted mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV). The studies here report the molecular cloning of the germ line 4.5 kb Mtv-1 3' EcoRI fragment and sequencing of the 3' Mtv-1 LTR. The Mtv-1 LTR sequence is closely related to the 5' Mtv-11 LTR sequence also reported here, as well as to known Mtv-8 and MMTV LTR sequences in the portion of MMTV and Mtv-8 LTRs previously demonstrated to contain transcriptional regulatory sequences. A 91 bp unique sequence region, Mtv-1 bp 862 to 952, exists in the Mtv-1 LTR, which is upstream of the sequence homology with the MMTV transcriptional regulatory domain. The Mtv-1 unique sequence region is distinct from a 117 bp sequence, bp 862 to 978, in the Mtv-11 LTR sequence as well as reported Mtv-8 and MMTV LTR sequences, and is present in the germ line Mtv-1 5' and 3' LTR-containing restriction fragments. S1 nuclease mapping experiments of C3Hf/Se mammary tumor poly(A) RNA with the cloned Mtv-1 and Mtv-11 LTRs exhibited a specific set of S1 protected fragments demonstrating that Mtv transcripts which accumulate in C3Hf spontaneous mammary tumors are encoded by the Mtv-1 provirus.

Mammary tumorigenesis in C3Hf/Ki mice: examination of germinal mouse mammary tumor viruses and the int-1 and int-2 putative proto-oncogenes

The organization and expression of endogenous mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) proviruses in normal and neoplastic C3Hf/Ki tissues were examined. MMTV-containing EcoRI, HindIII, BamHI and PstI restriction fragments of C3Hf/Ki DNA were identical to those of C3H/StWi DNA. The full-length endogenous MMTV Units Ia (Mtv-7), II (Mtv-8), III (Mtv-9) and IV (Mtv-10), in addition to the subgenomic endogenous MMTV Units I (Mtv-6) and IX (Mtv-14), were germinally transmitted in C3Hf/Ki DNA. The previously uncharacterized Mtv-7 was contained in EcoRI fragments of 16.7 and 11.7 kbp. The endogenous MMTV Unit V (Mtv-1), which is responsible for virus production and mammary tumorigenesis in C3Hf/He mice, was absent from C3Hf/Ki DNA. The 9.0 kb gag-pol, the 3.8 kb env and the 1.7 kb LTR MMTV RNA transcripts were present in C3Hf/Ki mammary glands. MMTV proviruses, in addition to the endogenous C3Hf/Ki MMTV complement, were not detected in C3Hf/Ki mammary tumor DNA. The DNA organization and RNA expression of the putative mammary proto-oncogene regions int-1 and int-2 were also examined in C3Hf/Ki mammary tumors. The int-1 and int-2 regions did not appear rearranged, amplified, or expressed in C3Hf/Ki mammary tumors. These studies indicate that MMTV proviral activation of the int proto-oncogenes is not necessary for C3Hf/Ki mammary tumorigenesis.

Interaction of the heterozygous nude gene with the asplenia trait in mammary tumorigenesis

The BALB/c mouse strain has been shown to contain endogenous mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) proviral sequences. However, no exogenous MMTV particles have been detected in their tissues. Female BALB/c mice from our colonies exhibit a very low incidence of spontaneous mammary tumors (SMT); less than 1% at up to 20 mo of age. Immunodeficient BALB/c mice heterozygous for the nude gene (nu/+, +/+), for the dominant hemimelia gene associated with asplenia (+/+, Dh/+), or for both traits (nu/+, Dh/+) have been examined for SMT incidence and the presence of MMTV proviruses. Based on restriction digestion with Eco RI, Bam HI, and Pst I, the immunodeficient mice have an MMTV provirus copy number and organization identical to the BALB/cCrgl strain. This MMTV DNA pattern is distinct from the MMTV proviruses in C3H/He, C57BL/6J and CBA/CaJ mice, which were parental strains of the immunodeficient mutants. Normal female BALB/c or BALB/c heterozygous for the asplenic trait do not develop significant numbers of SMT at up to 19 mo of age. In contrast, an incidence of 23.8% and 57.7% SMT was observed in BALB/c nu/+ heterozygotes, and in BALB/c nu/+, Dh/+ heterozygotes, respectively. These results indicate that agenesis of the spleen, concomitant with the presence of the heterozygous nude gene, contribute to a high incidence of SMT in the low-SMT BALB/c mouse strain.

Organization and expression of mouse mammary tumor virus sequences in normal and neoplastic C3Hf/HeSed mouse tissues

The organization and expression of germinally transmitted mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) proviruses in C3Hf/HeSed mouse tissues were examined. Digestion with the restriction enzymes EcoRI, BamHI, and HindIII and hybridization with cloned probes specific for the long terminal repeat and the 5' and 3' regions of the MMTV genome revealed three full-length (units Ib, II, and V) and two subgenomic (units I and IX) MMTV proviruses in C3Hf/HeSed mouse germ line DNA. The EcoRI fragments (15.0 and 5.7 kilobase pairs [kbp]) that contained unit Ib were previously described as separate, subgenomic MMTV proviruses. The methylated state of each full-length MMTV provirus was examined in DNA from C3Hf/HeSed mouse livers, spleens, mammary glands, and mammary tumors by digestion with EcoRI or BamHI in combination with the methyl-sensitive restriction enzymes HhaI or HpaII. Unit Ib contained HhaI- and HpaII-sensitive sites in spleen, mammary gland, and mammary tumor DNA but was completely methylated in liver DNA. Units II and V contained HhaI- and HpaII-sensitive sites in mammary gland and mammary tumor DNA, but the sites were extensively methylated in spleen and liver DNA. The HhaI-sensitive sites were mapped to the 5' end of the 5' and 3' long terminal repeats of each full-length MMTV provirus. C3Hf/HeSed mouse tissue RNA was examined for MMTV transcripts. Mammary glands contained MMTV RNA species of 9.0, 3.8, and 1.7 kb. Mammary tumors contained high levels of the 9.0- and 3.8-kb transcripts but lacked the 1.7-kb species. A very low level of the 3.8-kb MMTV transcript was present in spleens. Livers lacked detectable MMTV RNA. These results implicate mammary tissue as the site of unit V activation in the formation of MMTV virions.

Expression and demethylation of germinally-transmitted BALB/c mouse mammary tumor virus DNA in Abelson MuLV B-lymphoid cell lines

Murine mammary tumor virus (MMTV) RNA expression, DNA organization and DNA demethylation were examined in BALB/c B-lymphoid cell lines produced by transformation with the Abelson murine leukemia virus (AbMuLV). The MMTV DNA sequences in AbMuLV B cell lines, based on restriction mapping with EcoRI, PstI, BglII, BamHI and SacI and molecular hybridization with cloned probes of the MMTV LTR, gag-pol or env gene regions, were identical to the germinally-transmitted MMTV DNA complement of BALB/c mice. Several AbMuLV B cell lines expressed MMTV poly(A+)-RNA at detectable levels. MMTV poly(A+)-RNA for the env gene, 3.8 kb, and the long terminally redundant (LTR) region, 1.7 kb, were detected in some AbMuLV B cell lines. MMTV DNA sequences in the AbMuLV B cell lines were at least partially sensitive to digestion by the methylation-sensitive restriction endonucleases HhaI and HpaII. HhaI-sensitive sites were present in Units I, II and III of the germinally-transmitted MMTV DNA and were localized specifically near the 5' end of the 5' and 3' LTRs of both Units II and III. HpaII-sensitive sites were localized near the 3' end of the 3' LTRs of Units II and III, and at a cellular site 2.1 kbp 5' to the 5' LTR. These observations demonstrate that the germ line MMTV DNA sequences of BALB/c mice are expressed in cells of B lymphocyte origin, and suggest a correlation between MMTV RNA expression and selective demethylation in the LTR regions of germinally-transmitted MMTV DNA sequences.

Hormonal regulation of murine mammary tumor virus RNA expression during mammary tumorigenesis in BALB/c mice

The effects of glucocorticoids and prolactin on murine mammary tumor virus (MuMTV) RNA expression in preneoplastic outgrowth lines and mammary tumors in BALB/c mice were investigated. Hyperplastic alveolar nodules (HAN) and a ductal hyperplasia (DH) are induced in virgin BALB/c mice by prolonged hormonal stimulation or treatment with 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene or both. Mice bearing HAN or DH outgrowth lines and mammary tumors that arose from the outgrowth lines were treated with glucocorticoids or prolactin. MuMTV RNA was quantitated by hybridization with a representative complementary DNA probe specific for MuMTV RNA. Prolactin treatment did not increase MuMTV RNA in the BALB/c HAN or DH outgrowth lines or tumors. MuMTV RNA increased after glucocorticoid treatment in the C3, C4, and C5 HAN outgrowth lines and in tumors that arose from the D1, D2, C4, and C5 HAN and CD8 DH outgrowth lines. No increase in MuMTV RNA with glucocorticoid treatment was observed in the D1 or D2 HAN outgrowth line, in the CD8 DH outgrowth lines, and in tumors that arose from the C3 HAN outgrowth line. The ability of glucocorticoids to stimulate MuMTV expression was specific since the response was dose dependent and specific for glucocorticoid hormones. Glucocorticoid treatment did not increase the level of type C viral RNA in the majority of hormone- or 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced HAN outgrowth lines or tumors. These observations suggested that glucocorticoids may influence MuMTV expression during mammary tumorigenesis in BALB/c mice.

Murine mammary tumor virus expression during mammary tumorigenesis in BALB/c mice

Steady-state levels of murine mammary tumor virus (MuMTV) RNA were quantitated during mammary tumorigenesis in BALB/c mice by molecular hybridization with a representative MuMTV complementary DNA (cDNA) probe. Hyperplastic alveolar nodule (HAN) lines are preneoplastic mammary lesions that were induced in BALB/c mice by hormones alone or in combination with 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene and give rise to mammary tumors. The hormone-induced HAN lines D1 and D2 contained detectable amounts of hybridizable MuMTV sequences. MuMTV RNA sequences were also observed in five of the six transplanted BALB/c mammary tumors that were examined. Similar levels of hybridizable MuMTV RNA were observed between the D1 or D2 HAN line and mammary tumors derived from each HAN line. The D2 HAN line as well as D2, C4, and CD8 mammary tumors accumulated RNA that was apparently homologous to most of the MuMTV genome. Thermal denaturation of hybrids indicated extensive sequence homology between the MuMTV cDNA and hybridizable RNA in the BALB/c HAN lines and mammary tumors. A low level of type C viral RNA was observed in the BALB/c HAN lines and most mammary tumors by molecular hybridization with a cDNA to Moloney murine leukemia virus. These data demonstrate that MuMTV sequences are frequently expressed in hormone-induced BALB/c HAN lines and mammary tumors derived from HAN lines or ductal hyperplasias induced in BALB/c mice by hormones and/or a chemical carcinogen. The transition from the preneoplastic to the neoplastic state in BALB/c mice does not appear to be due to a change in the steady-state levels of MuMTV RNA since the hormone-induced HAN lines and mammary tumors had similar levels of hybridizable MuMTV RNA.

Difference between mammary epithelial cells from mature virgin and primiparous mice

Mammary epithelial cells from mature virgin mice are similar to those from primiparous mice in several respects. However, there is one known difference. The cells from the mature virgin must traverse the cell cycle in order to become competent to make casein and enzymatically active alpha-lactalbumin in vitro; those from the primiparous animal can make these proteins without first traversing the cycle. In this regard, cells from human placental lactogen- and prolactin-treated mature virgins are, after involution, similar to those from primiparous mice. The developemental block in the cells from the mature virgin, imposed by preventing cell cycle traversal, has been partially delineated. It does not appear to reside at the levels of ultrastructural maturation or the formation of casein messenger RNA. Rather, the lesion is postranscriptional and may be at the level of translation, or posttranslational modification, or both.

Effect of tryptophan analogs on derepression of the Escherichia coli tryptophan operon by indole-3-propionic acid

The abilities of 14 tryptophan analogs to repress the tryptophan (trp) operon have been studied in Escherichia coli cells derepressed by incubation with 0.25 mM indole-3-propionic acid (IPA). trp operon expression was monitored by measuring the specific activities of anthranilate synthase (EC 4.1.3.27) and the tryptophan synthase (EC 4.2.1.20) beta subunit. Analogs characterized by modification or removal of the alpha-amino group or the alpha-carboxyl group did not repress the trp operon. The only analogs among this group that appeared to interact with the trp aporepressor were IPA, which derepressed the trp operon, and d-tryptophan. Analogs with modifications of the indole ring repressed the trp operon to various degrees. 7-Methyl-tryptophan inhibited anthranilate synthase activity and consequently derepressed the trp operon. Additionally, 7-methyltryptophan prevented IPA-mediated derepression but, unlike tryptophan, did so in a non-coordinate manner, with the later enzymes of the operon being relatively more repressed than the early enzymes. The effect of 7-methyltryptophan on IPA-mediated derepression was likely not due to the interaction of IPA with the allosteric site of anthranilate synthase, even though feedback-resistant mutants of anthranilate synthase were partially resistant to derepression by IPA. The effect of 7-methyltryptophan on derepression by IPA was probably due to the effect of the analog-aporepressor complex on trp operon expression.