Microplastics in Marine Ecosystems: A Comprehensive Review of Biological and Ecological Implications and its mitigation approach using nanotechnology for the sustainable environment

Microplastic contamination has rapidly become a serious environmental issue, threatening marine ecosystems and human health. This review aims to not only understand the distribution, impacts, and transfer mechanisms of microplastic contamination but also to explore potential solutions for mitigating its widespread impact. This review encompasses the categorisation, origins, and worldwide prevalence of microplastics and methodically navigates the complicated structure of microplastics. Understanding the sources of minute plastic particles infiltrating water bodies worldwide is critical for successful removal. The presence and accumulation of microplastics has far reaching negative impacts on various marine creatures, eventually extending its implications to human health. Microplastics are known to affect the metabolic activities and the survival of microbial communities, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fauna present in marine environments. Moreover, these microplastics cause developmental abnormalities, endocrine disruption, and several metabolic disorders in humans. These microplastics accumulates in aquatic environments through trophic transfer mechanisms and biomagnification, thereby disrupting the delicate balance of these ecosystems. The review also addresses the tactics for minimising the widespread impact of microplastics by suggesting practical alternatives. These include increasing public awareness, fostering international cooperation, developing novel cleanup solutions, and encouraging the use of environment-friendly materials. In conclusion, this review examines the sources and prevalence of microplastic contamination in marine environment, its impacts on living organisms and ecosystems. It also proposes various sustainable strategies to mitigate the problem of microplastics pollution. Also, the current challenges associated with the mitigation of these pollutants have been discussed and addressing these challenges require immediate and collective action for restoring the balance in marine ecosystems.

Environmental fate of aquatic pollutants and their mitigation by phycoremediation for the clean and sustainable environment: A review

Emerging pollutants such as natural and manufactured chemicals, insecticides, pesticides, surfactants, and other biological agents such as personal care products, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and many industrial discharges hamper the aquatic environment. Nanomaterials and microplastics, among the categories of pollutants, can directly interfere with the marine ecosystem and translate into deleterious effects for humans and animals. They are either uncontrolled or poorly governed. Due to their known or suspected effects on human and environmental health, some chemicals are currently causing concern. The aquatic ecology is at risk from these toxins, which have spread worldwide. This review assesses the prevalence of emerging and hazardous pollutants that have effects on aquatic ecosystems and contaminated water bodies and their toxicity to non-target organisms. Microalgae are found to be a suitable source to remediate the above-mentioned risks. Microalgae based mitigation techniques are currently emerging approaches for all such contaminants, including the other categories that are discussed above. These studies describe the mechanism of phycoremediation, provide outrage factors that may significantly affect the efficiency of contaminants removal, and discuss the future directions and challenges of microalgal mediated remediations.

Photobiological effects of converting biomass into hydrogen - Challenges and prospects

In comparison to other methods of producing hydrogen, the production of biohydrogen is significantly less harmful to the surrounding ecosystem when it was produced from the biological origin such as microalgae. It could take the place of conventional fossil fuels while avoiding the emission of greenhouse gases. The substrates such as food, agricultural waste, and industrial waste can be readily utilized after the necessary pretreatment, led to an increase in the yield of hydrogen. Improving the production of biofuels at each stage can have a significant impact on the final results, making this method a potentially useful instrument. As a consequence of this, numerous approaches to pretreat the algal biomass, numerous types of enzymes and catalyst that play a crucial role for hydrogen production, the variables that influence the production of hydrogen, and the potential applications of genetic engineering have all been comprehensively covered in this study.

Nanoemulsion as an Effective Inhibitor of Biofilm-forming Bacterial Associated Drug Resistance: An Insight into COVID Based Nosocomial Infections

Antibiotic overuse has resulted in the microevolution of drug-tolerant bacteria. Understandably it has become one of the most significant obstacles of the current century for scientists and researchers to overcome. Bacteria have a tendency to form biofilm as a survival mechanism. Biofilm producing microorganism become far more resistant to antimicrobial agents and their tolerance to drugs also increases. Prevention of biofilm development and curbing the virulency factors of these multi drug resistant or tolerant bacterial pathogens is a newly recognised tactic for overcoming the challenges associated with such bacterial infections and has become a niche to be addressed. In order to inhibit virulence and biofilm from planktonic bacteria such as, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and others, stable nanoemulsions (NEs) of essential oils (EOs) and their bioactive compounds prove to be an interesting solution. These NEs demonstrated significantly greater anti-biofilm and anti-virulence activity than commercial antibiotics. The EO reduces disease-causing gene expression, which is required for pathogenicity, biofilm formation and attachment to the surfaces. Essential NE and NE-loaded hydrogel surface coatings demonstrates superior antibiofilm activity which can be employed in healthcare-related equipments like glass, plastic, and metal chairs, hospital beds, ventilators, catheters, and tools used in intensive care units. Thus, anti-virulence and anti-biofilm forming strategies based on NEs-loaded hydrogel may be used as coatings to combat biofilm-mediated infection on solid surfaces.

Efficiency of various biofilm carriers and microbial interactions with substrate in moving bed-biofilm reactor for environmental wastewater treatment

In a moving bed-biofilm reactor (MBBR), the fluidization efficiency, immobilization of microbial cells, and treatment efficiency are directly influenced by the shape and pores of biofilm carriers. Moreover, the efficacy of bioremediation mainly depends on their interaction interface with microbes and substrate. This review aims to comprehend the role of different carrier properties such as material shapes, pores, and surface area on bioremediation productivity. A porous biofilm carrier with surface ridges containing spherical pores sizes > 1 mm can be ideal for maximum efficacy. It provides diverse environments for cell cultures, develops uneven biofilms, and retains various cell sizes and biomass. Moreover, the thickness of biofilm and controlled scaling shows a significant impact on MBBR performance. Therefore, the effect of these parameters in MBBR is discussed detailed in this review, through which existing literature and technical strategies that focus on the surface area as the primary factor can be critically assessed.

Role of nanomaterials in deactivating multiple drug resistance efflux pumps - A review

The changes in lifestyle and living conditions have affected not only humans but also microorganisms. As man invents new drugs and therapies, pathogens alter themselves to survive and thrive. Multiple drug resistance (MDR) is the talk of the town for decades now. Many generations of medications have been termed useless as MDR rises among the infectious population. The surge in nanotechnology has brought a new hope in reducing this aspect of resistance in pathogens. It has been observed in several laboratory-based studies that the use of nanoparticles had a synergistic effect on the antibiotic being administered to the pathogen; several resistant strains scummed to the stress created by the nanoparticles and became susceptible to the drug. The major cause of resistance to date is the efflux system, which makes the latest generation of antibiotics ineffective without reaching the target site. If species-specific nanomaterials are used to control the activity of efflux pumps, it could revolutionize the field of medicine and make the previous generation resistant medications active once again. Therefore, the current study was devised to assess and review nanoparticles' role on efflux systems and discuss how specialized particles can be designed towards an infectious host's particular drug ejection systems.

Strategies for successful designing of immunocontraceptive vaccines and recent updates in vaccine development against sexually transmitted infections - A Review

Background

Objective

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Nanotechnology-assisted production of value-added biopotent energy-yielding products from lignocellulosic biomass refinery - A review

The need to develop sustainable alternatives for pretreatment and hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) is a massive concern in the industrial sector today. Breaking down of LCB yields sugars and fuel in the bulk scale. If explored under nanotechnology, LCB can be refined to yield high-performance fuel sources. The toxicity and cost of conventional methods can be reduced by applying nanoparticles (NPs) in refining LCB. Immobilization of enzymes onto NPs or used in conjugation with nanomaterials would instill specific and eco-friendly options for hydrolyzing LCB. Nanomaterials increase the proficiency, reusability, and stability of enzymes. Notably, magnetic NPs have bagged their place in the downstream processing of LCB effluents due to their efficient separation and cost-effectiveness. The current review highlights the role of nanotechnology and its particles in refining LCB into various commercial precursors and value-added products. The relationship between nanotechnology and LCB refinery is portrayed effectively in the present study.

Identification and Structure Prediction of Human Septin-4 as a Biomarker for Diagnosis of Asthenozoospermic Infertile Patients-Critical Finding Toward Personalized Medicine

Semen parameters are been found as a key factor to evaluate the count and morphology in the given semen sample. The deep knowledge of male infertility will unravel with semen parameters correlated with molecular and biochemical parameters. The current research study is to identify the motility associated protein and its structure through the in-silico approach. Semen samples were collected and initial analysis including semen parameters was analyzed by using the World Health Organization protocol. Semen biochemical parameters, namely, seminal plasma protein concentration, fructose content, and glucosidase content were calculated and evaluated for correlation. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) were carried out for identification of Septin-4 presence in the semen sample. Mascot search was done for protein conformation and in-silico characterization of Septin-4 by structural modeling in Iterative Threading Assembly Refinement (I-TASSER). Twenty-five nanoseconds molecular dynamics (MD) simulations results showed the stable nature of Septin-4 in the dynamic system. Overall, our results showed the presence of motility-associated protein in normospermia and control samples and not in the case of asthenospermia and oligoasthenospermia. Molecular techniques characterized the presence of Septin-4 and as a novel biomarker for infertility diagnosis.

Efficacy of encapsulated biogenic silver nanoparticles and its disease resistance against Vibrio harveyi through oral administration in Macrobrachium rosenbergii

Biological synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by Cheatomorpha antennia and its in vitro and in vivo antibacterial activity against Vibrio harveyi in Macrobrachium rosenbergii was demonstrated in the study. In vitro growth curve analysis, cell viability and bacterial inhibitory assays were performed to test the efficacy of synthesised AgNPs against bacteria. Sodium caseinate was used as an encapsulating agent to deliver the antibacterial drugs and the commercial process of microencapsulation comprises the antibacterial bioelements for oral administration to improve the disease resistance of AgNPs against V. harveyi due to the eco-friendly for non-toxic behaviour of nanoparticle and their treatment. Characterisation of antibacterial silver was performed by UV spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy. The peak at 420 nm showed the presence of nanoparticles in the solution and the crystal nature of the particle was identified by the XRD. FTIR characterised the functional harveyi biomolecules and further SEM confirmed the size of the nanoparticles around 24 ± 2.4 nm. Experimental pathogenicity of V. harveyi showed 100% mortality at the 120th hour. Treatment of encapsulated AgNPs was administered orally for the relative percentage of survival which acquired almost 90% of survival till 30 days of exposure. In conclusion, the microencapsulation of AgNPs in the biopolymer matrices promotes the health, growth responses, immunity and disease resistance of encapsulated AgNPs with an improved relative percentage of survival.

Ecotoxicological assessment and dermal layer interactions of nanoparticle and its routes of penetrations

Our review focused on nanomaterials-based toxicity evaluation and its exposure to the human and aquatic animals when it was leached and contaminated in the environment. Ecotoxicological assessment and its mechanism mainly affect the skin covering layers and its preventive barriers that protect the foreign particles' skin. Nanoscale materials are essential in the medical field, especially in biomedical and commercial applications such as nanomedicine and drug delivery, mainly in therapeutic treatments. However, various commercial formulations of pharmaceutical drugs are manufactured through a series of clinical trials. The role of such drugs and their metabolites has not met the requirement of an individual's need at the early stage of the treatments except few drugs and medicines with minimal or no side effects. Therefore, biology and medicines are taken up the advantages of nano scaled drugs and formulations for the treatment of various diseases. The present study identifies and analyses the different nanoparticles and their chemical components on the skin and their effects due to penetration. There are advantageous factors available to facilitate positive and negative contact between dermal layers. It creates a new agenda for an established application that is mainly based on skin diseases.

Seminal exosomes - An important biological marker for various disorders and syndrome in human reproduction

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are nano-sized membrane vesicles, secreted by different types of cells into the body's biological fluids. They are found in abundance in semen as compared to other fluids. Exosomes contain a cargo of lipid molecules, proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol, mRNAs, and miRNAs. Each molecule of seminal exosomes (SE) has a potential role in male reproduction for childbirth. Many potential candidates are available within the seminal exosomes that can be used as diagnostic markers for various diseases or syndromes associated with male reproduction. Also these seminal exospmes play a major role in female reproductive tract for effective fertilization.

AIM

The aim of this review is to focus on the advancement of human seminal exosomal research and its various properties.

METHODS

We used many databases like Scopus, Google scholar, NCBI-NLM and other sources to filter the articles of interest published in exosomes. We used phrases like "Exosomes in human semen", "Composition of exosomes in human semen" and other relevant words to filter the best articles.

RESULTS

Seminal exosomes play a major role in sperm functions like cell-to-cell communication, motility of the sperm cells, maintaining survival capacity for the sperm in the female reproductive tract and spermatogenesis. Also, seminal exosomes are used as a carrier for many regulatory elements using small RNA molecules. miRNAs of the seminal exosomes can be used as a diagnostic marker for prostate cancer instead of prostate specific antigen (PSA). Epididymosomes can be used as a biomarker for reproductive diseases and male infertility.

CONCLUSION

Seminal exosomes could be used as biological markers for various reproductive disorders, male infertility diagnosis, and it can be used in anti-retroviral research for the identification of novel therapeutics for HIV-1 infection and transmission.

Protective efficacy of microencapsulated seaweed extracts for preventing Aeromonas infections in Oreochromis mossambicus

Sea weeds are valuable natural assets in aquaculture due to the presence of various bioactive active metabolites in them. Successful fish production and maintenance of disease free culturing systems in aquaculture with environment friendly practices is often affected by various environmental factors. Disease causing pathogens is one of the major factors. These can be controlled by the emerging technologies such as biopolymer based drug delivery systems, feed encapsulations processes and immersions of active ingredients which can possibly facilitate sustainable production by enhancing growth and immune responses in aquaculture animals. The focus of our study is on the identification of antibacterial and antioxidant compounds from two brown seaweeds, Gracilaria foliifera and Sargassum longifolium which have proven bioactive compounds. By a process of microencapsulation these bioactive compounds were encapsulated in the form of beads. Sodium caseinate and xanthan gum were mixed together to form the beads. This process helps to retain and protect the bio active ingredients from adverse reactions such as oxidation and nutritional deterioration. These microencapsulated beads were administered orally to 10 Oreochromis mossambicus the experimental fishes, with average body weight of 10-12 g and challenged against the pathogenic bacteria Aeromonas salmonicida to assess their antibacterial efficacy to control this bacterial pathogen. Microencapsulated bio active compounds were further characterized by FT-Raman, GC-MS, NMR, HPLC and SEM analysis. In this study, the effects of combined formulations of the different bioactive compounds were determined. Data obtained from the treatment of A. salmonicida infection in O. mossambicus using formulated bioactive compounds obtained from these seaweeds showed very high survival percentage in this species of fish.

Effect of microencapsulated probiotic Bacillus vireti 01-polysaccharide extract of Gracilaria folifera with alginate-chitosan on immunity, antioxidant activity and disease resistance of Macrobrachium rosenbergii against Aeromonas hydrophila infection

Polysaccharide from red seaweed Gracilaria folifera has an interesting functional property of antioxidant activity and prebiotic effect. A feeding trial experiment was directed to examine the effect of probiotic bacteria Bacillus vireti 01 microencapsulated with G. folifera polysaccharide against freshwater prawn M. rosenbergii. Three different feeding trials were conducted for 15 days. The first group contained prawns fed with commercial diet. The second group was comprised of Aeromonas hydrophila challenged prawns fed with commercial feed. The third group consisted of A. hydrophila challenged prawns fed with microencapsulated probiotic-polysaccharide. Survival percentage was significantly decreased in prawns of group2 as compared to that of group1 and group3 prawns (p < 0.0001). The immunological parameters and antioxidant activities (p < 0.001) were found to be increased in group three prawns which were fed with encapsulated probiotic-seaweed polysaccharide and challenged with A. hydrophila as compared to that of group1 and group2. Tissue necrosis, fused lamella, haemocyte infiltration and damage of hepatopancreas lumen and tubule were noted in group2 prawns. There was no histological changes were observed in group3 prawns in which the histological architecture was similar to the control group1. The results suggested that combination of encapsulated probiotic B. vireti 01 and seaweed polysaccharide as dietary feed showed an enhancement of immune response, antioxidant activity and disease resistant of M. rosenbergii against A. hydrophila.