Effect of Scalp Block on Postoperative Pain Relief in Craniotomy Patients

The efficacy of scalp nerve block using 0.5% bupivacaine with adrenaline for postoperative pain relief in craniotomy patients was evaluated in 40 ASA I or II adult patients undergoing supratentorial craniotomy. A standard general anaesthesia technique was followed. Patients were randomly divided into two groups. Group B received 0.5% bupivacaine with 1:400,000 adrenaline and group S received normal saline with 1:400,000 adrenaline, both after skin closure. Postoperative pain was assessed at 30 seconds and 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 12 hours using a numerical rating scale. Diclofenac IM was administered as rescue analgesia if patients reported a numerical rating scale of 40 or more. Tramadol TV was administered as second rescue analgesia. Sixty per cent of patients in group S experienced moderate to severe pain (numerical rating scale of 40 or more) at some time during the first 12 postoperative hours in comparison to 25% patients in group B. Median pain scores were significantly lower in group B for up to 6 hours. Significantly more patients were pain free up to four hours in group B. Median duration for the requirement of first dose of diclofenac was longer in group B compared to group S (360 min vs 30 min, P<0.01). The number of doses of diclofenac (5 vs 19) was significantly lower in group B compared to group S (P<0.01). Tramadol was required by six patients in group S only. Scalp nerve block using 0.5% bupivacaine with 1:400,000 adrenaline decreases the incidence and severity of postoperative pain in patients undergoing supratentorial craniotomy.

Posterior midline approach for large anterior/anterolateral foramen magnum tumours

The standard surgical approaches described for excision of anterior or anterolaterally placed foramen magnum (FM) tumours are the far lateral approach, the extreme lateral approach and the transoral approach. In general the posterior midline approach is considered not suitable for these lesions. We have operated on 27 patients with benign anterior/anterolaterally placed FM tumours in the last 8 years. Thirteen of these were operated via the posterior midline approach. All these 13 patients had large or giant tumours displacing the cervicomedullary region posteriorly and laterally. This allowed adequate access through this approach with minimal handling of neural tissue. For small lesions, the far lateral approach was used. Most of the patients improved significantly neurologically. We recommend the standard midline posterior approach for large/giant FM tumours as the tumour size itself provides enough working space for the surgeon. For small lesions, the far lateral approach is preferred.

Decompressive surgery for acute subdural haematoma leading to contralateral extradural haematoma: a report of two casesand review of literature

Development of a contralateral epidural haematoma during or immediately after cranial surgery is a well-described entity. However, in a case of acute subdural haematoma where the brain is usually tense, postoperative development of contralateral extradural haematoma is uncommon. We report two cases of contralateral extradural haematoma after decompressive surgery for acute subdural haematoma. We recommend routine postoperative CT immediately after cranial surgery for head trauma. This would help in timely detection and treatment of such a complication.

Invasive intracranial aspergillosis: the management dilemmas

BACKGROUND

Invasive intracranial aspergillosis remains a disease with high morbidity and mortality. The rapid increase in the incidence of this disease led us to review the literature and formulate a treatment protocol for such patients.

METHODS

An analysis of 46 patients with invasive intracranial aspergillosis is presented and the subgroups of extradural and intradural variety are evaluated with different treatment strategies.

RESULTS

Patients with extradural form of disease had 100% survival, whereas antifungal chemotherapy preloading tends to provide a better outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Extradural aspergillosis does not need chemotherapy preloading, whereas intradural variant may have improved survival chances after preloading. Liposomal formulation has an advantage of shortened time duration for preloading, because the daily administration dose is 6 times higher than conventional preparation.

MIB-1 immunolabeling: a valuable marker in prediction of benign recurring meningiomas

Histological analysis has limited value to predict biological behavior of meningiomas. We investigated the utility of cell proliferative indicator in the evaluation of histologically benign meningiomas. We selected 25 benign non-recurrent meningiomas, 15 benign recurrent meningiomas after complete surgical resection, 30 atypical meningiomas, and 15 anaplastic meningiomas out of 384 cases studied. MIB-1 Labeling Index was evaluated by two methods: Highest Labeling Index (HLI) and Random Labeling Index (RLI). There was no dependable histological parameter to predict recurrence among benign-looking meningiomas. HLI had significant difference when compared with RLI in all categories. The mean MIB-1 HLI values +/- SD were 3.47 +/- 2.0% for benign meningiomas, 5.08 +/- 4.0% for atypical meningiomas and 11.66 +/- 7.06% for anaplastic meningiomas. In comparison, the mean MIB-1 HLI of benign non-recurrent meningiomas were 2.66 +/- 1.7% and with recurrence were 4.21 +/- 2.78% (P = 0.0339). Using receiver operating characteristic, it was seen that neoplasm recurred with the MIB-1 HLI of > 2.6 having the sensitivity of 64.6% and specificity of 68% among benign (grade I) meningiomas. MIB-1 positive tumor cells were maximally aggregated at the periphery of excised specimen. MIB-1 HLI, integrated with standard histopathology can provide better information about the disease biological nature in benign meningiomas.

Proliferative index in astrocytic tumours

The accurate grading of astrocytic tumours is of prime importance because it is critical to the patient management and survival/outcome. Although internationally accepted WHO grading system of CNS tumours is based on histological features of H&E stained sections, yet there are cases where differentiation between grade II and grade III is difficult particularly when the biopsy is small. Proliferative index derived from MIB-1 immunostaining has been found to be useful in the distinction between various grades of malignancy. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded surgical specimens from 90 cases of astrocytic tumours, 30 each of low-grade astrocytoma (grade II), anaplastic astrocytoma (grade III), and glioblastoma multiforme (grade IV), were immunostained by standard indirect immunoperoxidase technique using MIB-1 monoclonal antibody. MIB-1 labeling index (MIB-1 LI) was calculated. The mean MIB-1 LI values of astrocytomas, anaplastic astrocytomas and glioblastomas were 1.75 +/- 1.5%, 8.74 +/- 6.2%, and 20.54 +/- 12.2% respectively and there was statistically significant difference between grade II and III (Unpaired "t" test, T value 5.907, p value < 0.001) and grade III and grade IV (T value 4.734, p value < 0.001). The statistical analysis also revealed that the mean MIB-1 LI increased with histological grade of malignancy (One way ANOVA test, p value < 0.001). This investigation further reinforces and corroborates the findings that MIB-1 LI is useful tool in assigning grading to the astrocytic tumours and hence in treatment modalities and should be used routinely.

Internal Carotid Artery Bifurcation Aneurysms: Surgical Experience

Internal carotid artery (ICA) bifurcation aneurysms are relatively uncommon and frequently rupture at a younger age compared to other intracranial aneurysms. We have treated a total of 999 patients for intracranial aneurysms, of whom 89 (8.9%) had ICA bifurcation aneurysms, and 42 of the 89 patients were 30 years of age or younger. The present study analyzed the clinical records of 70 patients with ICA bifurcation aneurysms treated from mid 1997 to mid 2003. Multiple aneurysms were present in 15 patients. Digital subtraction angiography films were studied in 55 patients to identify vasospasm and aneurysm projection. The aneurysm projected superiorly in most of these patients (37/55, 67.3%). We preferred to minimize frontal lobe retraction, so widely opened the sylvian fissure to approach the ICA bifurcation and aneurysm neck. Elective temporary clipping was employed before the final dissection and permanent clip application. Vasospasm was present in 24 (43.6%) of 55 patients. Forty-eight (68.6%) of the 70 patients had good outcome, 14 (20%) had poor outcome, and eight (11.4%) died. Patients with ICA bifurcation aneurysms tend to bleed at a much younger age compared to those with other intracranial aneurysms. Wide opening of the sylvian fissure and elective temporary clipping of the ICA reduces the risk of intraoperative rupture and perforator injury. Mortality was mainly due to poor clinical grade and intraoperative premature aneurysm rupture.

Central neurocytoma: a clinico-pathological study of eight cases

Central neurocytomas are benign neuronal tumours generally found in the lateral or third ventricles. They are rare, comprising < 1% of all brain tumours. It is frequently confused with other tumours of the central nervous system particularly oligodendroglioma. The present study was done to analyse the histopathological features including immunohistochemical profile of these rare tumours. Eight cases were taken up for the study. Seven of the cases had an intraventricular location and one was located outside the ventricles. Increased intracranial pressure was the most common presenting symptom. Microscopically all tumours were composed of small uniform cells with perinuclear halos and regular round nuclei. The tumour in extraventricular location showed atypical features. Immunohistochemistry showed positivity for neuronal markers. The present series highlights the characteristic clinical and pathological findings of this rare brain tumour. Immunostaining for neuronal markers are essential for distinguishing them from other small round cell tumours of the brain.

True hemicranial decompression for severe pediatric cranial trauma: a short series of 4 cases and literature review

BACKGROUND

Traumatic acute SDH in pediatric patients is a life-threatening situation. There is a severe increase in ICP caused by acute SDH or diffuse brain swelling or secondary to ischemic brain damage. In certain situations, conventional measures may fail to control such a rapid increase in ICP.

CASE DESCRIPTION

The cases of 4 pediatric patients with cranial trauma with raised ICP, in whom hemicranial decompression was performed, are described. All patients had acute SDH with diffuse brain injury; in addition, 2 of them had associated massive infarcts. Three of them survived and had a favorable outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

In certain situations, pediatric patients with cranial trauma may be offered hemicranial decompression as a surgical option. These children may have a better long-term outcome despite massive infarcts.

Spinal compression due to ossified yellow ligament: a short series of 5 patients and literature review

BACKGROUND

Ossification of ligamentum flavum in the thoracic region causing compressive myelopathy among middle-aged patients is a poorly described entity.

CASE DESCRIPTION

Five patients of Indian origin with OYL are described. Their clinical presentations, surgical options, and long-term outcome are presented. Radiologic and clinical follow-up of one of the patient is described over a span of 10 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Decompressive laminectomy and excision of the OYL is the commonly performed surgical procedure. A rapid neurologic improvement follows decompression. The persistent spasticity in certain patients is attributed to irreversible changes within the cord. The disease is thought to be progressive in nature. The prolonged follow-up of these patients suggests that the long-term prognosis is poor. Selective racial involvement and variable clinical presentations, with treatment options, are discussed.

Subgaleal suction drain leading to fatal sagittal sinus haemorrhage

The use of wound drains in surgical practice, very often falls into the realm of habit, rather than science. The utility of a prophylactic drain in surgical wounds may be questionable, but this practice is not uncommon, despite complications. We report a case of fatal haemorrhage from the superior sagittal sinus, due to a closed negative suction drain of the craniotomy wound in an infant operated upon for a growing fracture skull.

Calvarial malignant fibrous histiocytoma

Primary malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH) of the central nervous system (CNS) is uncommon. We report cases of two young patients of MFH arising from the cranial meninges and involving the adjacent skull and scalp. There was infiltration of the brain in one case. Both the lesions were excised and primary scalp repair was performed.

Vertebral cryptococcosis simulating tuberculosis

Infection with the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans is seen predominantly in two forms: (a) pulmonary and (b) cerebromeningeal. Skeletal cryptococcosis is uncommon. There have been only occasional case reports of thoracic vertebral cryptococcosis presenting as cord compression. A young female had cervical lymphadenopathy diagnosed as tuberculosis by fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) and was on antitubercular therapy (ATT) for 5 months. She developed rapidly progressive paraparesis and imaging demonstrated a destructive vertebral body lesion involving T2-3 with a paraspinal abscess producing cord compression. A costotransversectomy with excision of the diseased bone and bone grafting was done. Histopathological examination revealed cryptococcosis. The patient was put on antifungal medication, but expired 2 weeks after surgery. Radiological, magnetic resonance imaging and surgical finding of vertebral cryptococcosis can mimic tuberculosis. The definite diagnosis of cryptococcosis depends upon microscopic identification of the organism. A high index of suspicion leading to early surgical confirmation and institution of anti fungal therapy is necessary to reduce the mortality and morbidity.

Raised intracranial pressure in hepatic encephalopathy

Intracranial hypertension secondary to cerebral edema is the cause of death in 50%-80% of patients with fulminant hepatic failure (FHF). This is rarely seen in chronic hepatic failure. The genesis of cerebral edema in FHF is poorly understood. The grade of encephalopathy and coagulopathy are the most important predictors of outcome in FHF. However, it is important to emphasize that intracranial pressure (ICP) may not reflect clinical course. Decerebrate posturing may be seen with ICP recording of 16 mmHg, while a quarter of the patients may have brain damage without clinical signs of raised ICP. ICP monitoring is therefore vital. The gold standard for ICP monitoring is the intraventricular method. Non-invasive methods like computerized tomography scan and magnetic resonance imaging have poor correlation with ICP. Other methods like transcranial Doppler and jugular venous oximetry measurement of brain metabolites need evaluation. The main indications for ICP monitoring in FHF are (a) patients in grade III or IV encephalopathy and (b) patients undergoing liver transplantation. Generally, patients with an ICP >40 mmHg with cerebral perfusion pressure <50 mmHg for over 2 hours are poor subjects for liver transplant.

Subependymomas in children: a report of five cases including two with osseous metaplasia

Subependymomas are highly differentiated slow growing gliomas. They are one of the few gliomas which are biologically benign. They are extremely rare in children. However, after going through the histopathology records of our department of fourteen years (1983-1997) we found that five (20%) cases of subependymomas have been diagnosed in children out of a total of twenty-six subependymomas. Two of our cases showed the presence of osseous metaplasia, a hitherto undescribed finding.

Primary central nervous system lymphoma: experience of 46 cases with review of literature

Primary central nervous system lymphomas (PCNSL) constitutes only 1.0 to 1.5% of all brain tumors. Their incidence has gone up over tenfold in the last 25 years. Though, there has been an association of PCNSL with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), yet the increased incidence of PCNSL appears to be real and unrelated to AIDS and organ transplantation. This increased incidence could be because of improvement in diagnostic technology and practice. The outcome remains gloomy despite surgical resection, radiotherapy and intensive adjuvant chemotherapy regimens, as majority of the patients succumb to the disease, with only 30-40% survival in patients under 70 years of age.

Expression of Bcl2 proto-oncogene in primary tumors of the central nervous system

The present study was addressed to find out the expression of Bcl2 proto-oncogene in tumor tissues derived from 25 patients with primary central nervous system tumors. Brain parenchyma in 8 cases, with deeply located tumor, was also examined for Bcl2 expression which served as control. Both benign and malignant tumors (confirmed by histopathological examination) expressed Bcl2 gene product. Tumors exhibited 2-6 fold increase in Bcl2 expression as compared to the normal parenchyma adjacent to some of these tumors studied. However, no correlation was found between the histopathological types of tumor, glial fibrillary acidic protein positivity and degree of Bcl2 expression. Based on this study, we propose that the overexpression of Bcl2 gene product found in primary CNS tumors may be an important molecular event which is known to make the various types of tumor resistant to chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

Calvarial tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

Calvarial tuberculosis is rare, even in areas where tuberculosis is endemic. Primary calvarial tuberculosis, with no evidence of tuberculosis elsewhere in the body is a rarer entity.

METHODS

Seven cases of calvarial tuberculosis are presented. The relevant clinicoradiological features and management are discussed.

RESULTS

Two cases of primary calvarial tuberculosis could only be diagnosed after surgery. The other cases were diagnosed with the help of fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) and biopsy.

CONCLUSION

A high index of suspicion and awareness of this condition may lead to more cases being diagnosed early. Surgery may be avoided in selected cases that can be treated primarily with antitubercular therapy.

Single flap fronto-temporo-orbito-zygomatic craniotomy for skull base lesions

Surgery was performed, through single flap fronto-temporo-orbito-zygomatic approach in 22 patients with skull base lesions. In two of these patients, this approach was combined with a transpetrosal approach. The pathological spectrum consisted of trigeminal neurofibromas (5), spheno-orbital meningiomas (4), carotico-ophthalmic aneurysms (4), basilar top aneurysms (2), cavernous sinus haemangiomas (2), invasive pituitary tumours (2) and one patient each of metastatic adenocarcinoma of the cavernous sinus, transcranial fungal granuloma and tubercular granuloma of the cavernous sinus. Of the 14 tumours, 10 were excised totally/near totally while a subtotal excision was achieved in four. Removal of the anterior clinoid process facilitated the clipping of all the carotico-ophthalmic aneurysms. One basilar top aneurysm was wrapped and the other clipped. One patient of fungal granuloma died of fungal meningitis and one patient of basilar top aneurysm expired as a result of thalamic infarct. The advantages of this approach included excellent exposure of the skull base lesions, making the dissection distance shorter and wider, minimal brain retraction and easy replacement of the single bone flap.

Traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage: a clinicoradiological and TCD correlation

Twenty five consecutive patients with CT proven pure traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage (tSAH) were studied, prospectively over a 6 month period. They constituted 2% of all head injuries. Most of the patients (88%) had a mild or moderate head injury at the time of admission, with a mean glasgow comma scale (GCS) of 10.68. The CT scan findings were divided into 3 grades. Grade 1 - blood in hemispheric region only (n=4), grade 2 - blood in basal region only (n=11), grade 3 - blood in both hemispheric as well as basal region (n=10). Transcranial doppler ultrasound (TCD) velocities were recorded in all patients by insonating the middle cerebral artery, internal carotid artery and anterior cerebral artery on both sides. All patients were also subjected to digital substraction angiography (DSA). All patients with mild head injury had normal TCD velocity (<100 cm/sec), while TCD velocities of more than 150 cm/sec were seen only in one patient with severe head injury. Patients with severe head injury were found to have grade 3 tSAH on CT. No statistically significant correlation was found between the CT grade and TCD velocities. Angiographic vasospasm was found in 2 patients with severe head injury only. 90.2% of patients had good outcome at discharge.

Posterior fossa dermoid in association with Klippel-Feil syndrome--a short report

A posterior fossa dermoid cyst in association with the Klippel-Feil syndrome, in a 4 year old child is reported. Early diagnosis to prevent complications like neural compression, cyst rupture and staphylococcal meningitis justifies investigation for posterior fossa dermoids in cases of Klippel-Feil syndrome. Their embryological basis is discussed.

Intramedullary cysticercosis : MRI diagnosis

Three cases of dorsal intramedullary cysticercosis presenting as spastic paraparesis or paraplegia are reported. A definite preoperative diagnosis, using MRI, was made in two cases while in the third it was strongly suspected. One paraplegic patient regained full function whereas in the other two the deficit persisted even after successful cyst excision. The pathogenesis and recovery are discussed in the light of the MRI findings.

Cerebral abscess with astrocytoma

A child with a right parieto-occipital astrocytoma, caped by a large acute pyogenic abscess with flimsy capsule, detected at emergency craniotomy, is presented. Patient succumbed to the disease three hours following surgery.

Bilateral fronto-orbito-zygomatic craniotomy--a combined extended frontal and orbitozygomatic approach

In extensive skull base lesions involving the spheno-ethmoido-clival region and extending into both the cavernous sinuses and infratemporal regions, a combination of approaches is usually required, either in the same operation or at a second stage. The bilateral fronto-orbito-zygomatic craniotomy described in this report is a combination of an extended frontal approach and fronto-orbito-zygomatic craniotomy. This gives a wide exposure of the spheno-ethmoido-clival regions of both the cavernous sinuses and both the infratemporal regions. The exposure is thus greatly improved with minimal frontal lobe retraction. The single bone piece can be speedily replaced obviating the need for a complicated reconstruction technique and gives a superior cosmetic result. The operative technique is described in detail.

Calcified falx meningioma

A totally calcified mid third falcine meningioma in an elderly male patient is presented. An uneventful enmasse excision was performed. Advantages of positioning on ipsilateral side for paramedian extracerebral lesions are highlighted.

Molecular basis of cholesterol feedback lesion in CNS tumours

An important feature of malignant transformation of tumours is the loss of cholesterol feedback inhibition mechanism (cholesterol-feedback lesion) that regulates mevalonate pathway recognized to play a crucial role in cellular growth, death and differentiation. Recently, it was shown that Receptor-C(k)-dependent signalling regulates genes involved in maintaining cellular cholesterol homeostasis through a transcription factor sterol response element binding protein (SREBP) having affinity for sterol regulatory element (SRE) present in the promoter region of these genes. The present study revealed that CNS tumours exhibit overexpression of Receptor-C(k) gene product which was accompanied by their inability to express SREBP gene product and this phenomenon has the inherent capacity to initiate the cholesterol feedback lesion in these tumours. Based upon these and our earlier studies, we propose for the first time that this loss of cholesterol feedback control may be responsible for the initiation of these tumours.

Current concepts in the management of pyogenic brain abscess

Current philosophy of treatment of brain abscess includes aspiration, appropriate antibiotics, treatment of sequelae and eradication of the primary source. Early clinical suspicion and diagnosis with CT is crucial. Small abscesses (<3 cm) in cerebritis or capsular stage located deep in clinically stable, poor surgical risk patients with diagnosis firmly supported by CT, may be treated with medical treatment only. Biweekly CT scan must be done to monitor the treatment response. CT or ultrasound guided aspiration should be performed in the event of clinical deterioration, failure of reduction in size or enlargement of abscesses. Encapsulated abscess (>3 cm), presence of significant neurological deficit or mass effect, doubt in the diagnosis and presumed resistant organisms are best treated with aspiration. Excision is required in large superficial abscesses resistant to multiple aspirations, post-traumatic abscess with a foreign body or fistula and multiloculated abscess of nocardial or actinomycotic aetiology. Results are directly related to the sensorium at the time of presentation. Stereotactic aspiration of all the loculi of multiloculated abscess in single or staged aspiration, and more completed drainage and lavage with endoscopic stereotactic evacuation may cut down indications of excision of brain abscess in future. It is concluded that, with diagnostic and technical advancements, a trend of adequate drainage of brain abscess via minimally invasive surgery is emerging. Confirmation of diagnosis and monitoring of treatment response with magnetic resonance spectroscopy may allow greater number of patients in future to be managed with medical treatment only.

Postoperative hypertensive-hypervolaemic-haemodilution (Triple H) therapy in the treatment of vasospasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage

Twenty five patients with post operative ischaemic deficits, following clipping of intracranial aneurysms, were studied. Hypertensive-hypervolaemic-haemodilution (triple H) therapy was given to all patients using colloids and crystalloids. CVP was used to monitor the fluid therapy. Dopamine was needed in 22 patients to elevate the systemic blood pressure. Vasospasm was confirmed in 20 patients with transcranial doppler studies (TCD). 20 (80%) patients survived, 10 (40%) with good outcome, 7 (28%) with fair, 2 (8%) with poor outcome and 1 (4%) with vegetative state. There were 5 (20%) deaths, 4 of which occurred due to infarct. All these patients had poor Hunt and Hess grade at admission, high Fisher grade haemorrhages in the initial CT scan and/or required prolonged temporary clipping at surgery. One death occurred due to central venous line induced septicaemia. The duration of 'triple H therapy' amongst the survivors varied from 2-7 days with an average of 4.6 days. The complications of 'triple H therapy' included hypokalaemia (3 patients), haemorrhagic infarct (1 patient) and septicaemia (1 patient). It is concluded that 'triple H therapy' is useful in treating vasospasm induced ischaemic deficits. It worsens brain oedema in presence of acute infarcts and hence is contraindicated in such patients. A further study involving a larger number of patients with strict haemodynamic and ICP monitoring is suggested to determine the usefulness of individual components of 'triple H therapy'.

Anterior surgical approaches to the sub-axial cervical spine

Anterior cervical spine surgery has come of age, as a golden route for treating anteriorly placed cervical compressions ranging from simple prolapsed disc to long segment pathologies like ossification of posterior longitudinal ligaments and cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Numerous technical modifications of the procedure are described. The role of stabilisation established for several pathologies, is still debateable in surgery for cervical disc. Bone is the ideal tissue for fusion. Hydroxyapetite implants are goods, but costly for our set up. Methylmethacrylate has a limited role in elderly patients with malignancy and a short life expectancy. Anterior cervical instrumentation has mushroomed over the last decade. Acceptable as methods of immediate stabilisation, the choice of the system varies with the surgeon. The authors use simple titanium plates with locking screws for the purpose.

Far lateral approach for foramen magnum lesions

Twelve patients with lesions in the anterior or anterolateral regions of foramen magnum were treated through the far lateral approach. The patients presented with neck pain, dysesthesia, quadriparesis, numbness, respiratory distress, and spastic contractures. Most lesions were meningiomas and neurofibromas, with one patient each with a posterior inferior cerebellar artery aneurysm, neurenteric cyst, and chordoma. All mass lesions were excised totally and the aneurysm was clipped. Three patients had severe respiratory problems preoperatively and two of them died. The other patients made a satisfactory neurological recovery. It was not found necessary to resect the condyle or mobilize the vertebral artery in any of the patients.

Midline and far lateral approaches to foramen magnum lesions

Twenty patients with foramen magnum lesions were operated upon in the last 5 years at Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh. The common presenting features were quadriparesis, quadriplegia, diminished sensations, neck pain and respiratory insufficiency. The lesions encountered were meningiomas, neurofibromas, posterior inferior cerebellar artery aneurysms, neurenteric cyst and chordoma. Patients with posterior or posterolaterally placed lesions were operated by the midline posterior approach while those with anterior or anterolateral lesions were managed by the far lateral approach. All mass lesions were excised completely and the aneurysms were clipped. Seventeen patients made good neurological recovery while three died. The latter three patients presented very late. The merits of various surgical approaches to the foramen magnum are discussed.

Pure extradural approach for skull base lesions

Lesions in the parasellar and paracavernous regions can be removed by various skull base approaches involving basal osteotomies. A major complication of intradural skull base approaches is CSF leak and associated meningitis. We have managed 5 patients with skull base lesions with a pure extradural approach using wide basal osteotomies. The operative techniques are described.

Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality in adults

Spinal cord injury without fractures or bony malalignment on either plain radiographs or computed tomography (SCIWORA) is most commonly found in the paediatric age group. In recent years, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been used to evaluate these patients. The present communication describes SCIWORA in 15 adult patients investigated by MRI. Of the 151 patients with spinal cord injury in 1 year, 15 adult patients had cervical SCIWORA. All patients were evaluated by MRI. The age ranged from 20 - 60 years. Eleven patients had partial cord injury, two had a complete cord syndrome while two had a central cord syndrome. MRI demonstrated an intervertebral disc prolapse in six patients, intramedullary haematoma/contusion in four and cord oedema in four patients. One patient had multiple disc prolapses and associated intramedullary haematoma. Patients with disc prolapse were operated upon and all showed neurological improvement. The rest of the patients were managed conservatively. There was mild improvement in patients with intramedullary haematomas while those with cord oedema alone showed moderate recovery. The pathogenesis of adult SCIWORA is possibly different from that in paediatric age group. Most of the patients with SCIWORA show some abnormality on MR imaging. MRI should therefore be done in all patients with spinal cord injury for diagnostic and prognostic purposes.

Tethered cord syndrome in adults

BACKGROUND

The tethered cord syndrome (TCS) is usually diagnosed in childhood and its symptomatic onset in adult life is not common. In the present study, we analyzed the data of patients who presented with TCS in adulthood with the aim of studying the clinical spectrum and management strategies.

CLINICAL MATERIAL

Over a 5-year period, 18 adult patients (more than 18 years of age) with TCS were investigated with MRI and were operated on. Patients with adult TCS could be divided into two groups. Group 1 included patients who were asymptomatic in childhood and presented for the first time in adult life (10 patients). The second group was comprised of patients with preexisting static skeletal/neurological deformities who presented in adult life with new or progressive symptoms (eight patients). Eleven patients had cutaneous stigmata, 15 had motor or sensory deficit, nine had back/leg pain, eight had leg atrophy, and six had sphincter disturbances. The most frequent MRI finding was a low lying cord with an intradural and/or extradural lipoma. The cord was detethered surgically and the tethering lesion excised. Pain was usually relieved after surgery (8 out of 9), but only a few patients (2 out of 6) had improvement of sphincter dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS

The late presentation of TCS is possibly related to the degree of tethering and the cumulative effect of repeated microtrauma during flexion and extension. Adult patients with persistent back/leg pain and/or neurological or skeletal deformities should be investigated with MRI to establish an early diagnosis. Surgery should be performed in all adult patients with TCS, once the diagnosis is established.

Non-randomized comparison of surgical modalities for paranasal sinus mycoses with intracranial extension

Mycotic infections of paranasal sinuses are frequently reported in southern Asia. Aspergillus and Mucor species are the predominant ones. Intracranial extension of paranasal sinus mycoses is a difficult problem to manage. We report 18 cases of paranasal sinus mycoses with intracranial extensions. The commonest manifestations were nasal discharge (67%), nasal obstruction (50%), ocular symptoms such as proptosis (44%), telecanthus (39%) and ophthalmoplegia. Computerized tomography scans were found to be quite informative regarding the nature and extent of the disease (100% sensitivity and 78% specificity). A combined intracranial-extracranial approach (six cases) gave a distinct advantage over only adopting an extracranial approach (12 cases). A 17% incidence of CSF leak was noted by adopting only an extracranial approach as well as a recurrence in four cases out of the 12 that were treated using this method (P < 0.05). A slight increase in morbidity was associated with the combined intracranial-extracranial treatment, but no recurrence or significant complications were noted in this approach.

Suprasellar arachnoid cyst presenting with precocious puberty : report of two cases

Suprasellar arachnoid cysts (SSAC) are uncommon intracranial lesions. Two patients of SSAC presenting with precocious puberty are described. In both the cases partial excision of the cyst wall, through a pterional craniotomy, establishing communication with the basal subarachnoid spaces was carried out. The endocrinological symptoms regressed after surgery. The clinical presentations of SSAC and the treatment options available are reviewed.

Diastematomyelia in adults : pathogenesis, MR imaging and management principles

Diastematomyelia is an uncommon developmental anomaly, usually presenting in childhood. Adult presentation is rare. We report three patients of diastematomyelia, becoming symptomatic in adulthood. These constituted 17 of all adult patients with tethered cord syndrome. One patient had a nonprogressive childhood deficit and two had a cutaneous stigmata in the lower back. In one patient, the symptoms were precipitated following trauma. All patients were investigated by MRI which demonstrated the diastematomyelic lesion. One had an associated intraspinal enterogenous cyst. We recommend prophylactic surgery in patients with diastematomyelia, once the diagnosis is established. The pathogenesis of adult diastematomyelia is discussed.

Neurocysticercosis : surgical considerations

Neurocysticercosis is the most frequently encountered parasitic infestation in nervous system. Epilepsy is the most common clinical manifestation. Cysticidal drugs are helpful in upto 96 of parenchymal cysts and 80 of intraventricular cysts. Surgery is considered when diagnosis is uncertain, cysts exhibit tumour like behaviour, oedema (pseudotumour) is refrectory to medical treatment, or when hydrocephalus develops.

Growing skull fractures: a clinical study of 41 patients

Growing skull fractures are rare complications of head injury, occurring almost exclusively in infants and children under the age of three. A retrospective review at our Institute yielded 41 patients with this entity over a period of 20 years (1975-1995). The age at presentation ranged from less than 1 year to 62 years, with 33 (80.5%) patients being less than 5 years of age. The cause of injury was either a fall from a height (93%) or a road traffic accident. The most common location of a growing skull fracture was either parietal or frontoparietal (56%). One patient had a posterior fossa growing skull fracture. CT scan was performed in 19 patients which demonstrated an underlying porencephalic cyst, hydrocephalus or a cyst communicating with the ventricle. In 5 children, a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt alone was performed. Twenty four patients underwent a duro- and cranioplasty while a duroplasty alone was performed in 8 patients. The material used for cranioplasty included acrylic, wire mesh, steel plates or autologous bone. Three patients died, one due to an anaesthetic complication and two as a result of postoperative meningitis. Post-operative CSF leaks occurred in 3 patients, which were managed by a lumbar drain. Six patients had local wound infection.

Brain abscess in renal transplant recipients: report of three cases

BACKGROUND

Neurologic complications occur in about 30% of renal transplant patients, infections being the most common. We encountered three such patients and present our experience in the management of such cases.

CLINICAL MATERIAL

Three cases of brain abscess in renal transplant recipients are reported. These patients presented from 9-60 months after the transplant. One patient had a pyogenic abscess; in the second the organism identified was Nocardia asteroides; in the third, a fungal infection was responsible. In two patients excision of the abscess was done, while in one repeated aspirations with intracavitary antibiotics were used. All received systemic antimicrobial therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Central nervous system (CNS) complications, specifically infections, are quite common in renal transplant recipients, but reports of brain abscesses in these patients are very rare. The treatment options for such patients are discussed.

Traumatic spinal subarachnoid hematoma: report of a case with MRI

BACKGROUND

Spinal subarachnoid hematoma (SAH) is uncommon following traumatic injury to the spine. There are few case reports of neurologic deficit secondary to traumatic spinal SAH.

CASE DESCRIPTION

This 6-year-old boy was injured in a vehicular accident from which he became paraplegic and presented to us 1 week later. Plain X rays were normal and a myelo-computed tomography (CT) scan demonstrated an irregular intradural lesion from D10-L2. The magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed an SAH at D11-12 level, posterior to the cord, which was surgically evacuated. The patient did not improve neurologically.

CONCLUSION

Significant cord injury and neurologic deficit can occur without obvious abnormalities on plain X rays or CT scan. MRI is very useful in detecting these lesions and can help in their management.

Intracranial fungal granuloma

BACKGROUND

Intracranial fungal granulomas are uncommon and their pathogenesis, clinical picture, and effectiveness of therapy remains unclear.

METHODS

Thirty-two cases were studied retrospectively in two groups: (1) Rhinocerebral group (22 cases) had a chronic paranasal sinus (PNS) disease with secondary involvement of skull base, cranial nerves, and/or brain. The granulomas were adherent to dura, firm, avascular, and tough, requiring a knife to cut. (2) Primary intracranial group (10 cases) had no detectable PNS lesion at initial presentation. The granulomas were soft, suckable, and contained pus or necrotic material.

RESULTS

Postoperative and overall mortality were 37.5% and 50%, respectively. Meningoencephalitis was the most common cause of death. Altered sensorium, pus in the granuloma, and/or severe brain edema were poor prognostic factors. All survivors except four have symptomatic residual or recurrent lesions.

CONCLUSION

Early diagnosis with MRI or stereotactic biopsy, radical surgery, and high dose and chronic suppressive chemotherapy may improve overall results in these cases.

Spontaneous resolution of chronic subdural haematoma secondary to chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura

Chronic subdural haematoma (SDH) complicating chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), in an adult is extremely rare. There are only four such case reports available in the literature and all these patients had surgical evacuation of the haematoma. We report an elderly female with chronic ITP presenting with a chronic SDH which resolved spontaneously. This is possibly the first report of its kind in the world literature. The possible pathogenesis is discussed and pertinent literature reviewed.

Chronic extradural haematoma with delayed expansion

A 35-year-old man became symptomatic 26 months after a head injury. CT showed an occipital-suboccipital chronic extradural haematoma (EDH). A surrounding membrane, with neovascularisation, was evident, both, on CT and at surgery. This unusually long interval between trauma and onset of symptoms suggests that delayed expansion of a chronic EDH should be kept in mind if planning conservative management. An EDH can be considered 'cured' only after disappearance of the membrane and haematoma on CT.

Intramedullary tuberculoma: report of two cases with MRI findings

Two cases of spinal intramedullary tuberculous granulomas (tuberculomas) without any bony involvement are reported. The rarity of the occurrence and the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings are discussed. Microsurgical excision and antituberculous treatment produced good results.

Multiple pyogenic brain abscesses

Thirty eight patients with multiple pyogenic brain abscesses constituted 11% of all the brain abscesses treated during a 12 year period. Sixty per cent (23) of the patients were in the first two decades of life, including 9 (24%) infants. The clinical presentation was similar to brain abscess in general. 21 patients had altered "sensorium" at the time of admission. Otogenic brain abscesses were the commonest (26%), followed by those associated with congenital cyanotic heart disease (18%). The abscesses were invariably large in size. The pus was sterile on culture in 11 (29%) patients, while Staphylococcus aureus was the commonest organism grown in 9 (24%) patients. Aspiration of the pus was required as a life saving measure, to control raised intracranial pressure, in 29 (76%) patients. Twelve (32%) of these patients underwent secondary excision of the abscess capsule. The overall mortality was 32% with failure to control intracranial and systemic infection as the major causes of mortality. Level of consciousness at the time of admission was the most significant factor affecting the outcome. Surgery has a definite therapeutic and life saving role in the management of multiple pyogenic brain abscesses. A systematic treatment plan for multiple abscesses is proposed.

Aneurysmal bone cysts of the spine

Aneurysmal bone cysts are uncommon bony lesions of the spine. Two such patients are reported in the study. The first patient had involvement of first and second thoracic vertebrae, and a preoperative diagnosis was made possible due to the typical magnetic resonance imaging appearances. A total removal was achieved in two stages. In the second patient the C2 spinous process was involved, and this patient presented as atantoaxial dislocation. Removal of the abnormal tissue and posterior fusion was done. Both the patients showed neurologic improvement. The relevant literature is reviewed.

Brain metastasis from urachal carcinoma: case report

A rare case of metastasis to the brain from an urachal carcinoma is reported. Metastasis in the brain developed 7 months after partial cystectomy and radiation therapy. Cranial computed tomography showed a ring-enhancing mass lesion that was excised. A month later, the patient died of distant metastasis.

Growing fracture of the skull: report of an unusual case

The authors report a case of a growing fracture of the skull in an elderly woman who remained asymptomatic for over 6 decades and presented at the age of 62 years with symptoms akin to the syndrome of the trephined. Successful duraplasty and cranioplasty were done with disappearance of all symptoms. A brief review of the relevant literature is also presented.