Investigation of SO3 absorption line for in situ gas detection inside combustion plants using a 4-μm-band laser source

We have investigated 4-μm-band SO₃ absorption lines for in situSO₃ detection using a mid-infrared laser source based on difference frequency generation in a quasi-phase-matched LiNbO₃ waveguide. In the wavelength range of 4.09400-4.10600 μm, there were strong SO₃ absorption lines. The maximum absorption coefficient at a concentration of 170 ppmv was estimated to be about 3.2×10^-5  cm^-1 at a gas temperature of 190°C. In coexistence with H₂O, the reduction of the SO₃ absorption peak height was observed, which was caused by sulfuric acid formation. We discuss a method of using an SO₃ equilibrium curve to derive the total SO₃ molecule concentration.

Total serum IgE level influences oral food challenge tests for IgE-mediated food allergies

Probability curves predicting oral food challenge test (OFC) results based on specific IgE levels are widely used to prevent serious allergic reactions. Although several confounding factors are known to affect probability curves, the main factors that affect OFC outcomes are currently unclear. We hypothesized that an increased total IgE level would reduce allergic reactivity. Medical records of 337 and 266 patients who underwent OFCs for 3.5 g boiled hen's egg white and 3.1 ml raw cow's milk, respectively, were examined retrospectively. We subdivided the patients into three groups based on total IgE levels and age by percentile (<25th, 25-75th, and >75th percentiles), and logistic regression analyses were performed on each group. Patients with higher total IgE levels were significantly less responsive. In addition, age did not significantly affect the OFC results. Therefore, total IgE levels should be taken into account when predicting OFC results based on food-specific IgE levels.

Genome scanning for detecting adaptive genes along environmental gradients in the Japanese conifer, Cryptomeria japonica

Local adaptation is important in evolutionary processes and speciation. We used multiple tests to identify several candidate genes that may be involved in local adaptation from 1026 loci in 14 natural populations of Cryptomeria japonica, the most economically important forestry tree in Japan. We also studied the relationships between genotypes and environmental variables to obtain information on the selective pressures acting on individual populations. Outlier loci were mapped onto a linkage map, and the positions of loci associated with specific environmental variables are considered. The outlier loci were not randomly distributed on the linkage map; linkage group 11 was identified as a genomic island of divergence. Three loci in this region were also associated with environmental variables such as mean annual temperature, daily maximum temperature, maximum snow depth, and so on. Outlier loci identified with high significance levels will be essential for conservation purposes and for future work on molecular breeding.

Impact of negative frequency-dependent selection on mating pattern and genetic structure: a comparative analysis of the S-locus and nuclear SSR loci in Prunus lannesiana var. speciosa

Mating processes of local demes and spatial genetic structure of island populations at the self-incompatibility (S-) locus under negative frequency-dependent selection (NFDS) were evaluated in Prunus lannesiana var. speciosa in comparison with nuclear simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci that seemed to be evolutionarily neutral. Our observations of local mating patterns indicated that male-female pair fecundity was influenced by not only self-incompatibility, but also various factors, such as kinship, pollen production and flowering synchrony. In spite of the mating bias caused by these factors, the NFDS effect on changes in allele frequencies from potential mates to mating pollen was detected at the S-locus but not at the SSR loci, although the changes from adult to juvenile cohorts were not apparent at any loci. Genetic differentiation and isolation-by-distance over various spatial scales were smaller at the S-locus than at the SSR loci, as expected under the NFDS. Allele-sharing distributions among the populations also had a unimodal pattern at the S-locus, indicating the NFDS effect except for alleles unique to individual populations probably due to isolation among islands, although this pattern was not exhibited by the SSR loci. Our results suggest that the NFDS at the S-locus has an impact on both the mating patterns and the genetic structure in the P. lannesiana populations studied.

EFFECTS OF KIN-STRUCTURED SEED DISPERSAL ON THE GENETIC STRUCTURE OF THE CLONAL DIOECIOUS SHRUB ILEX LEUCOCLADA

Nonrandom patterns of gene dispersal have been identified as possible causes of genetic structuring within populations. Attempts to model these patterns have generally focused solely on the effects of isolation by distance, but the processes involved are more complex than such modeling suggests. Here, we extend considerations of gene dispersal processes beyond simple isolation by distance effects by directly evaluating the effects of kin-structured gene dispersal mediated by the group dispersal of related seeds within fruits (i.e., kin-structured seed dispersal) by birds on genetic structure in Ilex leucoclada, a clonal dioecious shrub. To examine the genetic structure patterns, we established two 30x30 m plots (one with immature soils in old-growth forest and one in secondary forest, designated IM and SC, respectively) with different I. leucoclada stem densities. In these two plots 145 and 510 stems were found, representing 78 and 85 genets, respectively, identified by analyzing their genotypes at eight microsatellite loci. The clonal structure was stronger in the SC plot than in the IM plot. Correlograms of coancestry for genets in both plots exhibited significant, positive, high values in the shortest distance class, indicating the presence of strong genetic structure. However, Sp statistics revealed that the pattern of the genetic structure differed between the plots. In addition, to estimate the family structure within fruits, we sampled forty fruits, in total, from 15 randomly selected plants in the area around the IM and SC plots, and found that 80% of the fruits were multiseeded and 42-100% of the multiseeded fruits contained at least one pair of full sibs. Simulations based on these estimates demonstrated that the group dispersal of related seeds produced through correlated mating both within and across fruits, but not unstructured half-sib dispersal, could generate the observed magnitude and trends of genetic structure found in the IM plot. Furthermore, in addition to kin-structured seed dispersal, isolation by distance processes is also likely to promote genetic substructuring in the SC plot. After discussing possible ecological factors that may have contributed to the observed genetic structure, we contrast our results with those predicted by general isolation by distance models, and propose that kin-structured seed dispersal should promote some evolutionary phenomena, and thus should be incorporated, where appropriate, in models of gene dispersal in natural plant populations.

Genetic diversity and the genetic structure of natural populations of Chamaecyparis obtusa: implications for management and conservation

We investigated 25 natural populations of Chamaecyparis obtusa using 51 cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) markers, which were developed using information on sequence-tagged sites (STS) in Cryptomeria japonica. Most CAPS markers have codominant expression patterns, and are suitable for population studies because of their robustness and convenience. We estimated various genetic diversity parameters, including average heterozygosity (H(e)) and allelic richness and found that the more peripheral populations tended to have lower genetic diversity than central populations, in agreement with a previous theoretical study. The overall genetic differentiation between populations was low, but statistically significant (G(ST)=0.039), and similar to the level reported in a previous allozyme study. We attempted to detect non-neutral loci associated with local adaptation to clarify the relationship between the fixation index (F(ST)) and H(e) values for each locus and found seven candidates non-neutral loci. Phylogenetic tree analysis of the populations and Bayesian clustering analysis revealed a pattern of gradually increasing isolation of populations with increasing geographical distance. Three populations had a high degree of linkage disequilibrium, which we attribute to severe bottlenecks due to human disturbance or competition with other species during their migration from refugia after the most recent glaciation. We concluded that the small populations in western Japan and in Kanto district are more important, from a conservation perspective, than the populations in central Japan, due to their genetic divergence, relatively small sizes and restricted areas.

Half-sib family structure of Fagus crenata saplings in an old-growth beech-dwarf bamboo forest

Half-sib family structure of Fagus crenata saplings was examined in an old-growth beech-dwarf bamboo (Sasa spp.) forest using microsatellite genotypes in parentage analysis to identify the half-sib families in two 50 x 50 m plots: one with 36 adults, 641 saplings and no Sasa cover, the other with 21 adults, 61 saplings and Sasa cover. For large proportions of the saplings (44.6% and 75.4%, respectively) both of their parents were found within the same plot, indicating that pollination events frequently involved short-range pollen dispersal, probably because of the high density of adults in the study population. Although almost all of the adults had half-sib families, the number of offspring in the families was highly variable. In the plot with no Sasa cover, the variation in the number of offspring was significantly explained by the size of parents, i.e. the reproductive success is higher for large adults than for small adults. The half-sibs were aggregately distributed around their parents and the distribution overlapped among different half-sib families, which may be due to the limited seed dispersal and overlapping seed shadows of this species. As expected, there was weak genetic structure in the plot. By contrast, in the plot with Sasa cover, the half-sibs were distributed sparsely with a low density, and the degree of genetic structure was very weak. The difference in the half-sib family structure and genetic structure among saplings presumably reflects the difference in density that should be affected by regeneration dynamics associated with environmental conditions.

Spatial genetic structure among and within populations of Primula sieboldii growing beside separate streams

We investigated the hierarchical genetic structure of SSR (simple sequence repeats) and cpDNA (chloroplast DNA) polymorphisms among and within populations of Primula sieboldii, a heterostylous clonal herb. Seven out of eight populations at the study site, located in a mountainous region of Nagano Prefecture, had each developed alongside a different stream, and the other occurred on a flat area 70 m from the nearest stream. The magnitude of genetic differentiation among streamside populations in maternally inherited cpDNA (Phi = 0.341) was much higher than that in biparentally inherited SSRs (Phi = 0.011). This result suggests that seed dispersal among streams was restricted, and pollen was the primary agent of gene flow among streamside populations. In contrast, genetic differentiation among subpopulations within streams were low at both markers (Phi = 0.053 for cpDNA, Phi = 0.025 for SSR). This low differentiation among subpopulations in cpDNA compared with that among streamside populations suggest that seed dispersal occur along the stream probably during flooding. This hypothesis was supported by the fact that in cpDNA haplotypes, no clear genetic structure was detected within the streamside population, while a significant genetic structure was found within 20 m in the nonstreamside population. Furthermore, within the streamside populations, two pairs of ramets with identical multilocus genotypes for eight SSR loci were distantly (> 50 m) distributed along the same streamside, suggesting dispersal of clonal propagule. Our study showed that the heterogeneity of the landscape can influence gene flow and hence spatial genetic structure.

Evaluation of cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence markers for Chamaecyparis obtusa based on expressed sequence tag information from Cryptomeria japonica

We have developed and evaluated sequence-tagged site (STS) primers based on expressed sequence-tag information derived from sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) for use in hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa), a species that belongs to a different family (although it appears to be fairly closely related to sugi). Of the 417 C. japonica STS primer pairs we screened, 120 (approximately 30%) were transferable and provided specific PCR amplification products from 16 C. obtusa plus trees. We used haploid megagametophytes to investigate the homology of 80 STS fragments between C. obtusa and C. japonica and to identify orthologous loci. Nearly 90% of the fragments showed high (>70%) degrees of similarity between the species, and 35 STSs indicated homology to entries with the same putative function in a public DNA database. Of the 120 STS fragments amplified, 72 showed restriction fragment length polymorphisms; in addition, the CC2430 primers detected amplicon length polymorphism. We assessed the inheritance pattern of 27 cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence markers, using 20 individuals from the segregation population. All the markers analyzed were consistent with the marker inheritance patterns obtained from the screening panel, and no markers (except CC2716) showed significant (P<0.01) deviation from the expected segregation ratio. In total, 136 polymorphic markers were developed using C. japonica-based STS primers without any sequence modification. In addition, the applicability of STS-based markers developed in one species to other species was found to closely reflect the evolutionary distance between the species, which is roughly concordant with the difference between their rbcL sequences. We plan to use these markers for genetic studies in C. obtusa. Most of the markers should also provide reliable anchor loci for comparative mapping studies of the C. obtusa and C. japonica genomes.

Comparison of the fine-scale genetic structure of three dipterocarp species

We investigated the fine-scale genetic structure of three tropical-rainforest trees, Hopea dryobalanoides, Shorea parvifolia and S. acuminata (Dipterocarpaceae), in Peninsular Malaysia, all of which cooccurred within a 6-ha plot in Pasoh Forest Reserve. A significant genetic structure was found in H. dryobalanoides, weaker (but still significant) genetic structure in S. parvifolia and nonsignificant structure in S. acuminata. Seeds of all three species are wind dispersed, and their flowers are thought to be insect pollinated. The most obvious difference among these species is their height: S. parvifolia and S. acuminata are canopy species, whereas H. dryobalanoides is a subcanopy species. Clear differences were also found among these species in their range of seed dispersal, which depends on the height of the release point; so taller trees disperse their seed more extensively. The estimates of seed dispersal area were consistent with the degree of genetic structure found in the three species. Therefore, tree height probably had a strong influence on the fine-scale genetic structure of the three species.

Heterogeneous genetic structure in a Fagus crenata population in an old-growth beech forest revealed by microsatellite markers

The within-population genetic structure of Fagus crenata in a 4-ha plot (200 x 200 m) of an old-growth beech forest was analysed using microsatellite markers. To assess the genetic structure, Moran's I spatial autocorrelation coefficient was calculated. Correlograms of Moran's I showed significant positive values less than 0.100 for short-distance classes, indicating weak genetic structure. The genetic structure within the population is created by limited seed dispersal, and is probably weakened by overlapping seed shadow, secondary seed dispersal, extensive pollen flow and the thinning process. Genetic structure was detected in a western subplot of 50 x 200 m with immature soils and almost no dwarf bamboos (Sasa spp.), where small and intermediate-sized individuals were distributed in aggregations with high density because of successful regeneration. By contrast, genetic structure was not found in an eastern subplot of the same size with mature soils and Sasa cover, where successful regeneration was prevented, and the density of the small and intermediate-sized individuals was low. Moreover, genetic structure of individuals in a small-size class (diameter at breast height < 12 cm) was more obvious than in a large-size class (diameter at breast height >/= 12 cm). The apparent genetic structure detected in the 4-ha plot was therefore probably the result of the structure in the western portion of the plot and in small and intermediate-sized individuals that successfully regenerated under the favourable environment. The heterogeneity in genetic structure presumably reflects variation in the density that should be affected by differences in regeneration dynamics associated with heterogeneity in environmental conditions.

Genetic diversity of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in Pinus parviflora Sieb. & Zucc. (Pinaceae) populations

Genetic diversities of the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in Pinus parviflora were studied in 16 populations, which were distributed across most of the species' range in Japan. Six mitochondrial DNA haplotypes were identified among the 16 populations. The intrapopulation diversity of allozymes was similar to that of other endemic woody species (H(S)=0.259). Although P. parviflora is distributed in discrete populations, differentiation between these was very low (G(ST)=0.044). In addition, the extent of genetic differentiation between two varieties (var. pentaphylla and var. parviflora) was extremely low (G(VT)=0.001). Intrapopulation diversity of mitochondrial DNA was also very low (H(S)=0.098), but population differentiation was high (G(ST)=0.863). Moreover, the distribution of haplotypes reflected the taxonomic differences between P. parviflora var. pentaphylla and var. parviflora. The populations of var. pentaphylla and var. parviflora contained different haplotypes. Differing modes of inheritance may account for the differences in nuclear and mitochondrial genetic diversity.

Estimated daily intake of plasticizers in 1-week duplicate diet samples following regulation of DEHP-containing PVC gloves in Japan

Duplicate hospital diet samples obtained over 1 week in 2001 were analysed to estimate the daily intake of plasticizers and the results were compared with those obtained in 1999. The plasticizers quantified in this study were: dibutyl phthalate, butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diisononyl phthalate (DINP), di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), diisononyl adipate (DINA) and O-acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC). Dipropyl, dipentyl, dihexyl and dicyclohexyl phthalate were also analysed but not detected. The analytical procedure for this follow-up study was essentially the same as in the previous one. Detection limits were 0.1-15.6 ng g(-1) for each plasticizer. One-week duplicate diet samples provided by three hospitals in three remote prefectures of Japan were analysed as individual meals. DEHP was detected at 6-675 ng g(-1) in 62 of 63 meals, significantly lower levels compared with those detected in 1999. Levels of DEHA and DINP also decreased. The mean intake of plasticizers estimated from all samples was 160 microg DEHP day(-1), 12.5 microg DEHA day(-1), 4.7 microg DINP day(-1) and 3.4 microg BBP day(-1). Levels of DINA were relatively high in meals from one hospital: in those meals, the average daily intake was 1338 microg day(-1). Those of ATBC were also higher in meals from another hospital: the average daily intake was 1228 microg day(-1). The sources of DINA and ATBC can be cling-film or sausage packaging.

Development and characterization of microsatellite markers for Cryptomeria japonica D.Don

Thirty four microsatellite markers for Cryptomeria japonica D. Don were developed by searching three types of library: a database of C. japonica cDNA sequences, a standard non-enriched genomic DNA library and a microsatellite-enriched library using magnetic particles. The enrichment of microsatellite sequences using magnetic particles is very efficient compared to the other two methods both in terms of the numbers of markers generated, and in the polymorphism they detect. The microsatellites developed from the genomic DNA library generally have longer repeat sequences and are more polymorphic than those from cDNA. All the developed microsatellite markers in this study showed polymorphism among 28 plus trees selected from locations scattered throughout Japan. The mean number of alleles per locus (MNA) detected in the 28 plus trees ranged from 2 to 21 with an average of 7.5. The Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) ranged from 0.160 to 0.936 with an average of 0.666. Co-dominant segregation of alleles in a three-generation pedigree of C. japonica was demonstrated at 34 microsatellite loci, and the segregation was not distorted from Mendelian expectation for all loci. In 12 out of 34 loci, a null allele was detected. Key relationships between polymorphic parameters, such as MNA and PIC, and the characteristics of microsatellite sequences, such as the longest repeat number, total repeat number and total number of nucleotides, were investigated using rank correlation coefficients, Kendall's tau. A positive correlation was found between repeat lengths and polymorphisms. The markers provide sufficient resolution for investigating gene flow within forests and seed orchards, and for genome mapping.

[Clean-up procedure with ion-exchange mini column in the analysis of flusulfamide in agricultural products by HPLC]

A clean-up procedure with an ion-exchange column in the analysis of flusulfamide by HPLC was examined. Pesticide in the sample was extracted with methanol following liquid-liquid partition with ethyl acetate. The ethyl acetate fraction was cleaned up with silica gel column chromatography. The eluate from the silica gel column was further cleaned up with SAX + PSA mini column, then determined by HPLC. Carotenoids and interfering peaks were removed by washing the combined mini columns with 10 mL of 20% acetone-containing n-hexane and 5 mL of acetone, and flusulfamide was eluted with 35 mL of acetone.

Determination of clethodim and its oxidation metabolites in crops by liquid chromatography with confirmation by LC/MS

A method was developed for determination of the herbicide clethodim (C0) and its oxidation metabolites clethodim sulfoxide (C1) and clethodim sulfone (C2) in agricultural products. Upon extraction, both C0 and C1 were oxidized to C2 by m-chloroperoxybenzoic acid, and C2 was determined by liquid chromatography (LC). The C2 peak was confirmed by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) with electrospray ionization (ESI). Recoveries of C0 from radish, tomato, onion, sweet potato, kidney bean, carrot, cabbage, and lettuce ranged from 91 to 118% following fortification at 0.05-1.0 ppm. The detection limit of C2 in crops was 0.01 ppm (S/N > 3). The fortified samples of onion, sweet potato, kidney bean, and carrot were confirmed by LC/MS (ESI), and the peak of C2 was detected.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate contamination of retail packed lunches caused by PVC gloves used in the preparation of foods

Plasticizer contamination of foods sold in retail packed lunches and set lunches in restaurants was determined by GC/MS. The phthalate esters were as follows: diethyl, dipropyl, dibutyl, dipentyl, dihexyl, butylbenzyl, dicyclohexyl, di(2-ethylhexyl), dioctyl, diisooctyl (mixture of isomers) and diisononyl (mixture). Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate was also determined. Sixteen packed lunches and ten set lunches were analysed, and in all samples the concentration of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was the highest, at 0.80-11.8 mg/kg in packed lunches and 0.012-0.30 mg/kg in set lunches. The DEHP content of five packed lunches exceeded 1.85 mg, which is the EU tolerable daily intake (TDI) for a person of 50 kg body weight. Foodstuffs that were components of the packed lunches were taken from the factory at each step of preparation and phthalates were determined. For example, chicken contained 0.08 mg/kg DEHP when uncooked, 13.1 mg/kg after frying and 16.9 mg/kg after packing. Disposable PVC gloves used in the preparation of foods were apparently the source of high DEHP concentrations. The gloves used during cooking or packaging were sprayed with 68% (w/w) ethanol to sterilize them. PVC gloves from the factory contained 22 or 41% by weight of DEHP. To confirm the link with the contamination problem, samples of boiled rice, croquette and boiled dry radish were handled in the laboratory with PVC gloves containing 30% (w/w) DEHP. DEHP migration levels of 0.05 mg/kg in rice or 0.33 mg/kg in croquette, and 11.1 mg/kg in radish were found. The alcohol sprayed onto the gloves increased the migration of DEHP to 2.03 mg/kg in rice, 2.45 mg, kg in croquette, and 18.4 mg/kg in radish.

Simultaneous determination of residues of emamectin and its metabolites, and milbemectin, ivermectin, and abamectin in crops by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection

A liquid chromatographic (LC) method was developed for the determination of emamectin and its metabolites (8,9-Z-isomer, N-demethylated, N-formylated, and N-methylformylated emamectin) in various crops. The analytes were extracted with acetone, cleaned up on cartridge columns (C18 and NH2), derivatized with trifluoroacetic anhydride and 1-methylimidazole, and determined by LC with fluorescence detection. Because radish inhibited the formation of the fluorescent derivatives, an additional Bond Elut PRS cartridge was used in the cleanup of Japanese radish samples. During sample preparation, N-formylated emamectin partially degraded to emamectin B1b and emamectin B1a, and the 8,9-Z-isomer partially degraded to N-demethylated emamectin. Therefore, emamectin and its metabolites were determined as total emamectin, i.e., their sum was estimated as emamectin benzoate. Their recoveries from most crops were approximately 80-110% with the developed method. The detection limits for the analytes in vegetables were 0.1-0.3 parts per trillion (ppt). The results for these compounds were confirmed by LC/mass spectrometry (LC/MS; electrospray ionization mode). Because the fluorescent derivative of emamectin was undetectable by LC/MS, the results for the analyte were confirmed by using a sample solution without derivatization. Limits of detection by LC/MS were similar to the fluorescence detection limits, 0.1-0.3 ppt in vegetables. In addition to the emamectins, milbemectin, ivermectin, and abamectin were also determined by the developed method.

Eleven phthalate esters and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate in oneweek duplicate diet samples obtained from hospitals and their estimated daily intake

Plasticizers in duplicate diet samples obtained over 1 week were analysed in order to estimate daily intake. The phthalate esters were as follows: diethyl, dipropyl, dibutyl, dipentyl, dihexyl, butylbenzyl, dicyclohexyl, di(2-ethylhexyl), dioctyl, diisooctyl (mixture of isomers) and diisononyl (mixture). Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate was also determined. Homogenized samples of composite meals were extracted with acetonitrile, lipids were removed by extraction into n-hexane and the acetonitrile layer was cleaned using Florisil and Bondesil PSA dual layer column. Phthalates were determined by GC/MS (SIM). Phthalate recovery from the fortified food mixture by this method was 62.5-140.8%. Quality assurance as assessed by three laboratories indicated coefficient of variance in the levels of detected phthalates in same lot samples as below 10%. Detection limits were 0.1-23 ng/g for each phthalate. One-week duplicate diet samples provided by three hospitals in three remote prefectures of Japan were analysed as individual meals. In all 63 samples, DEHP was present at the highest level among all phthalates in the range 10-4400 ng/g. The intake of plasticizers estimated from all samples was 519 microg DEHP/day, 86 microg DEHA/day, 65 microg DINP/day, and 4.7 microg BBP/day. Calculated DEHP in 2-day samples out of 21 days exceeded EU TDI for a person of 50 kg body weight (1850 microg per day). Disposable PVC gloves used during the preparation of meals were suspected as the source of the high DEHP content. One-day intake of the other phthalates and DEHA was below 7% of TDI in all cases. High concentrations of DEHP (5990 ng/g) was found in baby food used in quality assurance work. The source of contamination was the PVC-tube used during production and was effectively reduced by replacing the tube by one made of stainless steel.

[Contents of eleven phthalates and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate in retail packed lunches after prohibition of DEHP-containing PVC gloves for cooking purposes]

Ten samples of retail packed lunches purchased from convenience stores were determined for 11 phthalates and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) in August 2000, 2 months after the prohibition of DEHP-containing PVC gloves in Japan. Each homogenized sample was extracted with acetonitrile, partitioned with n-hexane, and cleaned up using Florisil and PSA columns. Phthalates in the extract were determined by GC/MS (SIM). The limits of detection were 14.9 ng/g for di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and 18.6 ng/g for dibutyl phthalate (DBP). Levels of phthalates in packed lunch samples were 45 to 517 ng DEHP/g (198 ng/g, average), ND to 90 ng DEHA/g, and ND to 10.0 ng BBP/g. Diisononyl phthalate (DINP) was detected in one sample at 76 ng/g. Average DEHP level in ten samples was 4% of that in 1999. The contents of other phthalates were also reduced. DBP was not detected in any sample. Recovery of deuterated isomers added as surrogates was 27.9% for DNP-d4, and 40.6 to 101.5% for the other phthalates.

Estimation of gene flow in the tropical-rainforest tree Neobalanocarpus heimii (Dipterocarpaceae), inferred from paternity analysis

Pollen flow and population genetic structure among 30 potentially flowering individuals of Neobalanocarpus heimii, a tropical emergent tree, were investigated in a lowland tropical rainforest of Malaysia using microsatellite polymorphism. The 248 offspring in the vicinity of five reproductive trees of the 30 potentially flowering trees were used in paternity analysis for pollen-flow study. Four primer pairs, developed in different species of dipterocarps, were adopted to detect microsatellite polymorphism. Based upon microsatellite polymorphism, pollen flow and seed migration were detected. Pollen-flow events of more than 400 m were observed directly, based on paternity analysis in the study plot. The estimated average mating distance of the five reproductive trees was 524 m. This result suggests that reproduction of this species is mediated by a long-distance pollinator. The haplotypes of some offspring were not compatible with the nearest reproductive tree. Thus, the results suggest that some seeds are dispersed by a seed dispersal vector. Investigation of genetic structure showed significant and negative correlation of genetic relatedness and spatial distances between the 30 potentially flowering trees, but this correlation was weak. We suggest that long-distance gene flow and seed migration are responsible for the poorly developed genetic structure of this species.

Liquid chromatographic determination of emamectin, milbemectin, ivermectin and abamectin in crops and confirmation by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Emamectin, milbemectin, ivermectin and abamectin are similar macrocyclic lactone chemicals used as an acaricides or parasiticides. We developed a simultaneous analytical method for determining the residual amounts of these compounds and emamectin metabolites in crops. A sample extracted with acetone was cleaned up with Bond Elut C18 and NH2. The sample was then fluorescence-derivatized with trifluoroacetic anhydride and 1-methylimidazole in acetonitrile. The analyte was measured by HPLC with fluorescence detection using an octadecylsilyl column with 3 microm particle size and gradient elution. In most crops, their recoveries by the developed method were ca. 80-110%. The detection limits of the analytes in vegetables were 0.1-0.3 ppt. Using the developed method, we surveyed the residues of these compounds in 20 commercial crops in Osaka, Japan. The result of the surveillance was that emamectin benzoate of 0.2-6.7 ppb was detected in nine cases and milbemectin of 16.7-279.3 ppb was detected in four cases. The detected samples were confirmed by LC-electrospray ionization (ESI) MS. The limit of detection by LC-ESI-MS was similar to the fluorescence detection level of 0.1-0.3 ppt in vegetables except for milbemectin.

A randomized study of short-versus long-term intravesical epirubicin instillation for superficial bladder cancer. Nagoya University Urological Oncology Group

OBJECTIVE

A prospective randomized study was undertaken to determine whether prophylactic maintenance instillation of epirubicin following induction treatment is beneficial in patients with superficial bladder cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

One hundred and forty-eight patients with resectable superficial bladder cancer (Ta-1, single, multiple, primary or recurrent with, however, no recurrence during the last year) were enrolled in this study. In both arms, epirubicin (40 mg/ml in normal saline) was administered six times within 4 weeks after a transurethral resection of the bladder tumor(s). In arm A, the patients received 11 additional monthly instillations of epirubicin.

RESULTS

Of the 148 patients, 138 (93.2%) were eligible and followed for an average of 29.6 months. 93 (67.4%) had a solitary tumor. No significant difference in the recurrence-free curve was observed between the two arms (p = 0.62). The recurrence rate per year was 0.16 in arm A and 0.17 in arm B. Toxicity included vesical irritability in 10 (7.2%) and hematuria in 1 patient. No significant difference in the frequency or degree of toxicity was observed between the two arms.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that maintenance instillation of epirubicin does not reduce superficial bladder cancer recurrence.

Phylogenetic relationships in Taxodiaceae and Cupressaceae sensu stricto based on matK gene, chlL gene, trnL-trnF IGS region, and trnL intron sequences

Nucleotide sequences from four chloroplast genes, the matK, chlL, intergenic spacer (IGS) region between trnL and trnF, and an intron of trnL, were determined from all species of Taxodiaceae and five species of Cupressaceae sensu stricto (s.s.). Phylogenetic trees were constructed using the maximum parsimony and the neighbor-joining methods with Cunninghamia as an outgroup. These analyses provided greater resolution of relationships among genera and higher bootstrap supports for clades compared to previous analyses. Results indicate that Taiwania diverged first, and then Athrotaxis diverged from the remaining genera. Metasequoia, Sequoia, and Sequoiadendron form a clade. Taxodium and Glyptostrobus form a clade, which is the sister to Cryptomeria. Cupressaceae s.s. are derived from within Taxodiaceae, being the most closely related to the Cryptomeria/Taxodium/Glyptostrobus clade. These relationships are consistent with previous morphological groupings and the analyses of molecular data. In addition, we found acceleration of evolutionary rates in Cupressaceae s.s. Possible causes for the acceleration are discussed.

Chloroplast DNA inversion polymorphism in populations of Abies and Tsuga

Polymorphism for a 42-kb chloroplast DNA inversion was detected in five species of Abies and two species of Tsuga based on a sample of 1,281 individuals and both Southern hybridization and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analyses. Two haplotypes were observed in all populations and species. The 42-kb inversion is associated with a short inverted repeat that includes trnS, psaM, and trnG. The frequencies of the two haplotypes within species were very similar among the five species of Abies This polymorphism has been maintained within populations and species in both Abies and Tsuga, probably because the mutation rate of the inversion is high. Haplotype frequencies had no geographical tendencies for any species except Abies mariesii, in which haplotype frequencies varied clinally, possibly as a result of rapid dissemination after the most recent glacial period and random genetic drift.

Molecular phylogenetic position of Japanese Abies (Pinaceae) based on chloroplast DNA sequences

The phylogenetic positions of Japanese Abies species (A. firma, A. homolepis, A. veitchii, A. sachalinensis, and A. mariesii) were revealed based on nucleotide sequences of chloroplast DNA. First, rbcL sequences of 24 Abies species worldwide were analyzed to clarify the phylogenetic position of the Japanese Abies within this genus. While 4 of the Japanese species formed a monophyletic group with almost no sequence divergence, A. mariesii was placed into a clearly different group with North American species. Second, to clarify the relationships among the species in the monophyletic group, sequences of rbcL, matK, and six spacer regions (total ca. 5 kb) were analyzed for 12 species of the group, with A. mariesii as an outgroup. Although a unique sequence and some species-specific sequences were detected in A. mariesii and in A. firma and A. homolepis, respectively, A. veitchii and A. sachalinensis gave identical sequences for all the sequenced regions.

Expression analysis of ESts derived from the inner bark of Cryptomeria japonica

To assist genetic research into Cryptomeria japonica, which is one of the most important forest tree species in Japan, expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis was carried out. The cDNA clones were isolated from a library derived from inner bark tissues. Partial sequences were obtained from 2231 clones, representing 1398 unique transcripts. Putative functions were assigned to 1583 clones, which represented 882 unique transcripts, by a Blast algorithm. Homology analysis suggested that ESTs related to cell wall formation represented about 3% of the clones. Transcripts of plant stress response genes were also abundant in the inner bark library, especially genes involved in wounding and drought responses. This indicates that the stress response systems of this tree species are similar to those of other plants, and that these systems are highly conserved among plant species. The remaining 648 clones, which represented 516 unique transcripts, did not show any significant homology to known sequences in the databases searched: these are expected to represent genes specific to Cryptomeria and, possibly, to related species.

Degradation of malathion and phenthoate by glutathione reductase in wheat germ

Residual malathion in wheat was estimated at a lower value when analysis was performed by extraction with acetone after addition of water to swell the wheat, according to the Japanese Bulletin Method. The supernatant of the wheat homogenate showed degradation not only of malathion but also of phenthoate. Malathion and phenthoate were not degraded by the boiled supernatant of the wheat homogenate. It was presumed for this reason that glutathione reductase (GR; EC 1.6. 4.2) in the wheat degraded malathion. The following results were obtained: (1) GR originating in wheat could degrade malathion and phenthoate. (2) The degradation of malathion by the GR was inhibited by excessive GSSG. (3) There was a high correlation between GR activity and malathion degradation activity of the supernatant of wheat homogenates. It is likely that GR acted on the specific structure of malathion and phenthoate, the S=P-S bond, and the blanch structure bonding with the sulfur atom. Following the above, extraction with acetone after addition of water (the Japanese Bulletin Method) should be replaced by extraction with pure organic solvent and without addition of water for swelling.

Phylogenetic relationships of Eurasian pines (Pinus, Pinaceae) based on chloroplast rbcL, MATK, RPL20-RPS18 spacer, and TRNV intron sequences

The sequence divergence of chloroplast rbcL, matK, trnV intron, and rpl20-rps18 spacer regions was analyzed among 32 Pinus species and representatives of six other genera in Pinaceae. The total aligned sequence length is 3570 bp. Of the four sequences examined, matK evolved much faster than rbcL in Pinus and in other Pinaceae genera. The two noncoding regions did not show more divergence than the two coding regions, especially within each Pinus subgenus. Phylogenetic analyses based on these four sequences gave consistent results and strongly supported the monophyly hypothesis for the genus Pinus and its two recognized subgenera. Pinus krempfii, the two-flat-needle pine endemic to Vietnam, was placed in subgen. Strobus and showed closer affinity to subsect. Gerardianae. The ancient character of sect. Parrya is further confirmed. However, monophyly of the sect. Parrya is not supported by our data. Among the Eurasian pines of subgen. Pinus, Mediterranean pines formed one clade and the Asian members of subsect. Sylvestres formed another. The Himalayan P. roxburghii showed considerable divergence from all the other hard pines from both regions. Pinus merkusii was distinctly separated from all the Asian members of subsect. Sylvestres. The implications of our results for Pinus classification are discussed.

Genetic diversity and differentiation of Taxodium in the south-eastern United States using cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences

Two taxa of Taxodium, bald cypress and pond cypress, occur in the south-eastern United States. The ranges of these taxa overlap in the south-eastern Coastal Plain, with the range of the latter being more restricted. Although these taxa co-occur throughout a portion of the more expansive range of bald cypress (Taxodium distichum (L.) L. C. Rich), the habitats of the two taxa appear to differ. Consequently, considerable debate has occurred regarding the taxonomic status of pond cypress. Some authors recognize pond cypress as a distinct species (Taxodium ascendens Brongn.), whereas others recognize it as a variety/ecotype (Taxodium distichum var. imbricarium (Nutt.) Croom). In this study, the genetic diversity of these two taxa was investigated using 10 DNA markers based on sequences from cDNA clones of Cryptomeria japonica. Cryptomeria is a monospecific genus native to Japan, and is a close relative of Taxodium. These markers were codominant in Cryptomeria and were presumed to be codominant in Taxodium. DNA was extracted from leaf tissue collected from six populations of bald cypress and seven populations of pond cypress throughout Florida and Georgia. The average heterozygosities of bald cypress and pond cypress were 0.386 (SE 0.040) and 0.380 (SE 0.040), respectively. Most of the genetic variation (91.9%) was found within populations, 4.9% was found between populations and 3.2% between taxa. Results of DNA analysis using cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences (CAPS) in this study did not suggest that pond cypress was a species distinct from bald cypress. Our conclusion is that the two taxa of Taxodium should be given varietal status.

Fecal steroid excretion is increased in rats by oral administration of gymnemic acids contained in Gymnema sylvestre leaves

Gymnemic acids are the saponins with a triterpenoid structure contained in Gymnema sylvestre leaves and have the hypoglycemic effects. In spite of the cholesterol-binding properties of saponins, the effect of gymnemic acids on cholesterol metabolism has not been elucidated to date. We investigated the effects of gymnemic acids on fecal steroid excretion in rats. Three kinds of extracts from Gymnema sylvestre leaves, extract (GSE), acid precipitate (GSA) and column fractionate (GSF), of which the gymnemagenin (an aglycone of gymnemic acids) concentrations are 58.87, 161.6, and 363.3 mg/g respectively, were used for the experiments. These were administered to rats orally at the dose of 0.05-1.0 g/kg for 22 d. Rats were given free access to water and nonpurified diet without cholesterol, and the differences in fecal excretion of steroids and gymnemic acids were investigated. Although there were no significant effects of GSE, GSA and GSF decreased body weight gain and food intakes in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.01). GSF (1.0 g/kg) significantly increased fecal excretion of neutral steroids and bile acids in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05), especially those of cholesterol and cholic acid (CA)-derived bile acids. The increases in fecal steroid excretion of cholesterol, total neutral steroids, total bile acids and CA-related bile acids were acute and significantly correlated with fecal gymnemagenin levels (r2 = 0.2316-0.9861, P < 0. 05). These results demonstrated for the first time that a high dose of gymnemic acids increases fecal cholesterol and CA-derived bile acid excretion. Further studies are needed to clarify the effect of gymnemic acids on cholesterol metabolism.

Molecular phylogeny of Dipetrocarpaceae in Southeast Asia based on nucleotide sequences of matK, trnL intron, and trnL-trnF intergenic spacer region in chloroplast DNA

To obtain a refined molecular phylogeny of dipterocarp species in Southeast Asia, nucleotide sequences of matK, the intron of trnL, and intergenic spacer region between trnL and trnF in chloroplast DNA were determined in 16 species throughout 10 genera. In the resultant trees Southeast Asian dipterocarp species were divided into two clusters. One cluster consisted of Anisoptera, Vatica, Cotylelobium, and Upuna, all with the base chromosome number of x = 11. The second cluster consisted of Hopea, Shorea, Neobalanocarpus, Dryobalanops, Parashorea, and Dipterocarpus, mostly with the base chromosome number of x = 7. Dipterocarpus was the only genus that had the base chromosome number x = 11 in the latter cluster. This result suggests that the chromosome number changed from x = 11 to x = 7 after Dipterocarpus branched in the latter cluster. Other evolutionary changes of morphological characters are also discussed.

Development and polymorphism of simple sequence repeat DNA markers for Shorea curtisii and other Dipterocarpaceae species

Nine simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were developed from Shorea curtisii using two different methods. One SSR locus was isolated by the commonly used method of screening by colony hybridization, and the other eight loci were isolated by a vectorette PCR method. Primer pairs were designed based on the sequences of all these SSR loci. Analysis of 40 individuals of S. curtisii from natural forest in Malaysia revealed that all SSR loci were polymorphic. Four SSR markers, Shc01, Shc04, Shc07 and Shc09, were highly polymorphic. We have also tested the applicability of these SSR printers to other species of Dipterocarpaceae using PCR amplification. Because the flanking region sequences of the S. curtisii SSRs were well conserved within this family, the SSR primers for S. curtisii can be applied to almost all species of Dipterocarpaceae.

Intraspecific variation and phylogeographic patterns of Fagus crenata (Fagaceae) mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial (mt) DNA variation in Japanese beech, Fagus crenata (Fagaceae), was studied in 17 populations distributed throughout the species' range. Total genomic DNA of samples from single trees representing each of 12 populations were digested with 18 restriction enzymes and hybridized with three probes containing coxI, coxIII, and atpA gene sequences. Thirty-four of the 54 enzyme/probe combinations showed polymorphisms and all the individuals were subsequently analyzed with six combinations of three probes and two enzymes. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms were evident around all three genes, allowing the identification of eight distinct haplotypes. Haplotype diversity within the populations was found to be very low (HS = 0.031), but population differentiation to be much higher (GST = 0.963). The mtDNA variation was strikingly different from allozyme variation (HS = 0.209; GST = 0.039). Gene flow for maternally inherited mtDNA should be restricted to seed dispersal while nuclear gene flow occurs by both seed and pollen dispersal. Therefore, the difference in the variation between mtDNA and allozymes may be largely a result of the much higher rate of gene flow associated with pollen dispersal than with seed dispersal. The mtDNA variation displayed strong geographic structure, which may reflect the species' distribution in the last glacial maximum and subsequent colonization, and probably also reflects intraspecific phylogeography of the species.

Differences in behavior among the chlorides of seven rare earth elements administered intravenously to rats

Differences in behavior among the chlorides of seven rare earth elements (REEs)-yttrium (Y), cerium (Ce), and praseodymium (Pr) (light REEs); europium (Eu) and dysprosium (Dy) (medium REEs); ytterbium (Yb) and lutetium (Lu) (heavy REEs)-were investigated through intravenous administration of the REEs to rats. (1) Distributions of REEs and mineral concentrations in the organs on Day 1 were investigated at low and high doses (9-10 and 18-20 mg REE/kg, or 56-66 and 112-132 mumol REE/kg). More than 78% of the REEs administered was distributed into liver, bone, and spleen. High doses of Y, Eu, and Dy markedly increased the accumulation of REEs in spleen and lungs as well as the concentration of Ca in liver, spleen, and lungs. (2) The distribution patterns of REEs and changes in Ca concentrations in major organs over time were investigated by the administration of Pr, Eu, Dy, Yb (low dose), and Y (high dose). REEs disappeared from the blood within 1 day but were retained in the organs for a long time. The percentages of the doses of Y, Eu, Dy, and Yb found in the liver were highest at 8 hr to 2 days, then decreased gradually; hepatic Pr levels, however, remained high. Changes in Ca concentrations in liver, spleen, and lungs were in accordance with those of REEs. (3) Severe hepatotoxicity was observed after administration of Ce and Pr; fatty liver, jaundice, and elevated serum GOT and GPT levels were most prominent on Day 3. Therefore, we hypothesized that REE chlorides might be categorized into three groups according to their ionic radii (light REEs, Y and medium REEs, and heavy REEs) and from their behavior, i.e., distribution pattern, Ca-accumulating action, and hepatotoxicity.

Potential interference by free fatty acids in determination of tricyclazole in brown rice by gas chromatography with flame thermionic detection

A convenient method is described for the determination of tricyclazole in brown rice, and the interference of free fatty acids with flame thermionic detection (FTD) is reported for the first time. Brown rice is extracted with acetone, the extract is filtered, and the filtrate is evaporated. To the residue is added 10% (w/v) NaCl solution, and the mixture is extracted with ethyl acetate. The extract is charged on a Sep-Pak Plus silica cartridge. Free fatty acids are removed from the rice by washing with diethyl ether, and tricyclazole is eluted with acetone-n-hexane (1 + 1). Tricyclazole is determined on a DB-1 capillary column by gas chromatography with FTD (GC-FTD). Linoleic acid and oleic acid, which have essentially the same retention time as tricyclazole, cannot be detected by FTD. Thus, without the Sep-Pak Plus silica cleanup, the peak height of tricyclazole in the chromatogram decreased, the extent depending on the concentration of linoleic acid. n-Hexane-acetonitrile partitioning was not used for cleanup because it could not remove 50% of the free fatty acids. Recoveries (mean +/- standard deviation, n = 5) of tricyclazole from rice fortified at 2 and 0.1 ppm were 90.5 +/- 9.4% and 81.3 +/- 10.6%, respectively. The limit of quantitation was 0.05 ppm.

Molecular phylogeny of Dipterocarpaceae in Southeast Asia using RFLP of PCR-amplified chloroplast genes

Dipterocarpaceae is the dominant family of Southeast Asia's climax tropical rain forest region, and it contains the region's most important commercial timber species. A molecular phylogeny of the Dipterocarpaceae subfamily Dipterocapoideae was constructed using restriction fragment length polymorphisms of polymerase chain reaction-amplified specific genes in chloroplast DNA. A total of 141 site changes were detected among ten genera and 30 species in 11 different genes: rbcL, psbA, psbD, rpoB, rpoC, petB, atpH, 16S, psaA, petA and trnK. Phylogenetic trees constructed by Wanger parsimony and neighbor-joining methods, using Upuna as the outgroup, displayed five monophytelic groups that included Upuna: HopeaShorea-Parashorea-Neobalanocarpus; Dryobalanops; Dipterocarpus; Anisoptera-Vatica-Cotylelobium; and Upuna. The phylogenetic trees clearly separate species with two different base chromosome numbers: the first group is x=7, and the other is x=11. The x=7 group is thought to be in a synapomorphic character state. Parashorea lucida is a sister to most Shorea species. Neobalanocarpus heimii and Hopea from a clade of a sister to two Shorea species, and Cotylelobium and Vatica are closely related species. Our conclusions agree with a phylogeny derived from wood anatomy data analysis, and with Symington's and Ashton's taxonomic classifications.

DNA sequence from a fossil pollen of Abies spp. from Pleistocene peat

DNA was amplified from individual fossil pollen grains of Abies spp. (Pinaceae), which have been detected from Pleistocene peaty deposits (at least 150,000 years old). To identify the species of the fossil pollen by DNA analysis, the region indicating the species-specific sequence was searched among extant Abies species and the spacer region between rrn5 and trnR in chloroplast DNA was sequenced for four grains of the fossil pollen. Three pollen samples produced the same sequence as extant Abies species. The sequence for the remaining sample differed from that of extant Abies by one substitution. This study showed not only a successful DNA analysis from a single grain of fossil pollen but also a new method to identify the species of fossil pollen for the pollen analysis field.

Diversity and inheritance of inter-simple sequence repeat polymorphisms in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and sugi (Cryptomeria japonica)

We studied inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) polymorphism and inheritance in Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] and sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) megagametophytes using primers that anneal to simple repeats of various lengths, sequences, and non-repetitive motifs at the 5' and 3' ends. Products were visualized on agarose gels with ethidium bromide staining. More than 60% of the 96 primers tested gave interpretable banding patterns in both Douglas-fir and sugi, and the useful primers were in complete agreement among species. Dinucleotide repeat primers were the majority of those tested, and gave all of the useful banding patterns. The 24 best primers were used for segregation studies, yielding a total of 77 loci distributed among two Douglas-fir families and one sugi family. Approximately 90% of the 24 primers showed polymorphism within at least one of the three families. The average number of variable loci per primer was 1.6. Primers based on (AG) n repeats gave the largest number of polymorphic loci; 16 primer-family combinations yielded 24 segregating loci. However, primer based on (GT) n repeats gave the most loci per primer studied (mean of 2.0). All markers displayed apparent dominance (band presence vs absence), and all but three segregation ratios (4%) fit Mendelian expectations: Because they employ longer primers than do RAPDs, have a high degree of polymorphism, conform well to Mendelian expectations, and do not require use of acrylamide gels for analysis, ISSRs may be useful markers for PCR-based genome maps and population studies of conifers.

Molecular phytogeny of conifers using RFLP analysis of PCR-amplified specific chloroplast genes

We investigated the molecular phylogeny of conifers using restriction endonuclease fragment length polymorphism of six polymerase chain reaction-amplified chloroplast genes - frxC, rbcL, psbA, psbD, trnK, and 16S. We detected 227 total site changes among species, representing 23, 26, 38, 48, 67, and 25 site changes in frxC, psbA, psbD, rbcL, trnK and 16S, respectively. The mean nucleotide substitution was 10.75% (SD 0.573) among species in five families. Forty maximally parsimonious trees were obtained using the Wagner parsimony method, and a 50% majority-rule consensus tree was obtained from them. Data analysis produced similar basic patterns when both the Wagner parsimony and the neighbor-joining methods were applied, and the main lineages were clearly separated. Taxaceae and Cephalotaxaceae species were used as the out-groups when applying Wagner parsimony methods. With the Wagner method, the consistency index was 0.510, the retention index was 0.879, and tree length was 435 steps. Our results indicated that Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae are closely related families and that Sciadopitys verticillata is the basal lineage of Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae. The neighbor-joining tree is similar to the 50% majority-rule consensus of the 40 Wagner parsimony trees except for the position of Keteleeria daversifolia, the Picea and Cedrus group, and the divergence within Cupressaceae.