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Turkson S, van Rooij SJ, Powers A, Ofotokun I, Norrholm SD, N. Neigh G, Jovanovic T, Michopoulos V. HIV Interacts with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder to Impact Fear Psychophysiology in Trauma-Exposed Black Women. Womens Health Rep (New Rochelle) 2024; 5:231-241. [PMID: 38523844 PMCID: PMC10960165 DOI: 10.1089/whr.2023.0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Background The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among people living with HIV (PLWH) is higher than in the general population and can impact health behaviors. The influence of HIV on PTSD psychophysiology requires further investigation due to implications for the treatment of PTSD in PLWH. Objective Utilizing fear-potentiated startle (FPS), we aimed to interrogate the influence of PTSD and HIV on fear responses. Materials and Methods Women (18-65 years of age) recruited from the Women's Interagency HIV Study in Atlanta, GA (n = 70, 26 without HIV and 44 with HIV), provided informed consent and completed a semistructured interview to assess trauma exposure and PTSD symptom severity. Participants also underwent an FPS paradigm to assess fear acquisition and extinction: Psychophysiological indices that measure how individuals learn new fear and then subsequently attempt to suppress this fear. Results Women with PTSD, who did not have HIV, exhibited a greater startle response compared to women without PTSD or HIV during late acquisition to both the danger cue, reinforced conditioned stimulus (CS+, p = 0.013)), and the safety cue, non-reinforced conditioned stimulus (CS-, p = 0.046)), whereas women living with HIV (WLH) and PTSD demonstrated blunted fear responses compared to women with PTSD only. During extinction, WLH comorbid with PTSD exhibited an increased fear response during the extinction period in comparison to all other groups (p = 0.023). Women without PTSD demonstrated a reduction in the fear response during extinction regardless of HIV status. Conclusion Our findings indicate that HIV further modifies fear psychophysiology in WLH with comorbid PTSD, highlighting the importance of considering HIV status in conjunction with PTSD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susie Turkson
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Sanne J.H. van Rooij
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Abigail Powers
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ighovwerha Ofotokun
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Grady Health System, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Gretchen N. Neigh
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Vasiliki Michopoulos
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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2
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Theodoroff SM, Reavis KM, Norrholm SD. Prevalence of Hyperacusis Diagnosis in Veterans Who Use VA Healthcare. Ear Hear 2024; 45:499-504. [PMID: 37752627 PMCID: PMC10868671 DOI: 10.1097/aud.0000000000001427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The primary objective was to estimate the prevalence of hyperacusis diagnosis in treatment-seeking Veterans, paying attention to when it is diagnosed in conjuncture with common comorbid conditions. DESIGN This retrospective observational study used Veteran electronic health records from January 2015 to July 2021. Hyperacusis and comorbid conditions were identified using International Classification of Disease diagnostic codes. RESULTS The prevalence of hyperacusis diagnosis was 0.06%. Veterans diagnosed with tinnitus, posttraumatic stress disorder, headache, or traumatic brain injury were between two and seven times more likely to have an International Classification of Disease code for hyperacusis. CONCLUSIONS The estimated prevalence of hyperacusis diagnosis using electronic health records is grossly below what is reported in the literature. This is likely due to lack of standardized methods to diagnosis hyperacusis and when present with comorbid conditions, uncertainty when it should be coded as a secondary diagnosis. Future clinical and research efforts prioritizing hyperacusis are desperately needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M. Theodoroff
- VA RR&D, National Center for Rehabilitative Auditory Research, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, Oregon, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Kelly M. Reavis
- VA RR&D, National Center for Rehabilitative Auditory Research, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, Oregon, USA
- OHSU-PSU School of Public Health, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USAs
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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3
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Hollifield M, Hsiao AF, Smith T, Calloway T, Jovanovic T, Smith B, Carrick K, Norrholm SD, Munoz A, Alpert R, Caicedo B, Frousakis N, Cocozza K. Acupuncture for Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2024:2814938. [PMID: 38381417 PMCID: PMC10882512 DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.5651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Importance Current interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are efficacious, yet effectiveness may be limited by adverse effects and high withdrawal rates. Acupuncture is an emerging intervention with positive preliminary data for PTSD. Objective To compare verum acupuncture with sham acupuncture (minimal needling) on clinical and physiological outcomes. Design, Setting, and Participants This was a 2-arm, parallel-group, prospective blinded randomized clinical trial hypothesizing superiority of verum to sham acupuncture. The study was conducted at a single outpatient-based site, the Tibor Rubin VA Medical Center in Long Beach, California, with recruitment from April 2018 to May 2022, followed by a 15-week treatment period. Following exclusion for characteristics that are known PTSD treatment confounds, might affect biological assessment, indicate past nonadherence or treatment resistance, or indicate risk of harm, 93 treatment-seeking combat veterans with PTSD aged 18 to 55 years were allocated to group by adaptive randomization and 71 participants completed the intervention protocols. Interventions Verum and sham were provided as 1-hour sessions, twice weekly, and participants were given 15 weeks to complete up to 24 sessions. Main Outcomes and Measures The primary outcome was pretreatment to posttreatment change in PTSD symptom severity on the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale-5 (CAPS-5). The secondary outcome was pretreatment to posttreatment change in fear-conditioned extinction, assessed by fear-potentiated startle response. Outcomes were assessed at pretreatment, midtreatment, and posttreatment. General linear models comparing within- and between-group were analyzed in both intention-to-treat (ITT) and treatment-completed models. Results A total of 85 male and 8 female veterans (mean [SD] age, 39.2 [8.5] years) were randomized. There was a large treatment effect of verum (Cohen d, 1.17), a moderate effect of sham (d, 0.67), and a moderate between-group effect favoring verum (mean [SD] Δ, 7.1 [11.8]; t90 = 2.87, d, 0.63; P = .005) in the intention-to-treat analysis. The effect pattern was similar in the treatment-completed analysis: verum d, 1.53; sham d, 0.86; between-group mean (SD) Δ, 7.4 (11.7); t69 = 2.64; d, 0.63; P = .01). There was a significant pretreatment to posttreatment reduction of fear-potentiated startle during extinction (ie, better fear extinction) in the verum but not the sham group and a significant correlation (r = 0.31) between symptom reduction and fear extinction. Withdrawal rates were low. Conclusions and Relevance The acupuncture intervention used in this study was clinically efficacious and favorably affected the psychobiology of PTSD in combat veterans. These data build on extant literature and suggest that clinical implementation of acupuncture for PTSD, along with further research about comparative efficacy, durability, and mechanisms of effects, is warranted. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02869646.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hollifield
- Tibor Rubin VA Medical Center, Long Beach, California
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, George Washington School of Medicine & Health Sciences, Washington, DC
| | - An-Fu Hsiao
- Tibor Rubin VA Medical Center, Long Beach, California
- Department of Medicine, Health Policy Research Institute and General Internal Medicine, University of California, Irvine
| | | | - Teresa Calloway
- Tibor Rubin VA Medical Center, Long Beach, California
- Yo San University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Los Angeles, California
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | | | - Kala Carrick
- Tibor Rubin VA Medical Center, Long Beach, California
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Andrea Munoz
- Tibor Rubin VA Medical Center, Long Beach, California
| | - Ruth Alpert
- Tibor Rubin VA Medical Center, Long Beach, California
| | | | | | - Karen Cocozza
- Susan Samueli Integrative Health Institute, University of California, Irvine
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4
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Davis LL, Petrakis IL, Pilkinton PD, Nolen T, Vandergrift N, Hirsch S, Norrholm SD, Kosten TR. Comorbid alcohol use disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: A proof-of-concept randomized placebo-controlled trial of buprenorphine and naltrexone combination treatment. Alcohol Clin Exp Res (Hoboken) 2023; 47:1756-1772. [PMID: 37468230 DOI: 10.1111/acer.15155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Effective pharmacologic treatments for comorbid alcohol use disorder (AUD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are lacking. Kappa (κ) opioid receptor antagonists may address this unmet need. Buprenorphine is a κ-opioid antagonist and a partial agonist of mu (μ) opioid receptors. Whereas naltrexone blocks all μ-mediated effects combining it with buprenorphine yields a pharmacologic net effect of opioid receptor antagonism. Because no κ-opioid receptor antagonist it available for clinical use, we tested this combination in a proof-of-concept study. METHODS Consenting participants were enrolled in a Phase II, multisite, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of sublingual (SL) buprenorphine combined with extended-release (XR) injectable naltrexone for the treatment of comorbid AUD and PTSD. Eligible participants (n = 75) were randomized (1:1:1) to receive either buprenorphine 2 mg/day plus naltrexone-XR (n = 35), buprenorphine 8 mg/day plus naltrexone-XR (n = 6) or SL plus injectable placebo (n = 34) for 12 weeks. The buprenorphine 8 mg/day plus naltrexone-XR arm was dropped early in the trial due to the negative impact of COVID-19 on enrollment. A binary primary outcome of response at week 8 was defined as a decrease from baseline of ≥10 points on the past week Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS-5) and a reduction of ≥1 of past month alcohol risk level, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and measured by the Timeline Follow-Back. RESULTS Based on the results of a futility analysis, enrollment was stopped prior to reaching the initial goal of 90 participants. At the week eight primary timepoint, there were no statistically significant differences between buprenorphine plus naltrexone-XR and placebo group for the primary composite outcome (OR = 0.63; p-value = 0.52), or the subcomponents of the PTSD outcome (OR = 0.76; p-value = 0.69) and AUD outcome (OR = 0.17; p-value = 0.08). The placebo arm had a significantly higher proportion of participants with ≥1 WHO risk level reduction than the buprenorphine plus naltrexone-XR arm (OR = 0.18, p value = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to evaluate the potential of κ-opioid receptor antagonism for the treatment of comorbid AUD and PTSD. The combination of buprenorphine and naltrexone-XR showed no significant improvement over placebo for the composite, PTSD, or alcohol measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori L Davis
- Tuscaloosa VA Medical Center, Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, Birmingham, USA
| | - Ismene L Petrakis
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, Connecticut, West Haven, USA
- Yale University, Connecticut, New Haven, USA
| | | | - Tracy Nolen
- RTI International, North Carolina, Research Triangle Park, USA
| | | | - Shawn Hirsch
- RTI International, North Carolina, Research Triangle Park, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Michigan, Detroit, USA
- United States Air Force Academy, Colorado, Colorado Springs, USA
| | - Thomas R Kosten
- Baylor College of Medicine, Texas, Houston, USA
- Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center, Houston, TX, USA
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5
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Zoladz PR, Cordes CN, Weiser JN, Reneau KE, Boaz KM, Helwig SJ, Virden EM, Thebeault CK, Pfister CL, Getnet BA, Niese TD, Parker SL, Stanek ML, Long KE, Norrholm SD, Rorabaugh BR. Pre-Learning Stress That Is Temporally Removed from Acquisition Impairs Fear Learning. Biology (Basel) 2023; 12:775. [PMID: 37372060 DOI: 10.3390/biology12060775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Few studies have examined the time-dependent effects of stress on fear learning. Previously, we found that stress immediately before fear conditioning enhanced fear learning. Here, we aimed to extend these findings by assessing the effects of stress 30 min prior to fear conditioning on fear learning and fear generalization. Two hundred and twenty-one healthy adults underwent stress (socially evaluated cold pressor test) or a control manipulation 30 min before completing differential fear conditioning in a fear-potentiated startle paradigm. One visual stimulus (CS+), but not another (CS-), was associated with an aversive airblast to the throat (US) during acquisition. The next day, participants were tested for their fear responses to the CS+, CS-, and several generalization stimuli. Stress impaired the acquisition of fear on Day 1 but had no significant impact on fear generalization. The stress-induced impairment of fear learning was particularly evident in participants who exhibited a robust cortisol response to the stressor. These findings are consistent with the notion that stress administered 30 min before learning impairs memory formation via corticosteroid-related mechanisms and may help us understand how fear memories are altered in stress-related psychological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip R Zoladz
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Chloe N Cordes
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Jordan N Weiser
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Kassidy E Reneau
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Kayla M Boaz
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Sara J Helwig
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Emma M Virden
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Caitlin K Thebeault
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Cassidy L Pfister
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Bruktawit A Getnet
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Taylor D Niese
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Sydney L Parker
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Mercedes L Stanek
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Kristen E Long
- Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Boyd R Rorabaugh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25755, USA
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6
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Sullivan ADW, Brier ZMF, Legrand AC, van Stolk-Cooke K, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Garavan H, Forehand R, Price M. The Enduring Importance of Parenting: Caregiving Quality and Fear-Potentiated Startle in Emerging Adults With a Child Maltreatment History. Child Maltreat 2023; 28:97-106. [PMID: 34886701 PMCID: PMC9316457 DOI: 10.1177/10775595211060050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Background: The transition to adulthood is a period of increased risk for emergent psychopathology; emerging adults with a childhood maltreatment history are at risk for poor outcomes. Method: Using a multi-measure, transdisciplinary, cross-sectional design, this study tested whether participant-reported positive parenting, a potential resilience-promoting factor, moderated the association between clinician-rated PTSD symptom severity and a transdiagnostic maladjustment biomarker, fear-potentiated startle (FPS), in a sample of 66 emerging adults (Myears = 18.83, SD = 0.89) with a maltreatment history. We hypothesized that characteristics of effective parenting would moderate the relation between PTSD symptoms and FPS. Results: Results indicated that elevated PTSD, as measured by the CAPS, was associated with a more severe startle reaction. The magnitude of the increase in startle reactivity was moderated by parenting such that those with more positive parenting (Accepting [relative to rejecting]: b = -0.42, p < .001; Psychologically-controlling [relative to autonomy-promoting]: b = 2.96, p = .004) had significantly less reactivity across the task at higher levels of PTSD symptoms. Conclusions: Emerging adults with childhood maltreatment histories, high levels of PTSD symptoms, and who perceive present-day high-quality caregiver support may cope better with novel stressors relative to youth lacking that support, potentially translating to better psychological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zoe M. F. Brier
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Alison C. Legrand
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | | | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Hugh Garavan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Rex Forehand
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Matthew Price
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
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7
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Maples-Keller JL, Sherrill A, Reddi P, Norrholm SD, Rothbaum BO. Extinction-Based Exposure Therapies Using Virtual Reality. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 64:335-352. [PMID: 37566312 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2023_437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
The focus of this chapter is an overview of integrating virtual reality (VR) technology within the context of exposure therapy for anxiety disorders, a gold standard treatment, with a focus on how VR can help facilitate extinction learning processes integral to these interventions. The chapter will include an overview of advantages of incorporating VR within exposure therapy, and benefits specifically within an inhibitory learning approach for extinction training. A review of the empirical literature on the effectiveness of VR exposure therapy for specific phobia and PTSD will be provided, as well as practical overview of how to effectively incorporate VR within exposure therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Maples-Keller
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Andrew Sherrill
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Preethi Reddi
- Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Barbara O Rothbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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8
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Reffi AN, Drake CL, Kalmbach DA, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Roth T, Casement MD, Cheng P. Pre-pandemic sleep reactivity prospectively predicts distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: The protective effect of insomnia treatment. J Sleep Res 2022; 32:e13709. [PMID: 36053867 PMCID: PMC9537903 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.13709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is a rare stressor that has precipitated an accompanying mental health crisis. Prospective studies traversing the pandemic's onset can elucidate how pre-existing disease vulnerabilities augured risk for later stress-related morbidity. We examined how pre-pandemic sleep reactivity predicted maladaptive stress reactions and depressive symptoms in response to, and during, the pandemic. This study is a secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial from 2016 to 2017 comparing digital cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (dCBT-I) against sleep education (N = 208). Thus, we also assessed whether dCBT-I moderated the association between pre-pandemic sleep reactivity and pandemic-related distress. Pre-pandemic sleep reactivity was measured at baseline using the Ford Insomnia Response to Stress Test. In April 2020, participants were recontacted to report pandemic-related distress (stress reactions and depression). Controlling for the treatment condition and the degree of COVID-19 impact, higher pre-pandemic sleep reactivity predicted more stress reactions (β = 0.13, ± 0.07 SE, p = 0.045) and depression (β = 0.22, ± 0.07 SE, p = 0.001) during the pandemic. Further, the odds of reporting clinically significant stress reactions and depression during the pandemic were over twice as high in those with high pre-pandemic sleep reactivity. Notably, receiving dCBT-I in 2016-2017 mitigated the relationship between pre-pandemic sleep reactivity and later stress reactions (but not depression). Pre-pandemic sleep reactivity predicted psychological distress 3-4 years later during the COVID-19 pandemic, and dCBT-I attenuated its association with stress reactions, specifically. Sleep reactivity may inform prevention and treatment efforts by identifying individuals at risk of impairment following stressful events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony N. Reffi
- Sleep Disorders & Research CenterHenry Ford Health SystemDetroitMichiganUSA
| | | | - David A. Kalmbach
- Sleep Disorders & Research CenterHenry Ford Health SystemDetroitMichiganUSA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Neuroscience Center for Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma (NeuroCAST), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral NeurosciencesWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMichiganUSA
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Neuroscience Center for Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma (NeuroCAST), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral NeurosciencesWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMichiganUSA
| | - Thomas Roth
- Sleep Disorders & Research CenterHenry Ford Health SystemDetroitMichiganUSA
| | | | - Philip Cheng
- Sleep Disorders & Research CenterHenry Ford Health SystemDetroitMichiganUSA
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9
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Difede J, Rothbaum BO, Rizzo AA, Wyka K, Spielman L, Reist C, Roy MJ, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Cukor J, Olden M, Glatt CE, Lee FS. Enhancing exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a randomized clinical trial of virtual reality and imaginal exposure with a cognitive enhancer. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:299. [PMID: 35896533 PMCID: PMC9329292 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-02066-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health issue. Yet, there are limited treatment options and no data to suggest which treatment will work for whom. We tested the efficacy of virtual reality exposure (VRE) or prolonged imaginal exposure (PE), augmented with D-cycloserine (DCS) for combat-related PTSD. As an exploratory aim, we examined whether brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) moderated treatment response. Military personnel with PTSD (n = 192) were recruited into a multisite double-blind randomized controlled trial to receive nine weeks of VRE or PE, with DCS or placebo. Primary outcome was the improvement in symptom severity. Randomization was stratified by comorbid depression (MDD) and site. Participants in both VRE and PE showed similar meaningful clinical improvement with no difference between the treatment groups. A significant interaction (p = 0.45) suggested VRE was more effective for depressed participants (CAPS difference M = 3.51 [95% CI 1.17-5.86], p = 0.004, ES = 0.14) while PE was more effective for nondepressed participants (M = -8.87 [95% CI -11.33 to -6.40], p < 0.001, ES = -0.44). The main effect of DCS vs. placebo was not significant. Augmentation by MDD interaction (p = 0.073) suggested that depressed participants improved more on placebo (M = -8.43 [95% CI -10.98 to -5.88], p < 0.001, ES = -0.42); DCS and placebo were equally effective for nondepressed participants. There was an apparent moderating effect of BDNF Val66Met polymorphism on DCS augmentation (ES = 0.67). Met66 allele carriers improved more on DCS (ES = -0.25). FAAH 385 A carriers improved more than non-carriers (ES = 0.33), particularly those with MDD (ES = 0.62). This study provides a step toward precision therapeutics for PTSD by demonstrating that comorbid MDD and genetic markers may help guide treatment selection.ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01352637.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnn Difede
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA.
| | | | - Albert A Rizzo
- University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Katarzyna Wyka
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lisa Spielman
- Department of Rehabilitation and Human Performance, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Christopher Reist
- Department of Psychiatry, VA Long Beach Healthcare System, Long Beach, CA, USA
- University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Science 37, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Michael J Roy
- Department of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Judith Cukor
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Megan Olden
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Charles E Glatt
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Francis S Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
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10
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Maples-Keller JL, Norrholm SD, Burton M, Reiff C, Coghlan C, Jovanovic T, Yasinski C, Jarboe K, Rakofsky J, Rauch S, Dunlop BW, Rothbaum BO. A randomized controlled trial of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and fear extinction retention in healthy adults. J Psychopharmacol 2022; 36:368-377. [PMID: 35166140 DOI: 10.1177/02698811211069124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fear conditioning and extinction are well-characterized cross-species models of fear-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and recent animal data suggest that 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) enhances fear extinction retention. AIMS This study investigated the effect of MDMA on fear learning, extinction training, and retention in healthy humans. METHODS The study involved a randomized placebo-controlled, two-group, parallel design trial in a sample of healthy adults, age 21-55 recruited from a major metropolitan area. The experimental paradigm included a fear acquisition session followed by an extinction training session 24 hours later, and 2 hours after study drug administration. Fear extinction retention was measured 48 hours after extinction training. Participants (N = 34; 70.6% male and 29.4% female) were randomly assigned in 1:1 ratio to 100 mg MDMA or placebo. All randomized participants completed the trial and were included in primary analyses. Safety was monitored via adverse events and vital signs. MDMA was well-tolerated with no serious adverse events. RESULTS Results indicated a significant main effect of session between extinction training and retention with no significant group differences. Significantly more participants in the MDMA group retained extinction learning compared to the placebo group (χ2 = 7.29, p = 0.007). CONCLUSION Although we did not observe the hypothesized facilitation of extinction retention, the findings from this initial human trial provide compelling rationale to continue to explore the potential for MDMA to impact extinction retention.Clinical Trials Registry Name and Identifier: Evaluation of MDMA on Startle Response (NCT0318176) https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03181763?term = MDMA&draw = 2&rank = 9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Maples-Keller
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Mark Burton
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Collin Reiff
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Callan Coghlan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Carly Yasinski
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kathleen Jarboe
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jeffrey Rakofsky
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Sheila Rauch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Atlanta VA Healthcare System
| | - Boadie W Dunlop
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Barbara O Rothbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Norrholm SD, Zalta A, Zoellner L, Powers A, Tull MT, Reist C, Schnurr PP, Weathers F, Friedman MJ. Does COVID-19 count?: Defining Criterion A trauma for diagnosing PTSD during a global crisis. Depress Anxiety 2021; 38:882-885. [PMID: 34469042 PMCID: PMC8652625 DOI: 10.1002/da.23209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is a globally significant crisis with a rapid spread worldwide, high rates of illness and mortality, a high degree of uncertainty, and a disruption of daily life across the sociodemographic spectrum. The clinically relevant psychological consequences of this catastrophe will be long-lasting and far-reaching. There is an emerging body of empirical literature related to the mental health aspects of this pandemic and this body will likely expand exponentially. The COVID-19 pandemic is an example of a historic catastrophe from which we can learn much and from which the field will need to archive, interpret, and synthesize a multitude of clinical and research observations. METHODS In this commentary, we discuss situations and contexts in which a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may or may not apply within the context of diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) criteria. RESULTS Our consensus is that a COVID-related event cannot be considered traumatic unless key aspects of DSM-5's PTSD Criterion A have been established for a specific type of COVID-19 event (e.g., acute, life-threatening, and catastrophic). CONCLUSION The application of a more liberal interpretation of Criterion A will dilute the PTSD diagnosis, increase heterogeneity, confound case-control research, and create an overall sample pool with varying degrees of risk and vulnerability factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth D. Norrholm
- Neuroscience Center for Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral NeurosciencesWayne State University School of MedicineDetroitMichiganUSA
| | - Alyson Zalta
- Department of Psychological ScienceUniversity of CaliforniaIrvineCaliforniaUSA
| | - Lori Zoellner
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Abigail Powers
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral SciencesEmory University School of MedicineAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | | | - Christopher Reist
- Long Beach VA Healthcare SystemLong BeachCaliforniaUSA,Science 37Culver CityCaliforniaUSA
| | - Paula P. Schnurr
- National Center for PTSD, U.S. Department of Veterans AffairsWhite River JunctionUSA,Department of PsychiatryGeisel School of Medicine at DartmouthHanoverNew HampshireUSA
| | - Frank Weathers
- Department of Psychological SciencesAuburn UniversityAuburnAlabamaUSA
| | - Matthew J. Friedman
- National Center for PTSD, U.S. Department of Veterans AffairsWhite River JunctionUSA,Department of PsychiatryGeisel School of Medicine at DartmouthHanoverNew HampshireUSA
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12
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Reist C, Jovanovic T, Kantarovich D, Weingast L, Hollifield M, Novin M, Khalaghizadeh S, Jafari B, George R, Riser M, Woodford J, Norrholm SD. An analysis of fear inhibition and fear extinction in a sample of veterans with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA): Implications for co-morbidity with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Behav Brain Res 2021; 404:113172. [PMID: 33577879 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a respiratory condition characterized by interrupted sleep due to repeated, temporary collapse of the soft tissue of the upper airway that can lead to a cascade of physiological and psychological adverse health outcomes. The most common therapeutic interventions for OSA patients include the application of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) which acts to keep the airway open and, as such, provides less interrupted and more restorative sleep. Improved sleep has been linked to more efficacious treatments for psychiatric conditions most notably those that include cognitive-behavioral elements, new learning, and memory consolidation. In the current study, we investigated the acquisition, inhibition, and extinction of conditioned fear in OSA patients, before and after CPAP therapy, using an established fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Patients with OSA displayed an intact ability to acquire, inhibit, and extinguish fear prior to CPAP treatment and this ability was significantly enhanced following CPAP usage. In addition, those patients with more severe OSA, as measured by apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), were more likely to show improved fear inhibition and extinction. Lastly, we observed impairments in discrimination between reinforced and nonreinforced conditioned stimuli, in the inhibition of fear, and in fear extinction in a subset of patients with OSA and co-morbid posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These data suggest that evolving treatment algorithms for PTSD should address disrupted sleep problems prior to initiation of inhibition/extinction-based exposure therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Reist
- Research Service, Long Beach VA Healthcare System, 5901 East 7(th) Street, Long Beach, CA, 90822, United States; Science 37, 12121 Bluff Creek Drive, Los Angeles, CA, 90094, United States
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Neuroscience Center for Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma (NeuroCAST), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 3901 Chrysler Service Drive, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States
| | - Diana Kantarovich
- Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL, 60064, United States
| | - Leah Weingast
- Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120(th) Street, New York, NY, 10027, United States
| | - Michael Hollifield
- Research Service, Long Beach VA Healthcare System, 5901 East 7(th) Street, Long Beach, CA, 90822, United States
| | - Mahmood Novin
- Research Service, Long Beach VA Healthcare System, 5901 East 7(th) Street, Long Beach, CA, 90822, United States
| | - Sakineh Khalaghizadeh
- Research Service, Long Beach VA Healthcare System, 5901 East 7(th) Street, Long Beach, CA, 90822, United States
| | - Behrouz Jafari
- Research Service, Long Beach VA Healthcare System, 5901 East 7(th) Street, Long Beach, CA, 90822, United States
| | - Renie George
- Neuroscience Center for Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma (NeuroCAST), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 3901 Chrysler Service Drive, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States
| | - Manessa Riser
- Neuroscience Center for Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma (NeuroCAST), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 3901 Chrysler Service Drive, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States
| | - Jessica Woodford
- Neuroscience Center for Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma (NeuroCAST), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 3901 Chrysler Service Drive, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Neuroscience Center for Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma (NeuroCAST), Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 3901 Chrysler Service Drive, Detroit, MI, 48201, United States.
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13
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Rauch SAM, Sripada R, Burton M, Michopoulos V, Kerley K, Marx CE, Kilts JD, Naylor JC, Rothbaum BO, McLean CP, Smith A, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Liberzon I, Williamson DE, Yarvis CJS, Dondanville KA, Young-McCaughan S, Keane TM, Peterson AL. Neuroendocrine biomarkers of prolonged exposure treatment response in military-related PTSD. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2020; 119:104749. [PMID: 32554173 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with dysregulation of the neuroendocrine system, including cortisol, allopregnanolone, and pregnanolone. Preliminary evidence from animal models suggests that baseline levels of these biomarkers may predict response to PTSD treatment. We report the change in biomarkers over the course of PTSD treatment. Biomarkers were sampled from individuals participating in (1) a randomized controlled trial comparing a web-version of Prolonged Exposure (Web-PE) therapy to in-person Present-Centered Therapy (PCT) and (2) from individuals participating in a nonrandomized effectiveness study testing PE delivered in-person as part of an intensive outpatient PTSD program. We found that higher cortisol reactivity during script-driven imagery was associated with higher baseline PTSD severity and that baseline allopregnanolone, pregnanolone, and cortisol reactivity were associated with PTSD treatment responder status over the course of intensive outpatient treatment. These findings demonstrate that peripherally assessed biomarkers are associated with PTSD severity and likelihood of successful treatment outcome of PE delivered daily over two weeks. These assessments could be used to determine which patients are likely to respond to treatment and which patients require augmentation to increase the likelihood of optimal response to PTSD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila A M Rauch
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, 1670 Clairmont Road, Decatur, GA, 30033, USA; Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 12 Executive Park, 3rd Floor, Atlanta, GA, 30029, USA.
| | - Rebecca Sripada
- VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, 2215 Fuller Road, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, USA; University of Michigan, Department of Psychiatry, 4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
| | - Mark Burton
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 12 Executive Park, 3rd Floor, Atlanta, GA, 30029, USA.
| | - Vasiliki Michopoulos
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 12 Executive Park, 3rd Floor, Atlanta, GA, 30029, USA.
| | - Kimberly Kerley
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 12 Executive Park, 3rd Floor, Atlanta, GA, 30029, USA.
| | - Christine E Marx
- Duke University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 40 Duke Medicine Circle, Durham, NC, 27710, USA; Durham Veterans Administration Medical Center and VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC, 508 Fulton Street, Durham, NC, 27705, USA.
| | - Jason D Kilts
- Duke University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 40 Duke Medicine Circle, Durham, NC, 27710, USA; Durham Veterans Administration Medical Center and VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC, 508 Fulton Street, Durham, NC, 27705, USA.
| | - Jennifer C Naylor
- Duke University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 40 Duke Medicine Circle, Durham, NC, 27710, USA; Durham Veterans Administration Medical Center and VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC, 508 Fulton Street, Durham, NC, 27705, USA.
| | - Barbara O Rothbaum
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 12 Executive Park, 3rd Floor, Atlanta, GA, 30029, USA.
| | - Carmen P McLean
- National Center for PTSD, Dissemination and Training Division, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, 795 Willow Rd, Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA; Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 291 Campus Dr., Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Alicia Smith
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 101 Woodruff Circle NE, Ste 4217, Atlanta, 30322, USA.
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, 1670 Clairmont Road, Decatur, GA, 30033, USA; Wayne State University, 3901 Chrysler Dr, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Wayne State University, 3901 Chrysler Dr, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
| | - Israel Liberzon
- Texas A&M University, 8447 Riverside Parkway, Bryan, TX, 77808-3260, USA.
| | - Douglas E Williamson
- Duke University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 40 Duke Medicine Circle, Durham, NC, 27710, USA; Durham Veterans Administration Medical Center and VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC, 508 Fulton Street, Durham, NC, 27705, USA.
| | - Col Jeffrey S Yarvis
- Carl R. Darnall Army Medical Center, Department of Behavioral Health, 36065 Santa Fe Ave., Fort Hood, TX, 76544, USA.
| | - Katherine A Dondanville
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA.
| | - Stacey Young-McCaughan
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA.
| | - Terence M Keane
- VA Boston Healthcare System, National Center for PTSD (116B-2), 150 South Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA, 02130, USA; Boston University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, 720 Harrison Avenue, Room 906, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.
| | - Alan L Peterson
- University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA; South Texas Veterans Health Care System, Research and Development Service, 7400 Merton Minter, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA; University of Texas at San Antonio, Department of Psychology, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX, 78249, USA.
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14
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Pöhlchen D, Leuchs L, Binder FP, Blaskovich B, Nantawisarakul T, Topalidis P, Brückl TM, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Spoormaker VI, Binder EB, Czisch M, Erhardt A, Grandi NC, Ilic-Cocic S, Lucae S, Sämann P, Tontsch A. No robust differences in fear conditioning between patients with fear-related disorders and healthy controls. Behav Res Ther 2020; 129:103610. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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15
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Lakshman M, Murphy L, Mekawi Y, Carter S, Briscione M, Bradley B, Tone EB, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Powers A. Attention bias towards threat in African American children exposed to early life trauma. Behav Brain Res 2020; 383:112513. [PMID: 31991179 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Attentional bias is linked to a range of mood disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The present study examined attention bias patterns in African American children exposed to trauma, in order to better understand potential risk factors for PTSD. METHODS 31 children (ages 8-14) completed an eye-tracking task to assess gaze bias patterns while viewing pairs of emotional and neutral faces. Trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms were assessed in a subsample of children (n = 24). RESULTS Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) results examining attention bias indices and gender showed greater attention bias toward angry faces than happy faces (p < 0.01) and toward emotional faces in males than females (p < 0.05). Correlational analyses showed attention bias toward angry faces was associated with greater levels of child trauma exposure (p < 0.05). Based on linear regression analysis, child trauma exposure accounted for 17 % of variance in attention bias toward angry versus neutral faces independent of gender or posttraumatic stress symptoms (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Trauma exposure in children is related to altered attention bias, via enhanced attention towards threatening cues. Results contribute to evidence that males and females may exhibit different attentional patterns. This study highlights the importance of additional research on attention bias patterns and prospective mental health outcomes across gender and through development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Lakshman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Lauren Murphy
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, United States
| | - Yara Mekawi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Sierra Carter
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, United States
| | - Maria Briscione
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Erin B Tone
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, United States
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, United States
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, Wayne State University, United States
| | - Abigail Powers
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, United States.
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16
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Mekawi Y, Murphy L, Munoz A, Briscione M, Tone EB, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Bradley B, Powers A. The role of negative affect in the association between attention bias to threat and posttraumatic stress: An eye-tracking study. Psychiatry Res 2020; 284:112674. [PMID: 31831200 PMCID: PMC7012707 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Biased processing of threatening stimuli, including attention toward and away from threat, has been implicated in the development and maintenance of PTSD symptoms. Research examining theoretically-derived mechanisms through which dysregulated processing of threat may be associated with PTSD is scarce. Negative affect, a transdiagnostic risk factor for many types of psychopathology, is one potential mechanism that has yet to be examined. Thus, the present study (n = 92) tested the indirect effect of attention bias on PTSD via negative affect using rigorous eye-tracking methodology in a sample of urban-dwelling, trauma-exposed African-American women. We found support for the hypothesis that attention bias toward threat was indirectly associated with PTSD symptoms through increased negative affect. These results suggest that negative affect may be an important etiological process through which attention bias patterns could impact PTSD symptom severity. Implications for psychological and pharmacological therapeutic interventions targeting threat-related attention biases and negative affect are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yara Mekawi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Georgia, United States of America.
| | | | - Adam Munoz
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine
| | - Maria Briscione
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine
| | - Erin B. Tone
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Georgia State University
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Georgia State University
| | - Abigail Powers
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine
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17
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Difede J, Rothbaum BO, Rizzo AA, Wyka K, Spielman L, Jovanovic T, Reist C, Roy MJ, Norrholm SD, Glatt C, Lee F. Enhanced exposure therapy for combat-related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Contemp Clin Trials 2019; 87:105857. [PMID: 31669451 DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2019.105857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND PTSD, which has been identified in up to 23% of post-9-11 veterans, often results in a chronic, pernicious course. Thus, effective treatments are imperative. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) concluded that the only intervention for PTSD with sufficient evidence to conclude efficacy is exposure therapy. This Phase III trial compares the efficacy of exposure therapy for combat-related PTSD delivered in two different formats- via virtual reality exposure therapy (VRE) or prolonged exposure therapy (PE)- combined with D-Cycloserine (DCS), a cognitive enhancer shown to facilitate the extinction of fear. METHODS/DESIGN Military personnel of any duty status and civilians deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan were eligible. Participants were randomly assigned to 9 sessions of exposure therapy (VRE or PE) and medication (50 mg DCS or placebo). Participants were treated at three geographically diverse sites. Participants were re-assessed at 3-months post-treatment. The co-primary hypotheses are that (1) DCS will augment response to exposure therapy (both VRE and PE) on PTSD symptoms; (2) VRE will be associated with greater improvement than PE. Genetic and psychophysiological markers will be evaluated as potential moderators and mediators of treatment outcomes as well as secondary outcomes. DISCUSSION This study is the first to compare the relative efficacy of DCS-augmented VRE versus PE on PTSD symptoms. The design has several advantages: participants received an active, effective treatment and predictors of response to treatment included genetic and psychobiological measures. The results may directly influence the future delivery of services, and contribute to the development of a standardized treatment protocol. TRIAL REGISTRATION NCT01352637.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnn Difede
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, 525 East 68(th) Street, New York, NY 10065, United States.
| | - Barbara O Rothbaum
- Emory University School of Medicine, 12 Executive Pard Drive, Atlanta, GA 30329, United States
| | - Albert A Rizzo
- University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies, 12015 East Waterfront Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90094, United States
| | - Katarzyna Wyka
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, 525 East 68(th) Street, New York, NY 10065, United States
| | - Lisa Spielman
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, 525 East 68(th) Street, New York, NY 10065, United States
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Emory University School of Medicine, 12 Executive Pard Drive, Atlanta, GA 30329, United States
| | - Christopher Reist
- Department of Research, Long Beach VA Medical Center, 5901 East 7(th) Street, Long Beach, CA 90822, United States
| | - Michael J Roy
- Department of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, United States
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Emory University School of Medicine, 12 Executive Pard Drive, Atlanta, GA 30329, United States
| | - Charles Glatt
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, 525 East 68(th) Street, New York, NY 10065, United States
| | - Francis Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, 525 East 68(th) Street, New York, NY 10065, United States
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18
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Riggenbach MR, Weiser JN, Mosley BE, Hipskind JJ, Wireman LE, Hess KL, Duffy TJ, Handel JK, Kaschalk MG, Reneau KE, Rorabaugh BR, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Zoladz PR. Immediate pre-learning stress enhances baseline startle response and fear acquisition in a fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Behav Brain Res 2019; 371:111980. [PMID: 31145979 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.111980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Extensive work has shown that stress time-dependently influences hippocampus-dependent learning and memory. In particular, stress that is administered immediately before learning enhances long-term memory, while stress that is temporally separated from learning impairs long-term memory. We have extended these findings by examining the impact of immediate, pre-learning stress on an amygdala-dependent fear conditioning task. One hundred and forty-one healthy participants underwent a stress (socially evaluated cold pressor test) or control manipulation immediately before completing differential fear conditioning in a fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Participants then completed extinction and extinction memory testing sessions 24 and 48 h later, respectively. Stress administered immediately before acquisition increased baseline startle responses and enhanced fear learning, as evidenced by greater fear-potentiated startle to the CS + . Although no group differences were observed during extinction training on Day 2, stressed participants exhibited evidence of impaired extinction processes on Day 3, an effect that was driven by group differences in acquisition. Importantly, stressed participants' cortisol responses to the stressor on Day 1 were positively associated with CS discrimination on Days 2 and 3. These findings suggest that stress immediately before fear conditioning strengthens fear memory formation and produces a more enduring fear memory, perhaps via corticosteroid activity. Such a paradigm could be useful for understanding factors that influence traumatic memory formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie R Riggenbach
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Jordan N Weiser
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Brianne E Mosley
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Jennifer J Hipskind
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Leighton E Wireman
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Kelsey L Hess
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Tessa J Duffy
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Julie K Handel
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - MacKenzie G Kaschalk
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Kassidy E Reneau
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Boyd R Rorabaugh
- Department of Pharmaceutical & Biomedical Sciences, Raabe College of Pharmacy, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Mental Health Service Line, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Phillip R Zoladz
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH, 45810, USA.
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19
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Jovanovic T, Duncan EJ, Kaye J, Garza K, Norrholm SD, Inslicht SS, Neylan TC, Mathew SJ, Iosifescu D, Rothbaum BO, Mayberg HS, Dunlop BW. Psychophysiological treatment outcomes: Corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor antagonist increases inhibition of fear-potentiated startle in PTSD patients. Psychophysiology 2019; 57:e13356. [PMID: 30807663 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
After exposure to a traumatic event, a subset of people develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). One of the key deficits in PTSD is regulation of fear, and impaired inhibition of fear-potentiated startle (FPS) has been identified as a potential physiological biomarker specific to PTSD. As part of a larger clinical trial, this study investigated the effects of a CRF receptor 1 antagonist, GSK561679, on inhibition of fear-potentiated startle during a conditional discrimination fear-conditioning paradigm, termed AX+/BX-. Prior research using this paradigm has demonstrated deficits in inhibition of conditioned fear in several PTSD populations. The randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial compared fear inhibition between female PTSD participants taking 350 mg/day GSK561679 (n = 47 pre- and 29 post-treatment) and patients taking a placebo pill (n = 52 pre- and 30 post-treatment) daily for 6 weeks. There was no significant difference between the two groups in their acquisition of fear or discrimination between threat and safety cues, and no pre-post-treatment effect on these measures. However, there was a significant effect of treatment on inhibition of FPS during the AB trials in the AX+/BX- transfer test (p < 0.05). While all PTSD participants showed typical impairments in fear inhibition prior to treatment, GSK561679 enhanced fear inhibition post-treatment, independent of clinical effects. The current study suggests that CRF receptor 1 antagonism may have specific effects within neural circuitry mediating fear inhibition responses, but not overall symptom presentation, in PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Erica J Duncan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia.,Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Joanna Kaye
- Department of Psychology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Kristie Garza
- Neuroscience Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia.,Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sabra S Inslicht
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco and San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California
| | - Thomas C Neylan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco and San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California
| | - Sanjay J Mathew
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine and Michael E. Debakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Dan Iosifescu
- Department of Psychiatry, NYU Langone School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Barbara O Rothbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Helen S Mayberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia.,Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Boadie W Dunlop
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
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20
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Powers A, Fani N, Murphy L, Briscione M, Bradley B, Tone EB, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T. Attention bias toward threatening faces in women with PTSD: eye tracking correlates by symptom cluster. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2019; 10:1568133. [PMID: 30788062 PMCID: PMC6374933 DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2019.1568133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 11/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Maladaptive patterns of attention to emotional stimuli are a common feature of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with growing evidence supporting sustained attention to threatening stimuli across trauma samples. However, it remains unclear how different PTSD symptom clusters are associated with attentional bias patterns, particularly in urban civilian settings with high rates of trauma exposure and PTSD. The present study examined associations among these variables in 70 traumatized primarily African American women. PTSD was measured using the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale, and eye tracking was used to measure patterns of attention as participants engaged in an attention bias (dot probe) task to emotional faces; average initial fixation (1 s) and dwell duration (overall time spent looking at emotional face versus neutral face across the 5 s task) were used to assess attention bias patterns toward emotional faces. Women with PTSD showed significantly longer dwell duration toward angry faces than women without PTSD (F = 5.16, p < .05). Bivariate correlation analyses with the PTSD symptom clusters showed a significant association between average initial fixation toward angry faces and higher levels of avoidance symptoms (r = 0.29, p < .05) as well as sustained attention to angry faces and higher levels of re-experiencing symptoms (r = 0.24, p < .05). Using separate linear regression models based on initial significant correlations, we found that PTSD avoidance symptoms were significantly related to average initial fixation toward angry faces (R 2 ∆ = 0.09, p < .05) and PTSD re-experiencing symptoms were significantly related to dwell duration toward angry faces (R 2 ∆ = 0.06, p < .05). These findings contribute to evidence that PTSD is related to both initial vigilance and sustained attention to threat and that certain symptom clusters may either drive or be more impacted by attentional biases, highlighting the benefits of addressing attentional biases within treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Powers
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Negar Fani
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Lauren Murphy
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Maria Briscione
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Erin B Tone
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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21
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Fonkoue IT, Norrholm SD, Marvar PJ, Li Y, Kankam ML, Rothbaum BO, Park J. Elevated resting blood pressure augments autonomic imbalance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2018; 315:R1272-R1280. [PMID: 30303706 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00173.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is characterized by increased sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity, blunted parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activity, and impaired baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), which contribute to accelerated cardiovascular disease. Patients with PTSD also have chronic stress-related elevations in resting blood pressure (BP), often in the prehypertensive range; yet, it is unclear if elevated resting blood pressure (ERBP) augments these autonomic derangements in PTSD. We hypothesized that compared with normotensive PTSD (N-PTSD), those with ERBP (E-PTSD) have further increased SNS, decreased PNS activity, and impaired BRS at rest and exaggerated SNS reactivity, PNS withdrawal, and pressor responses during stress. In 16 E-PTSD and 17 matched N-PTSD, we measured continuous BP, ECG, muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA), and heart rate variability (HRV) markers reflecting cardiac PNS activity [standard deviation of R-R intervals (SDNN), root mean square of differences in successive R-R intervals (RMSSD), and high frequency power (HF)] during 5 min of rest and 3 min of mental arithmetic. Resting MSNA ( P = 0.943), sympathetic BRS ( P = 0.189), and cardiovagal BRS ( P = 0.332) were similar between groups. However, baseline SDNN (56 ± 6 vs. 78 ± 8 ms, P = 0.019), RMSSD (39 ± 6 vs. 63 ± 9 ms, P = 0.018), and HF (378 ± 103 vs. 693 ± 92 ms2, P = 0.015) were lower in E-PTSD versus N-PTSD. During mental stress, the systolic blood pressure response ( P = 0.011) was augmented in E-PTSD. Although MSNA reactivity was not different ( P > 0.05), the E-PTSD group had an exaggerated reduction in HRV during mental stress ( P < 0.05). PTSD with ERBP have attenuated resting cardiac PNS activity, coupled with exaggerated BP reactivity and PNS withdrawal during stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida T Fonkoue
- Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta, Georgia.,Research Service Line, Atlanta Veteran Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Mental Health Service Line, Atlanta Veteran Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia.,Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Paul J Marvar
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Institute for Neuroscience, George Washington University , Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Yunxiao Li
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Melanie L Kankam
- Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta, Georgia.,Research Service Line, Atlanta Veteran Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia
| | - Barbara O Rothbaum
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Institute for Neuroscience, George Washington University , Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Jeanie Park
- Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta, Georgia.,Research Service Line, Atlanta Veteran Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia
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22
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Fonkoue IT, Marvar PJ, Norrholm SD, Kankam ML, Li Y, DaCosta D, Rothbaum BO, Park J. Acute effects of device-guided slow breathing on sympathetic nerve activity and baroreflex sensitivity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2018; 315:H141-H149. [PMID: 29652544 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00098.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have elevated sympathetic nervous system reactivity and impaired sympathetic and cardiovagal baroreflex sensitivity (BRS). Device-guided slow breathing (DGB) has been shown to lower blood pressure (BP) and sympathetic activity in other patient populations. We hypothesized that DGB acutely lowers BP, heart rate (HR), and improves BRS in PTSD. In 23 prehypertensive veterans with PTSD, we measured continuous BP, ECG, and muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) at rest and during 15 min of DGB at 5 breaths/min ( n = 13) or identical sham device breathing at normal rates of 14 breaths/min (sham; n = 10). Sympathetic and cardiovagal BRS was quantified using pharmacological manipulation of BP via the modified Oxford technique at baseline and during the last 5 min of DGB or sham. There was a significant reduction in systolic BP (by -9 ± 2 mmHg, P < 0.001), diastolic BP (by -3 ± 1 mmHg, P = 0.019), mean arterial pressure (by -4 ± 1 mmHg, P = 0.002), and MSNA burst frequency (by -7.8 ± 2.1 bursts/min, P = 0.004) with DGB but no significant change in HR ( P > 0.05). Within the sham group, there was no significant change in diastolic BP, mean arterial pressure, HR, or MSNA burst frequency, but there was a small but significant decrease in systolic BP ( P = 0.034) and MSNA burst incidence ( P = 0.033). Sympathetic BRS increased significantly in the DGB group (-1.08 ± 0.25 to -2.29 ± 0.24 bursts·100 heart beats-1·mmHg-1, P = 0.014) but decreased in the sham group (-1.58 ± 0.34 to -0.82 ± 0.28 bursts·100 heart beats-1·mmHg-1, P = 0.025) (time × device, P = 0.001). There was no significant difference in the change in cardiovagal BRS between the groups (time × device, P = 0.496). DGB acutely lowers BP and MSNA and improves sympathetic but not cardiovagal BRS in prehypertensive veterans with PTSD. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Posttraumatic stress disorder is characterized by augmented sympathetic reactivity, impaired baroreflex sensitivity, and an increased risk for developing hypertension and cardiovascular disease. This is the first study to examine the potential beneficial effects of device-guided slow breathing on hemodynamics, sympathetic activity, and arterial baroreflex sensitivity in prehypertensive veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida T Fonkoue
- Division of Renal Medicine, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta, Georgia.,Research Service Line, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia
| | - Paul J Marvar
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Institute for Neuroscience, George Washington University , Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Mental Health Service Line, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia.,Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Melanie L Kankam
- Division of Renal Medicine, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta, Georgia.,Research Service Line, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia
| | - Yunxiao Li
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Dana DaCosta
- Division of Renal Medicine, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta, Georgia.,Research Service Line, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia
| | | | - Jeanie Park
- Division of Renal Medicine, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta, Georgia.,Research Service Line, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, Georgia
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23
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Maddox SA, Kilaru V, Shin J, Jovanovic T, Almli LM, Dias BG, Norrholm SD, Fani N, Michopoulos V, Ding Z, Conneely KN, Binder EB, Ressler KJ, Smith AK. Estrogen-dependent association of HDAC4 with fear in female mice and women with PTSD. Mol Psychiatry 2018; 23:658-665. [PMID: 28093566 PMCID: PMC5513798 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Revised: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Women are at increased risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following a traumatic event. Recent studies suggest that this may be mediated, in part, by circulating estrogen levels. This study evaluated the hypothesis that individual variation in response to estrogen levels contributes to fear regulation and PTSD risk in women. We evaluated DNA methylation from blood of female participants in the Grady Trauma Project and found that serum estradiol levels associates with DNA methylation across the genome. For genes expressed in blood, we examined the association between each CpG site and PTSD diagnosis using linear models that adjusted for cell proportions and age. After multiple test correction, PTSD associated with methylation of CpG sites in the HDAC4 gene, which encodes histone deacetylase 4, and is involved in long-term memory formation and behavior. DNA methylation of HDAC4 CpG sites were tagged by a nearby single-nucleotide polymorphism (rs7570903), which also associated with HDAC4 expression, fear-potentiated startle and resting-state functional connectivity of the amygdala in traumatized humans. Using auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning in a rodent model, we examined the regulation of Hdac4 in the amygdala of ovariectomized (OVX) female mice. Hdac4 messenger RNA levels were higher in the amygdala 2 h after tone-shock presentations, compared with OVX-homecage control females. In naturally cycling females, tone-shock presentations increased Hdac4 expression relative to homecage controls for metestrous (low estrogen) but not the proestrous (high estrogen) group. Together, these results support an estrogenic influence of HDAC4 regulation and expression that may contribute to PTSD in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Maddox
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA,McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA
| | - V Kilaru
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Shin
- Center for Advanced Brain Imaging (CABI), Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - T Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - L M Almli
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - B G Dias
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA,Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - S D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - N Fani
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - V Michopoulos
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Z Ding
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - K N Conneely
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - E B Binder
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA,Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - K J Ressler
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA,McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA,Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - A K Smith
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA,Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA,Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, School of Medicine, Emory University, 101 Woodruff Circle NE, Suite 4217, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. E-mail:
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24
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Young MB, Norrholm SD, Khoury LM, Jovanovic T, Rauch SAM, Reiff CM, Dunlop BW, Rothbaum BO, Howell LL. Inhibition of serotonin transporters disrupts the enhancement of fear memory extinction by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:2883-2895. [PMID: 28741031 PMCID: PMC5693755 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4684-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) persistently improves symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) when combined with psychotherapy. Studies in rodents suggest that these effects can be attributed to enhancement of fear memory extinction. Therefore, MDMA may improve the effects of exposure-based therapy for PTSD, particularly in treatment-resistant patients. However, given MDMA's broad pharmacological profile, further investigation is warranted before moving to a complex clinical population. OBJECTIVES We aimed to inform clinical research by providing a translational model of MDMA's effect, and elucidating monoaminergic mechanisms through which MDMA enhances fear extinction. METHODS We explored the importance of monoamine transporters targeted by MDMA to fear memory extinction, as measured by reductions in conditioned freezing and fear-potentiated startle (FPS) in mice. Mice were treated with selective inhibitors of individual monoamine transporters prior to combined MDMA treatment and fear extinction training. RESULTS MDMA enhanced the lasting extinction of FPS. Acute and chronic treatment with a 5-HT transporter (5-HTT) inhibitor blocked MDMA's effect on fear memory extinction. Acute inhibition of dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) transporters had no effect. 5-HT release alone did not enhance extinction. Blockade of MDMA's effect by 5-HTT inhibition also downregulated 5-HT2A-mediated behavior, and 5-HT2A antagonism disrupted MDMA's effect on extinction. CONCLUSIONS We validate enhancement of fear memory extinction by MDMA in a translational behavioral model, and reveal the importance of 5-HTT and 5-HT2A receptors to this effect. These observations support future clinical research of MDMA as an adjunct to exposure therapy, and provide important pharmacological considerations for clinical use in a population frequently treated with 5-HTT inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Young
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd NE #2101, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd NE #2101, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Mental Health Service Line, Decatur, GA, USA
| | | | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd NE #2101, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Mental Health Service Line, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Sheila A M Rauch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd NE #2101, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Mental Health Service Line, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Collin M Reiff
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd NE #2101, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Boadie W Dunlop
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd NE #2101, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Barbara O Rothbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd NE #2101, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Leonard L Howell
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd NE #2101, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
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25
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Michopoulos V, Norrholm SD, Stevens JS, Glover EM, Rothbaum BO, Gillespie CF, Schwartz AC, Ressler KJ, Jovanovic T. Dexamethasone facilitates fear extinction and safety discrimination in PTSD: A placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 83:65-71. [PMID: 28595089 PMCID: PMC5524593 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2017] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Psychophysiological hallmarks of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) include exaggerated fear responses, impaired inhibition and extinction of conditioned fear, and decreased discrimination between safety and fear cues. This increased fear load associated with PTSD can be a barrier to effective therapy thus indicating the need for new treatments to reduce fear expression in people with PTSD. One potential biological target for reducing fear expression in PTSD is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is dysregulated in PTSD. Recent translational rodent studies and cross-sectional clinical studies have shown that dexamethasone administration and the resulting suppression of cortisol in individuals with PTSD leads to a decrease in the fear responses characteristic of PTSD. These data, taken together, suggest that dexamethasone may serve as a novel pharmacologic intervention for heightened fear responses in PTSD. We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to test our hypothesis that dexamethasone administration and the concomitant suppression of HPA axis hyperactivity would attenuate fear expression and enhance fear extinction in individuals with PTSD. Study participants (n=62) were recruited from Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, GA. Participants were randomized to receive dexamethasone or placebo prior to fear conditioning and extinction, in a counterbalanced design (treatments separated by a week). Both PTSD- (n=37) and PTSD+ (n=25) participants showed significant startle increases in the presence of the danger signal during placebo and dexamethasone treatments (all p<0.05). However, only PTSD- control participants showed decreases in fear-potentiated startle across extinction blocks during both conditions (p's≤0.001), with PTSD+ participants showing deficits in fear extinction and safety discrimination in the placebo condition. Notably, extinction and discrimination deficits in PTSD+ subjects were markedly reversed with dexamethasone (p<0.001). These data suggest that dexamethasone may serve as a pharmacological agent with which to facilitate fear extinction and discrimination in individuals with PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Michopoulos
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Mental Health Service Line, Decatur
| | - Jennifer S. Stevens
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ebony M. Glover
- Department of Psychology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia
| | - Barbara O. Rothbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Charles F. Gillespie
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ann C. Schwartz
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Harvard/McLean Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia.
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26
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Maples-Keller JL, Price M, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Odenat L, Post L, Zwiebach L, Breazeale K, Gross R, Kim SJ, Rothbaum BO. Targeting memory reconsolidation to prevent the return of fear in patients with fear of flying. Depress Anxiety 2017; 34:610-620. [PMID: 28380277 DOI: 10.1002/da.22626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND When a memory is recalled, it may again exist in a labile state and stored information becomes amenable to change, a psychobiological process known as reconsolidation. Exposure therapy for anxiety disorders involves accessing a fear memory and modifying it with less fearful information. A preclinical study reported that providing a reminder of a fear memory 10 min prior to extinction training in humans decreased fear up to 1 year later (Schiller et al., 2010). METHODS For this pilot clinical study, we used virtual reality exposure therapy (VRE) for fear of flying (FoF) to determine if using a cue to reactivate the memory of the feared stimulus 10 min prior to exposure sessions leads to fewer anxiety-related behaviors and a more durable response compared to a neutral cue. FoF participants (N = 89) received four sessions of anxiety management training followed by four sessions of VRE. Participants were randomly assigned to receive an FoF cue (reactivation group) or a neutral cue (control group) prior to the VRE sessions. Heart rate (HR) and skin conductance levels (SCLs) were collected during posttreatment and 3-month follow-up assessments as objective markers of fear responding. RESULTS Treatment was effective and all clinical measures improved equally between groups at posttreatment with maintained gains through follow-ups. Significant differences were identified with regard to HR and SCL indices. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that memory reactivation prior to exposure therapy did not have an impact on clinical measures but may enhance the effect of exposure therapy at the physiological level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Maples-Keller
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Matthew Price
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Lydia Odenat
- Carrefour of Atlanta: Psychological Health Institute (CAPHI), Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Loren Post
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Liza Zwiebach
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kathryn Breazeale
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Robin Gross
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Sae-Jin Kim
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Barbara Olasov Rothbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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27
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Park J, Marvar PJ, Liao P, Kankam ML, Norrholm SD, Downey RM, McCullough SA, Le NA, Rothbaum BO. Baroreflex dysfunction and augmented sympathetic nerve responses during mental stress in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. J Physiol 2017; 595:4893-4908. [PMID: 28503726 DOI: 10.1113/jp274269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are at a significantly higher risk of developing hypertension and cardiovascular disease. The mechanisms underlying this increased risk are not known. Studies have suggested that PTSD patients have an overactive sympathetic nervous system (SNS) that could contribute to cardiovascular risk; however, sympathetic function has not previously been rigorously evaluated in PTSD patients. Using direct measurements of sympathetic nerve activity and pharmacological manipulation of blood pressure, we show that veterans with PTSD have augmented SNS and haemodynamic reactivity during both combat-related and non-combat related mental stress, impaired sympathetic and cardiovagal baroreflex sensitivity, and increased inflammation. Identifying the mechanisms contributing to increased cardiovascular (CV) risk in PTSD will pave the way for developing interventions to improve sympathetic function and reduce CV risk in these patients. ABSTRACT Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with increased cardiovascular (CV) risk. We tested the hypothesis that PTSD patients have augmented sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and haemodynamic reactivity during mental stress, as well as impaired arterial baroreflex sensitivity (BRS). Fourteen otherwise healthy Veterans with combat-related PTSD were compared with 14 matched Controls without PTSD. Muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA), continuous blood pressure (BP) and electrocardiography were measured at baseline, as well as during two types of mental stress: combat-related mental stress using virtual reality combat exposure (VRCE) and non-combat related stress using mental arithmetic (MA). A cold pressor test (CPT) was administered for comparison. BRS was tested using pharmacological manipulation of BP via the Modified Oxford technique at rest and during VRCE. Blood samples were analysed for inflammatory biomarkers. Baseline characteristics, MSNA and haemodynamics were similar between the groups. In PTSD vs. Controls, MSNA (+8.2 ± 1.0 vs. +1.2 ± 1.3 bursts min-1 , P < 0.001) and heart rate responses (+3.2 ± 1.1 vs. -2.3 ± 1.0 beats min-1 , P = 0.003) were significantly augmented during VRCE. Similarly, in PTSD vs. Controls, MSNA (+21.0 ± 2.6 vs. +6.7 ± 1.5 bursts min-1 , P < 0.001) and diastolic BP responses (+6.3 ± 1.0 vs. +3.5 ± 1.0 mmHg, P = 0.011) were significantly augmented during MA but not during CPT (P = not significant). In the PTSD group, sympathetic BRS (-1.2 ± 0.2 vs. -2.0 ± 0.3 burst incidence mmHg-1 , P = 0.026) and cardiovagal BRS (9.5 ± 1.4 vs. 23.6 ± 4.3 ms mmHg-1 , P = 0.008) were significantly blunted at rest. PTSD patients had significantly higher highly sensitive-C-reactive protein levels compared to Controls (2.1 ± 0.4 vs. 1.0 ± 0.3 mg L-1 , P = 0.047). Augmented SNS and haemodynamic responses to mental stress, blunted BRS and inflammation may contribute to an increased CV risk in PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanie Park
- Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Research Service Line, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Paul J Marvar
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Institute for Neuroscience, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Peizhou Liao
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Melanie L Kankam
- Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Research Service Line, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Mental Health Service Line, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA.,Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ryan M Downey
- Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Research Service Line, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - S Ashley McCullough
- Mental Health Service Line, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA.,Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ngoc-Anh Le
- Biomarker Core Laboratory, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
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28
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Wingo AP, Briscione M, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, McCullough SA, Skelton K, Bradley B. Psychological resilience is associated with more intact social functioning in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder and depression. Psychiatry Res 2017; 249:206-211. [PMID: 28119173 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Patients with depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), common sequelae among individuals exposed to stressful or traumatic events, often report impairment in social functioning. Resilience is a multidimensional construct that enables adaptive coping with life adversity. Relationship between resilience and social functioning among veterans with depression and PTSD is not entirely clear and is the focus of this report. Resilience was assessed in 264 veterans using the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, PTSD with the PTSD Symptom Scale, depression with the Beck Depression Inventory, and social functioning with the Short Form Health Survey. Higher resilience was associated with more intact social functioning after PTSD and depression severity, childhood maltreatment, physical health, gender, education, marital status, and employment were simultaneously adjusted for. Childhood maltreatment, gender, marital status, education, and employment did not predict social functioning; however, greater severity of PTSD, depression, or physical health problems was each significantly associated with more impaired social functioning. Our findings suggest that higher resilience was associated with more intact social functioning regardless of the severity of PTSD and depression. Given the importance of social functioning in depression and/or PTSD recovery, studies are needed to examine if enhancing resilience presents a complementary approach to alleviating impaired social functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aliza P Wingo
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Trauma Recovery Program, 1670 Clairmont Road Decatur, GA 30033, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 101 Woodruff Circle, Room 4339, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Maria Briscione
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Trauma Recovery Program, 1670 Clairmont Road Decatur, GA 30033, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 101 Woodruff Circle, Room 4339, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Trauma Recovery Program, 1670 Clairmont Road Decatur, GA 30033, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 101 Woodruff Circle, Room 4339, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 101 Woodruff Circle, Room 4339, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - S Ashley McCullough
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Trauma Recovery Program, 1670 Clairmont Road Decatur, GA 30033, USA
| | - Kelly Skelton
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Trauma Recovery Program, 1670 Clairmont Road Decatur, GA 30033, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 101 Woodruff Circle, Room 4339, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Atlanta VA Medical Center, Trauma Recovery Program, 1670 Clairmont Road Decatur, GA 30033, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, 101 Woodruff Circle, Room 4339, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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29
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Orcutt HK, Hannan SM, Seligowski AV, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Ressler KJ, McCanne T. Fear-Potentiated Startle and Fear Extinction in a Sample of Undergraduate Women Exposed to a Campus Mass Shooting. Front Psychol 2017; 7:2031. [PMID: 28111559 PMCID: PMC5216047 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common psychological disorder that affects a substantial minority of individuals. Previous research has suggested that PTSD can be partially explained as a disorder of impaired fear inhibition. The current study utilized a previously validated fear acquisition and extinction paradigm in a sample of 75 undergraduate women who were exposed to a campus mass shooting that occurred in 2008. We used a protocol in which conditioned fear was first acquired through the presentation of one colored shape (reinforced conditioned stimulus, CS+) that was paired with an aversive airblast to the larynx (unconditioned stimulus, US) and a different colored shape that was not paired with the airblast (non-reinforced conditioned stimulus, CS-). Fear was extinguished 10 min later through repeated presentations of the CSs without reinforcement. Number of clinically significant posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) immediately following the mass shooting were positively associated with fear-potentiated startle (FPS) to the CS+ and CS- during late periods of acquisition. During early periods of fear extinction, PTSS was positively associated with FPS to the CS+. Results from the current study suggest that PTSS is related to altered fear inhibition and extinction during an FPS paradigm. In line with similar research, women with greater PTSS demonstrated a greater “fear load,” suggesting that these women experienced elevated fear to the CS+ during extinction after conditioned fear was acquired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly K Orcutt
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb IL, USA
| | - Susan M Hannan
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb IL, USA
| | | | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, AtlantaGA, USA; Trauma Recovery Program, Atlanta Veteran Affairs Medical Center, DecaturGA, USA
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, AtlantaGA, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy ChaseMD, USA; Program in Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, BostonMA, USA
| | - Thomas McCanne
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb IL, USA
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30
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Costanzo M, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Ndiongue R, Reinhardt B, Roy MJ. Psychophysiological Investigation of Combat Veterans with Subthreshold Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms. Mil Med 2016; 181:793-802. [DOI: 10.7205/milmed-d-14-00671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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31
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Seligowski AV, Lee DJ, Miron LR, Orcutt HK, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD. Prospective Associations between Emotion Dysregulation and Fear-Potentiated Startle: The Moderating Effect of Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia. Front Psychol 2016; 7:652. [PMID: 27199871 PMCID: PMC4858525 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Emotion dysregulation has been implicated in the negative outcomes following trauma exposure. A proposed biomarker of emotion dysregulation, respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), has demonstrated associations with trauma-related phenomena, such as the fear-potentiated startle (FPS) response. The current study aimed to examine the prospective association between emotion dysregulation and RSA and FPS several years following trauma exposure. Methods: Participants were 131 women exposed to a campus mass shooting on February 14, 2008. Pre-shooting emotion dysregulation was assessed in 2006–2008. Startle response, measured by orbicularis oculi electromyography (EMG), and RSA were gathered during an FPS paradigm conducted from 2012 to 2015. Results: No significant associations among emotion dysregulation, RSA, and FPS emerged among the full sample. However, emotion dysregulation predicted FPS during both acquisition (r = 0.40, p < 0.05) and extinction (r = 0.57, p < 0.01) among individuals with high resting RSA. Conclusions: Findings suggest that pre-shooting emotion dysregulation is a potent predictor of FPS several years following potential trauma exposure, and this association varies by RSA level. Results emphasize the importance of examining autonomic regulation in the association between emotion dysregulation and recovery from trauma exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel J Lee
- Department of Psychology, Auburn University Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Lynsey R Miron
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University DeKalb, IL, USA
| | - Holly K Orcutt
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University DeKalb, IL, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, GA, USA; Trauma Recovery Program, Atlanta Veteran Affairs Medical CenterDecatur, GA, USA
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32
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Sawamura T, Klengel T, Armario A, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Ressler KJ, Andero R. Dexamethasone Treatment Leads to Enhanced Fear Extinction and Dynamic Fkbp5 Regulation in Amygdala. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:832-46. [PMID: 26174596 PMCID: PMC4707829 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Revised: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is both a prevalent and debilitating trauma-related disorder associated with dysregulated fear learning at the core of many of its signs and symptoms. Improvements in the currently available psychological and pharmacological treatments are needed in order to improve PTSD treatment outcomes and to prevent symptom relapse. In the present study, we used a putative animal model of PTSD that included presentation of immobilization stress (IMO) followed by fear conditioning (FC) a week later. We then investigated the acute effects of GR receptor activation on the extinction (EXT) of conditioned freezing, using dexamethasone administered systemically which is known to result in suppression of the HPA axis. In our previous work, IMO followed by tone-shock-mediated FC was associated with impaired fear EXT. In this study, we administered dexamethasone 4 h before EXT training and then examined EXT retention (RET) 24 h later to determine whether dexamethasone suppression rescued EXT deficits. Dexamethasone treatment produced dose-dependent enhancement of both EXT and RET. Dexamethasone was also associated with reduced amygdala Fkbp5 mRNA expression following EXT and after RET. Moreover, DNA methylation of the Fkbp5 gene occurred in a dose-dependent and time course-dependent manner within the amygdala. Additionally, we found dynamic changes in epigenetic regulation, including Dnmt and Tet gene pathways, as a function of both fear EXT and dexamethasone suppression of the HPA axis. Together, these data suggest that dexamethasone may serve to enhance EXT by altering Fkbp5-mediated glucocorticoid sensitivity via epigenetic regulation of Fkbp5 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehito Sawamura
- Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA, USA,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA,Self Defense Forces Yokosuka Hospital, Yokosuka City, Japan
| | - Torsten Klengel
- Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA, USA,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Antonio Armario
- Institut de Neurociènces, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA, USA,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Raül Andero
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA,Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA, Tel: +617 855 4216, Fax: 617 855 3479, E-mail:
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33
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Highland KB, Costanzo M, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Ndiongue R, Reinhardt B, Rothbaum B, Roy MJ. Biomarkers of post-deployment resilience among military service members. Neurobiol Stress 2015; 2:62-6. [PMID: 26844241 PMCID: PMC4721320 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Revised: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of PTSD after military deployment is influenced by a combination of biopsychosocial risk and resilience factors. In particular, physiological factors may mark risk for symptom progression or resiliency. Research in civilian populations suggests elevated catecholamines after trauma are associated with PTSD months following the trauma. However, less is known regarding physiological markers of PTSD resilience among post-deployment service members (SM). We therefore assessed whether catecholamines obtained shortly after deployment were associated with combat-related PTSD symptoms three months later. Eighty-seven SMs completed the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-IV and blood draws within two months after return from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan ("Time 1" or "T1") and three months later ("Time 2" or "T2"). Linear regression analyses demonstrated that lower norepinephrine at T1 was associated with lower PTSD symptoms at T2. In particular, T1 norepinephrine was positively associated with T2 symptom intensity and avoidance symptoms. The present findings represent a biologically-informed method of assessing PTSD resilience after deployment, which may aid clinicians in providing tailored treatments for those in the greatest need. Further research is needed to validate these findings and incorporate physiological measures within an assessment battery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista B Highland
- Department of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, United States; Henry M. Jackson Foundation, United States
| | - Michelle Costanzo
- Department of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, United States; Henry M. Jackson Foundation, United States
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, United States
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Atlanta Veterans' Affairs Medical Center, United States; Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, United States
| | - Rochelle Ndiongue
- National Intrepid Center of Excellence, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, United States
| | - Brian Reinhardt
- Department of Research Programs, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, United States
| | - Barbara Rothbaum
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, United States
| | - Michael J Roy
- Department of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, United States
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34
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Price M, Maples JL, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Heekin M, Rothbaum BO. An investigation of outcome expectancies as a predictor of treatment response for combat veterans with PTSD: comparison of clinician, self-report, and biological measures. Depress Anxiety 2015; 32:392-9. [PMID: 25703611 PMCID: PMC4437876 DOI: 10.1002/da.22354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 12/21/2014] [Accepted: 12/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Outcome expectancy, or the degree to which a client believes that therapy will result in improvement, is related to improved treatment outcomes for multiple disorders. There is a paucity of research investigating this relation in regards to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Additionally, the bulk of the research on outcome expectancy and treatment outcomes has relied mostly on self-report outcome measures. METHODS The relation between outcome expectancy on self-report measures, clinician-rated measures, and two biological indices (fear-potentiated startle and cortisol reactivity) of PTSD symptoms was explored. The sample included combat veterans (N = 116) treated with virtual reality exposure therapy for PTSD. RESULTS Results supported a negative association between outcome expectancy and both self-report and clinician-rated symptoms at the conclusion of treatment, but outcome expectancy was related to the magnitude of change during treatment for self-report measures only. Outcome expectancy was unrelated to biological measures of treatment response. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that outcome expectancy may be related to patient and clinician perceptions of outcomes, but not biological indices of outcome for PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Price
- University of Vermont, Department of Psychology,Corresponding Author: University of Vermont, Department of Psychology, Room 248, 2 Colchester Avenue, Burlington, VT 05405, Phone: 802-656-3801,
| | | | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Emory University, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Emory University, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Mary Heekin
- Emory University, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
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35
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Gamwell K, Nylocks M, Cross D, Bradley B, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T. Fear conditioned responses and PTSD symptoms in children: Sex differences in fear-related symptoms. Dev Psychobiol 2015; 57:799-808. [PMID: 26011240 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Fear conditioning studies in adults have found that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with heightened fear responses and impaired discrimination. The objective of the current study was to examine the association between PTSD symptoms and fear conditioned responses in children from a highly traumatized urban population. Children between 8 and 13 years old participated in a fear conditioning study in addition to providing information about their trauma history and PTSD symptoms. Results showed that females showed less discrimination between danger and safety signals during conditioning compared to age-matched males. In boys, intrusive symptoms were predictive of fear responses, even after controlling for trauma exposure. However, in girls, conditioned fear to the danger cue was predictive of self-blame and fear of repeated trauma. This study suggests there are early sex differences in the patterns of fear conditioning and that these sex differences may translate to differential risk for trauma-related psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn Gamwell
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Maria Nylocks
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Dorthie Cross
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA.,Mental Health Service, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Atlanta, GA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA.,Mental Health Service, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Atlanta, GA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA.
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36
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Highland KB, Costanzo ME, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Ndiongue RB, Reinhardt BJ, Rothbaum B, Rizzo AA, Roy MJ. Catecholamine responses to virtual combat: implications for post-traumatic stress and dimensions of functioning. Front Psychol 2015; 6:256. [PMID: 25852586 PMCID: PMC4362077 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms can result in functional impairment among service members (SMs), even in those without a clinical diagnosis. The variability in outcomes may be related to underlying catecholamine mechanisms. Individuals with PTSD tend to have elevated basal catecholamine levels, though less is known regarding catecholamine responses to trauma-related stimuli. We assessed whether catecholamine responses to a virtual combat environment impact the relationship between PTSD symptom clusters and elements of functioning. Eighty-seven clinically healthy SMs, within 2 months after deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan, completed self-report measures, viewed virtual-reality (VR) combat sequences, and had sequential blood draws. Norepinephrine responses to VR combat exposure moderated the relationship between avoidance symptoms and scales of functioning including physical functioning, physical-role functioning, and vitality. Among those with high levels of avoidance, norepinephrine change was inversely associated with functional status, whereas a positive correlation was observed for those with low levels of avoidance. Our findings represent a novel use of a virtual environment to display combat-related stimuli to returning SMs to elucidate mind-body connections inherent in their responses. The insight gained improves our understanding of post-deployment symptoms and quality of life in SMs and may facilitate enhancements in treatment. Further research is needed to validate these findings in other populations and to define the implications for treatment effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista B Highland
- Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD USA ; Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD USA ; Henry Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Michelle E Costanzo
- Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD USA ; Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD USA ; Henry Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA USA ; Atlanta Veterans' Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA USA
| | - Rochelle B Ndiongue
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, National Intrepid Center of Excellence, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Brian J Reinhardt
- Department of Research Programs, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Barbara Rothbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Albert A Rizzo
- Exploratory Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Neuroplasticity and Stroke Rehabilitation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Michael J Roy
- Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD USA ; Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD USA
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Fani N, King TZ, Brewster R, Srivastava A, Stevens JS, Glover EM, Norrholm SD, Bradley B, Ressler KJ, Jovanovic T. Fear-potentiated startle during extinction is associated with white matter microstructure and functional connectivity. Cortex 2014; 64:249-59. [PMID: 25522360 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2014.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Revised: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extinction of conditioned fear is an associative learning process that involves communication among the hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex, and amygdala. Strength of connectivity between the hippocampus and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and between the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), may influence fear-potentiated startle (FPS) responses during extinction. Specific white matter tracts, the cingulum and uncinate fasciculus (UF), serve as primary routes of communication for these areas. Our objective was to investigate associations between FPS during extinction and cingulum and UF connectivity. METHOD Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and probabilistic tractography analyses were used to examine cingulum and UF structural connectivity in 40 female African-Americans with psychological trauma exposure. FPS responses during fear conditioning and extinction were assessed via electromyography (EMG) of the right orbicularis oculi muscle. Secondarily, functional connectivity analyses were performed with the seed regions of interest (ROIs) used for tractography. RESULTS A significant negative association between cingulum microstructure and FPS during early extinction (r = -.42, p = .01) and late extinction (r = -.36, p = .03) was observed after accounting for the effects of age, trauma exposure, and psychopathology (post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms); this pattern was similar for early extinction and functional connectivity between these regions (p < .05(corrected)). No significant correlations were observed between FPS and UF microstructure. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that structural integrity of the cingulum is directly associated with extinction learning and appears to influence functional connectivity between these regions. Decrements in cingulum microstructure may interfere with extinction learning, thereby increasing risk for the development of pathological anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negar Fani
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Tricia Z King
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ryan Brewster
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Jennifer S Stevens
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ebony M Glover
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA; Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur GA, USA
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA; Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur GA, USA
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Rothbaum BO, Price M, Jovanovic T, Norrholm SD, Gerardi M, Dunlop B, Davis M, Bradley B, Duncan E, Rizzo A“S, Ressler KJ. A randomized, double-blind evaluation of D-cycloserine or alprazolam combined with virtual reality exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in Iraq and Afghanistan War veterans. Am J Psychiatry 2014; 171:640-8. [PMID: 24743802 PMCID: PMC4115813 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13121625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The authors examined the effectiveness of virtual reality exposure augmented with D-cycloserine or alprazolam, compared with placebo, in reducing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to military trauma. METHOD After an introductory session, five sessions of virtual reality exposure were augmented with D-cycloserine (50 mg) or alprazolam (0.25 mg) in a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial for 156 Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans with PTSD. RESULTS PTSD symptoms significantly improved from pre- to posttreatment across all conditions and were maintained at 3, 6, and 12 months. There were no overall differences in symptoms between D-cycloserine and placebo at any time. Alprazolam and placebo differed significantly on the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale score at posttreatment and PTSD diagnosis at 3 months posttreatment; the alprazolam group showed a higher rate of PTSD (82.8%) than the placebo group (47.8%). Between-session extinction learning was a treatment-specific enhancer of outcome for the D-cycloserine group only. At posttreatment, the D-cycloserine group had the lowest cortisol reactivity and smallest startle response during virtual reality scenes. CONCLUSIONS A six-session virtual reality treatment was associated with reduction in PTSD diagnoses and symptoms in Iraq and Afghanistan veterans, although there was no control condition for the virtual reality exposure. There was no advantage of D-cycloserine for PTSD symptoms in primary analyses. In secondary analyses, alprazolam impaired recovery and D-cycloserine enhanced virtual reality outcome in patients who demonstrated within-session learning. D-cycloserine augmentation reduced cortisol and startle reactivity more than did alprazolam or placebo, findings that are consistent with those in the animal literature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Bekh Bradley
- Emory University School of Medicine,Atlanta VAMC
| | - Erica Duncan
- Emory University School of Medicine,Atlanta VAMC
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Robison-Andrew EJ, Duval ER, Nelson CB, Echiverri-Cohen A, Giardino N, Defever A, Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Rothbaum BO, Liberzon I, Rauch SAM. Changes in trauma-potentiated startle with treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in combat Veterans. J Anxiety Disord 2014; 28:358-62. [PMID: 24786361 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Emotional Processing Theory proposes that habituation to trauma-related stimuli is an essential component of PTSD treatment. However, the mechanisms underlying treatment-related habituation are not well understood. We examined one psychophysiological measure that holds potential for elucidating the biological processes involved in treatment response: trauma-potentiated startle response. Seventeen OEF/OIF combat Veterans participated in the study and completed three assessments using a trauma-potentiated startle paradigm over PTSD treatment. Results revealed different patterns of trauma-potentiated startle across treatment for responders and nonresponders, but no differences in within task habituation. Responders showed an increase followed by a decrease in trauma-potentiated startle, whereas nonresponders showed a relatively flat response profile. Results suggested that PTSD patients who engage with emotional content as demonstrated by greater startle reactivity may be more likely to respond to PTSD treatment. Furthermore, trauma-potentiated startle shows promise as an objective measure of psychophysiological responses involved in PTSD recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth R Duval
- PTSD Clinical Team, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan Medical School, United States
| | - C Beau Nelson
- PTSD Clinical Team, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan Medical School, United States
| | | | - Nicholas Giardino
- PTSD Clinical Team, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan Medical School, United States
| | - Andrew Defever
- PTSD Clinical Team, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, United States
| | | | | | | | - Israel Liberzon
- PTSD Clinical Team, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan Medical School, United States
| | - Sheila A M Rauch
- PTSD Clinical Team, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan Medical School, United States
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Glover EM, Mercer KB, Norrholm SD, Davis M, Duncan E, Bradley B, Ressler KJ, Jovanovic T. Inhibition of fear is differentially associated with cycling estrogen levels in women. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2013; 38:341-8. [PMID: 23611176 PMCID: PMC3756118 DOI: 10.1503/jpn.120129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is twice as high in women as it is in men, the role of estrogen in the risk for PTSD is not well understood. Deficits in fear inhibition and impaired safety signal learning may be biomarkers for PTSD. We examined menstrual cycle phase and serum estradiol levels in naturally cycling women while they were undergoing a novel conditioned inhibition procedure that measured their ability to discriminate between cues representing danger versus safety and to inhibit fear in the presence of safety cues. METHODS Sample 1 included healthy participants in whom we compared inhibition of fearpotentiated startle during the follicular (lower estrogen) and luteal (higher estrogen) phases of the menstrual cycle. We used the same paradigm in a traumatized clinical population (sample 2) in whom we compared low versus high estradiol levels. RESULTS In both samples, we found that lower estrogen in cycling women was associated with impaired fear inhibition. LIMITATIONS In the clinical sample, the low estradiol group was on average older than the high estradiol group owing to the random recruitment approach; we did not exclude participants based on hormonal status or menopause. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that the lower estrogen state during normal menstrual cycling may contribute to risk for anxiety disorders through dysregulated fear responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebony M. Glover
- Correspondence to: E.M. Glover, Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 49 Jesse Hill Jr. Dr. Suite, Atlanta GA 30303, USA;
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41
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Jovanovic T, Sakoman AJ, Kozarić-Kovačić D, Meštrović AH, Duncan EJ, Davis M, Norrholm SD. Acute stress disorder versus chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: inhibition of fear as a function of time since trauma. Depress Anxiety 2013; 30:217-24. [PMID: 22907890 PMCID: PMC3752410 DOI: 10.1002/da.21991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 07/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous work has shown that inhibition of fear is impaired in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) resulting from both civilian and combat trauma. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the inhibition of learned fear in traumatized individuals diagnosed with either acute stress disorder (ASD) or PTSD. This is the first study to use a conditioned inhibition paradigm with traumatized individuals within a month of trauma exposure. We hypothesized that impaired fear inhibition would be evident in PTSD, but not ASD. METHOD Using established translational, psychophysiological methods including fear-potentiated startle, and skin conductance, we examined fear acquisition, stimulus discrimination, and the transfer of learned safety in a Croatian population with ASD or PTSD. This cross-sectional study included three age-matched groups: healthy nontrauma controls (n = 27), a group with chronic PTSD (10 or more years since trauma exposure, n = 24), and a group with ASD (30 days or less since trauma exposure, n = 27). RESULTS The presence of trauma-related psychopathology, whether acute or chronic, was associated with an impaired ability to transfer learned safety based on fear-potentiated startle measures, while healthy control subjects showed significant fear inhibition in the presence of the safety cue compared to the danger cue, F(1,26) = 12.64, P = .001. CONCLUSIONS These data expand our previously observed findings of PTSD-associated fear inhibition deficits by demonstrating that trauma-related impairments in safety learning are evident within 30 days of trauma exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Andrea Jambrošić Sakoman
- Department of Psychiatry, Referral Centre for the Stress Related Disorders of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Croatia, Regional Center for Psychotrauma, Dubrava University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dragica Kozarić-Kovačić
- Department of Psychiatry, Referral Centre for the Stress Related Disorders of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Croatia, Regional Center for Psychotrauma, Dubrava University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ana Havelka Meštrović
- Department of Psychiatry, Referral Centre for the Stress Related Disorders of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Croatia, Regional Center for Psychotrauma, Dubrava University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Erica J. Duncan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA
| | - Michael Davis
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA
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Roy MJ, Costanzo ME, Jovanovic T, Leaman S, Taylor P, Norrholm SD, Rizzo AA. Heart rate response to fear conditioning and virtual reality in subthreshold PTSD. Stud Health Technol Inform 2013; 191:115-119. [PMID: 23792855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a significant health concern for U.S. military service members (SMs) returning from Afghanistan and Iraq. Early intervention to prevent chronic disability requires greater understanding of subthreshold PTSD symptoms, which are associated with impaired physical health, mental health, and risk for delayed onset PTSD. We report a comparison of physiologic responses for recently deployed SMs with high and low subthreshold PTSD symptoms, respectively, to a fear conditioning task and novel virtual reality paradigm (Virtual Iraq). The high symptom group demonstrated elevated heart rate (HR) response during fear conditioning. Virtual reality sequences evoked significant HR responses which predicted variance of the PTSD Checklist-Military Version self-report. Our results support the value of physiologic assessment during fear conditioning and combat-related virtual reality exposure as complementary tools in detecting subthreshold PTSD symptoms in Veterans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Roy
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Department of Medicine, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Jovanovic T, Ely T, Fani N, Glover EM, Gutman D, Tone EB, Norrholm SD, Bradley B, Ressler KJ. Reduced neural activation during an inhibition task is associated with impaired fear inhibition in a traumatized civilian sample. Cortex 2012; 49:1884-91. [PMID: 23020899 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2012.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 08/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Impaired inhibition of fear in the presence of safety cues and a deficiency in the extinction of fear cues are increasingly thought to be important biological markers of Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Other studies have suggested that there may be altered neural activation during behavioral inhibition tasks in subjects with PTSD. The current study aimed to see whether neural activation during inhibition was reduced in a highly traumatized civilian population, and whether atypical activation was associated with impaired fear inhibition. METHODS The participants were 41 traumatized women (20 PTSD+, 21 PTSD-) recruited from Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, GA. We used a Go/NoGo procedure with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in a high-resolution 3T scanner. Participants were instructed to press a button whenever an "X" or "O" appeared on the screen, but not if a red square appeared behind the letter. Participants were assessed for trauma history and PTSD diagnosis, and completed a fear-potentiated startle and extinction paradigm. RESULTS We found stronger activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in traumatized subjects without PTSD compared to those with PTSD in the NoGo greater than Go contrast condition. Activation in the vmPFC was negatively correlated with fear-potentiated startle responses during safety signal learning (p = .02) and fear extinction (p = .0002). CONCLUSIONS These results contribute to understanding of how the neural circuitry involved in inhibitory processes may be deficient in PTSD. Furthermore, the same circuits involved in behavioral inhibition appear to be involved in fear inhibition processes during differential fear conditioning and extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
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Glover EM, Jovanovic T, Mercer KB, Kerley K, Bradley B, Ressler KJ, Norrholm SD. Estrogen levels are associated with extinction deficits in women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2012; 72:19-24. [PMID: 22502987 PMCID: PMC3675159 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Revised: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Women are twice as likely to develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than men. As shown in our previous work, the inability to suppress fear responses in safe conditions may be a biomarker for PTSD. Low estrogen in naturally cycling women is associated with deficits in fear extinction. On the basis of these findings, we have now examined the influence of estrogen levels on fear extinction in women with and without PTSD. METHODS We measured fear-potentiated startle during fear conditioning and extinction in women. The study sample (N = 81) was recruited from an urban, highly traumatized civilian population at Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia. We assayed serum estrogen levels and used a median split to divide the sample into high and low estradiol (E(2)) groups. Seventeen of 41 women (41.5%) in the low E(2) group and 15 of 40 women (37.5%) met criteria for PTSD in the high E(2) group. RESULTS The results showed that all groups had equivalent levels of fear conditioning. However, we found significant interaction effects between high versus low E(2) groups and PTSD diagnosis [F(1,71) = 4.55, p < .05] on extinction. Among women with low estrogen levels, fear-potentiated startle was higher during extinction in the PTSD group compared with traumatized control women [F(1,38) = 5.04, p < .05]. This effect was absent in the High E(2) group. CONCLUSION This study suggests that low estrogen may be a vulnerability factor for development of PTSD in women with trauma histories. Research on the role of estrogen in fear regulation may provide insight into novel treatment strategies for PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebony M Glover
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30303, USA.
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45
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Fani N, Tone EB, Phifer J, Norrholm SD, Bradley B, Ressler KJ, Kamkwalala A, Jovanovic T. Attention bias toward threat is associated with exaggerated fear expression and impaired extinction in PTSD. Psychol Med 2012; 42:533-543. [PMID: 21854700 PMCID: PMC3690118 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291711001565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) develops in a minority of traumatized individuals. Attention biases to threat and abnormalities in fear learning and extinction are processes likely to play a critical role in the creation and/or maintenance of PTSD symptomatology. However, the relationship between these processes has not been established, particularly in highly traumatized populations; understanding their interaction can help inform neural network models and treatments for PTSD. METHOD Attention biases were measured using a dot probe task modified for use with our population; task stimuli included photographs of angry facial expressions, which are emotionally salient threat signals. A fear-potentiated startle paradigm was employed to measure atypical physiological response during acquisition and extinction phases of fear learning. These measures were administered to a sample of 64 minority (largely African American), highly traumatized individuals with and without PTSD. RESULTS Participants with PTSD demonstrated attention biases toward threat; this attentional style was associated with exaggerated startle response during fear learning and early and middle phases of extinction, even after accounting for the effects of trauma exposure. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that an attentional bias toward threat is associated with abnormalities in 'fear load' in PTSD, providing seminal evidence for an interaction between these two processes. Future research combining these behavioral and psychophysiological techniques with neuroimaging will be useful toward addressing how one process may modulate the other and understanding whether these phenomena are manifestations of dysfunction within a shared neural network. Ultimately, this may serve to inform PTSD treatments specifically designed to correct these atypical processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Fani
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Glover EM, Phifer JE, Crain DF, Norrholm SD, Davis M, Bradley B, Ressler KJ, Jovanovic T. Tools for translational neuroscience: PTSD is associated with heightened fear responses using acoustic startle but not skin conductance measures. Depress Anxiety 2011; 28:1058-66. [PMID: 21898707 PMCID: PMC3229665 DOI: 10.1002/da.20880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2011] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients show heightened fear responses to trauma reminders and an inability to inhibit fear in the presence of safety reminders. Brain imaging studies suggest that this is in part due to amygdala over-reactivity as well as deficient top-down cortical inhibition of the amygdala. Consistent with these findings, previous studies, using fear-potentiated startle (FPS), have shown exaggerated startle and deficits in fear inhibition in PTSD participants. However, many PTSD studies using the skin conductance response (SCR) report no group differences in fear acquisition. METHOD The study included 41 participants with PTSD and 70 without PTSD. The fear conditioning session included a reinforced conditioned stimulus (CS+, danger cue) paired with an aversive airblast, and a nonreinforced conditioned stimulus (CS-, safety cue). Acoustic startle responses and SCR were acquired during the presentation of each CS. RESULTS The results showed that fear conditioned responses were captured in both the FPS and SCR measures. Furthermore, PTSD participants had higher FPS to the danger cue and safety cue compared to trauma controls. However, SCR did not differ between groups. Finally, we found that FPS to the danger cue predicted re-experiencing symptoms, whereas FPS to the safety cue predicted hyper-arousal symptoms. However, SCR did not contribute to PTSD symptom variance. CONCLUSIONS Replicating earlier studies, we showed increased FPS in PTSD participants. However, although SCR was a good measure of differential conditioning, it did not differentiate between PTSD groups. These data suggest that FPS may be a useful tool for translational research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebony M Glover
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30303, USA.
| | - Justine E Phifer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia
| | - Daniel F Crain
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia
| | - Seth D Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia,Atlanta VA Medical CenterDecatur, Georgia
| | - Michael Davis
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia,Howard Hughes Medical InstituteChevy Chase, Maryland
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia,Atlanta VA Medical CenterDecatur, Georgia
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia,Yerkes National Primate Research CenterAtlanta, Georgia,Howard Hughes Medical InstituteChevy Chase, Maryland
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia
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Norrholm SD, Anderson KM, Olin IW, Jovanovic T, Kwon C, Warren VT, McCarthy A, Bosshardt L, Sabree J, Duncan EJ, Rothbaum BO, Bradley B. Versatility of fear-potentiated startle paradigms for assessing human conditioned fear extinction and return of fear. Front Behav Neurosci 2011; 5:77. [PMID: 22125516 PMCID: PMC3221285 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fear conditioning methodologies have often been employed as testable models for assessing learned fear responses in individuals with anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and specific phobia. One frequently used paradigm is measurement of the acoustic startle reflex under conditions that mimic anxiogenic and fear-related conditions. For example, fear-potentiated startle is the relative increase in the frequency or magnitude of the acoustic startle reflex in the presence of a previously neutral cue (e.g., colored shape; termed the conditioned stimulus or CS+) that has been repeatedly paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (e.g., airblast to the larynx). Our group has recently used fear-potentiated startle paradigms to demonstrate impaired fear extinction in civilian and combat populations with PTSD. In the current study, we examined the use of either auditory or visual CSs in a fear extinction protocol that we have validated and applied to human clinical conditions. This represents an important translational bridge in that numerous animal studies of fear extinction, upon which much of the human work is based, have employed the use of auditory CSs as opposed to visual CSs. Participants in both the auditory and visual groups displayed robust fear-potentiated startle to the CS+, clear discrimination between the reinforced CS+ and non-reinforced CS−, significant extinction to the previously reinforced CS+, and marked spontaneous recovery. We discuss the current results as they relate to future investigations of PTSD-related impairments in fear processing in populations with diverse medical and psychiatric histories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth D Norrholm
- Trauma Recovery Program, Mental Health Service Line, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center Decatur, GA, USA
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Jovanovic T, Phifer JE, Sicking K, Weiss T, Norrholm SD, Bradley B, Ressler KJ. Cortisol suppression by dexamethasone reduces exaggerated fear responses in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011; 36:1540-52. [PMID: 21601366 PMCID: PMC3686475 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2010] [Revised: 04/12/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PTSD symptoms are associated with heightened fear responses in laboratory fear conditioning paradigms. This study examined the effects of dexamethasone administration on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function and fear-potentiated startle (FPS) in trauma-exposed individuals with and without PTSD. We used an established fear discrimination procedure, in which one visual stimulus (CS+, danger cue) was paired with aversive airblasts to the throat (unconditioned stimulus, US), and another stimulus (CS-, safety cue) was presented without airblasts. In addition to FPS, the dexamethasone suppression test (DST) was performed. The study sample (N=100) was recruited from a highly traumatized civilian population in Atlanta, GA. Half of the subjects (n=54, 16 PTSD, 38 controls) underwent conditioning at baseline and the other half (n=46, 17 PTSD, 29 controls) after DST, in a cross-sectional design. We found a significant interaction effect of diagnostic group and dexamethasone treatment. Under baseline conditions, subjects with PTSD showed more than twice as much fear-potentiated startle to the danger cue compared to traumatized controls, F(1,53)=8.08, p=0.006. However, there was no group difference in subjects tested after dexamethasone suppression. Furthermore, there was a significant treatment effect in PTSD subjects but not in controls, with dexamethasone reducing fear-potentiated startle to the CS+, F(1,32)=4.00, p=0.05. There was also a positive correlation between PTSD subjects' FPS and cortisol levels, r=0.46, p=0.01. These results suggest that transient suppression of HPA function via dexamethasone suppression may reduce exaggerated fear in patients with PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Jovanovic
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA 30303, United States.
| | - Justine E. Phifer
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Katie Sicking
- Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, United States
| | - Tamara Weiss
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA, United States,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Mental Health Service, Decatur, GA, United States
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA, United States,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Mental Health Service, Decatur, GA, United States
| | - Kerry J. Ressler
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA, United States,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Bethesda, MD, United States
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Ressler KJ, Mercer KB, Bradley B, Jovanovic T, Mahan A, Kerley K, Norrholm SD, Kilaru V, Smith AK, Myers AJ, Ramirez M, Engel A, Hammack SE, Toufexis D, Braas KM, Binder EB, May V. Post-traumatic stress disorder is associated with PACAP and the PAC1 receptor. Nature 2011. [DOI: 10.1038/nature10396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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