Estimation of sex using dimensions around the metatarsal diaphyseal nutrient foramen: Application of discriminant function analysis and logistic regression models

Sex estimation equations are population-specific, and a wider use of multiple bones to generate equations will increase the accuracy of sex estimation in forensic settings. The metatarsal bones have been used previously, however the dimensions around the diaphyseal nutrient foramen have not been utilised in sex estimation. The current study aimed to determine the utility of the dimensions around the nutrient foramen of metatarsal bones in estimating sex in the South Africans of European descent (SAED). Five measurements around the nutrient foramen were taken from a total of 876 metatarsal bones (first to fifth) from 186 individual skeletons (99 males, 87 females) obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Modern Skeletal Collection. Measurements subjected to direct and stepwise discriminant function (DFA) and logistic regression (LRA) analyses included total length, distance from proximal end to nutrient foramen, circumference, and mediolateral and dorsoplantar diameters at the level of the nutrient foramen. The original classification accuracies for multivariable functions of the stepwise and direct DFA ranged from 83.1-88.3% to 85.5-88.3%, respectively. The original classification accuracies for multivariable functions of the stepwise and direct LRA ranged from 83.3%-88.7% to 86.2%-88.3%, respectively. The cross-validation classifications showed a drop of 0-2.4% for DFA and 0.2-1.1% for LRA. The width measurements were better predictors of sex than length. The dimensions around the metatarsal bone nutrient foramen exhibit sexual dimorphism in the SAED. The generated DFA and LRA functions produced high average classification accuracies which are useful in sex estimation during forensic human identification.

Sexual dimorphism of the twelfth thoracic vertebra for sex determination in the Central Thai population

Analyzing skeletal remains is crucial for identifying individuals, and forensic anthropologists use this analysis to determine biological characteristics, particularly sex, aiding criminal investigations. Among thoracic vertebrae, the twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12) is highly sexually dimorphic in various populations. This study aims to establish a discriminant function equation (DFE) for sex determination based on T12 in the Central Thai population. A total of 15 parameters of T12 were examined in 69 bone samples (43 males and 26 females). Among the 15 parameters, 14 were significantly different between males and females. The discriminant function equation (DFE) was generated as DFE = -19.578 + 0.376(i) BDsm + 0.254(l) PW + 0.081TDm, with a cutoff value of -0.296 for males and females, showing 92.8 % accuracy. The evaluation of the DFE using 10 blind samples showed 90 % accuracy. These findings may offer an additional method for sex determination through T12, complementing the examination of other skeletal elements.

Evaluation of morphological traits using multivariate techniques in Kotdhar goat native to Shivalik hill region of Himachal Pradesh

The objective of this study was to analyze the diverse morphological attributes of Kotdhar goat native to Shivalik hill region of Himachal Pradesh. A total number of 180 goats, comprising 150 females and 30 males aged between 1 and 3 years, were randomly selected to estimate15 distinct morphological traits and ten body indices. Mean values of 17.66 cm, 11.68 cm, 8.73 cm, 71.94 cm, 69.83 cm, 74.48 cm, 38.10 cm, 73.38 cm, 20.55 cm, 16.48 cm, 14.89 cm, 13.57 cm, 19.20 cm, 7.71 cm and 26.12 kg were estimated for head length, head width, face length, body length, wither height, heart girth, chest depth, rump height, rump length, rump width, haunch width, bicoastal width, shoulder width, cannon bone and body weight respectively. In addition, morphological indices viz. body index, length index, body ratio, thoracic development, pelvic index, longitudinal pelvic index, transverse pelvic index, proportionality index, dactyl thorax index and relative depth of thorax were estimated from morphological traits. Results of morphological indices indicated that Kotdhar goat are medium bodied, longilinear, tall animals and well-suited for meat production. Phenotypic correlation among most of traits was positive and significant. Among all correlations, correlation between head length and head width was found lowest (- 0.270), while the correlation between heart girth and chest depth was observed highest (0.861). Canonical discriminant function analysis showed that there was no considerable level of intermixing for morphological traits in Kotdhar goat. Employing principal component analysis with varimax rotation, three principal components were observed, accounting for 68.47% of the total variation. First principal component (PC1) encapsulated the highest proportion of variance (44.39), revealing the high loadings on head length (0.777), body length (0.747), wither height (0.782), heart girth (0.785), chest depth (0.706), rump height (0.762), haunch width (0.734) and bicoastal width (0.793). Hence, it is possible to utilize these eight variables out of the 15 morphological traits for the characterization of the Kotdhar goat.

Assessment of sex and sexual dimorphism in children from Tamilnadu, India through odontometrics in primary dentition - a cross sectional study with discriminant function analysis

One of the crucial steps in the process of identification of human remains is sex determination of an unknown individual. Sex can be determined using the human skeleton, especially by examining the pelvis and skull. Odontometric analysis and assessment of sexual dimorphism of the human dentition has been less investigated, especially in primary dentition. Hence, this research was designed to verify the presence of sexual dimorphism through odontometric approach in paediatric population of Tamil Nadu, India. The present study was performed on 229 females and 244 males between 3 and 6 years of age. Linear measurements such as maximum mesio distal width, maximum bucco lingual width and clinical crown length were measured in all the primary teeth. Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for Social Science version 20.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Mann-Whitney-U test was used to check the statistical significance of the differences observed between males and females. Six equations were derived by discriminant function analysis for practical use. Sexual dimorphism existed in odontometric parameters of primary dentition. The maximum sexual dimorphism was observed in maximum bucco lingual width of 51 and maximum bucco lingual width of 75. The equations derived using discriminant function analysis yielded a jackknife accuracy ranging between 87.5% and 99.8%. These equations may be used to assess the sex from the children of Tamil Nadu, India.

Sex estimation of Malaysian sub-adults using craniometrics: A computed tomography study

Sex estimation is crucial in biological profiling of skeletal human remains. Methods used for sex estimation in adults are less effective for sub-adults due to varied cranium patterns during the growth period. Hence, this study aimed to develop a sex estimation model for Malaysian sub-adults using craniometric measurements obtained through multi-slice computed tomography (MSCT). A total of 521 cranial MSCT dataset of sub-adult Malaysians (279 males, 242 females; 0-20 years old) were collected. Mimics software version 21.0 (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium) was used to construct three-dimensional (3D) models. A plane-to-plane (PTP) protocol was utilised to measure 14 selected craniometric parameters. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) and binary logistic regression (BLR) were used to statistically analyze the data. In this study, low level of sexual dimorphism was observed in cranium below 6 years old. The level was then increased with age. For sample validation data, the accuracy of DFA and BLR in estimating sex improved with age from 61.6% to 90.3%. All age groups except 0-2 and 3-6 showed high accuracy percentage (≥75%) when tested using DFA and BLR. DFA and BLR can be utilised to estimate sex for Malaysian sub-adult using MSCT craniometric measurements. However, BLR showed higher accuracy than DFA in sex estimation of sub-adults.

Sex estimation using foramen magnum measurements, discriminant analyses and artificial neural networks on an eastern Turkish population sample

BACKGROUND

Although many studies have been conducted using the foramen magnum for sex estimation, recent findings have indicated that the discriminant and regression models obtained from the foramen magnum may not be reliable. Artificial Neural Networks, was used as a classification technique in sex estimation studies on some other bones, did not used in sex estimation studies on the foramen magnum until now. The aim of this study was sex estimation on an Eastern Turkish population sample using foramen magnum measurements, discriminant analyses and Artificial Neural Networks.

METHODOLOGY

The study was performed on the CT images of a total of 720 cases, comprising 360 males and 360 females. For sex estimation, discriminant analysis and Artificial Neural Networks were used.

RESULTS

The accuracy rate was 86.7% with discriminant analysis and when sex estimation accuracy was determined according to cases with posterior probabilities above 95%, the accuracy ranged from 0% to 33.3%. With the use of the discriminant formulas of 2 other studies, obtained from different Turkish samples, sex could be determined at a rate of 84.6%. Some formulas were found to be unsuccessful in sex estimation. Sex estimation accuracy of 88.2% was achieved with Artificial Neural Networks.

CONCLUSION

In this study, it was found that sex could be determined to some extent with discriminant formulas from other samples from the same population, although some formulas were unsuccessful. With the use of image processing techniques and machine learning algorithms, better results can be obtained in sex estimation.

Distinguishing primate taxa with enamel incremental variables

Enamel has long been of interest for its functional and phylogenetic significance among fossil hominins and other primates. Previous studies demonstrated that enamel incremental features distinguish among hominin fossil taxa, suggesting utility for highlighting taxonomy. However, not all features appear to be useful in mixed samples of fossils, living humans, and apes. Here we tested enamel incremental data from closely related primate taxa to determine which features, if any, distinguish among them. Enamel incremental variables were measured from the M₂ of 40 living primate taxa, and we tested our variables using discriminant function analysis at the taxonomic ranks of parvorder, family, tribe, and genus. We then included enamel incremental data from Australopithecus afarensis, Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus aethiopicus, Paranthropus boisei, and Paranthropus robustus to determine if these features distinguished fossil taxa from living humans and apes. Our initial results show that enamel incremental variables distinguish among primate taxa, but with low classification rates. Further testing with jackknifing methods shows overlap between groups at all taxonomic ranks, suggesting enamel incremental variables are unreliable for taxonomy. The addition of many common enamel incremental growth variables also resulted in multicollinearity in our multivariate analysis. As the dentition and isolated teeth remain a significant portion of the hominin fossil record, verifying enamel incremental features as a useful taxonomic tool is fundamentally important for hominin paleobiology.

Classification of geographical origin of kimchi by volatile compounds analysis using an electronic nose

Food authenticity is one of the largest concerns in recent days. As kimchi has been a global food, its production origin has been important issue, particularly due to the large import from China. Among the potential methods, electronic nose which can measure volatile compounds in foods is considered to be a powerful device for identifying country of production. This study is to classify 69 kinds of kimchi produced in South Korea (39) and China (30) by analyzing volatile compounds in kimchi using electronic nose-mass spectrometry. Two widely used multivariate analyses, discriminant function analysis and principal component analysis, were used. Results showed that both multivariate analyses can completely separate Korean and Chinese kimchi using 10 kinds of molecular weights among 10-160 amu. The results indicate that the volatile compounds in kimchi are a suitable target to determine the geographical origin of kimchi.

Testing the validity of population-specific sex estimation equations: An evaluation based on talus and patella measurements

Sex estimation is essential for forensic scientists to identify human skeletal remains. However, the most sexually dimorphic elements like pelvis or skull are not always assessable. Osteometric analyses have proven useful in sex estimation, but also to be population specific. The main purpose of this study was to test the validity of contemporary Greek and Spanish discriminant functions for the talus and the patella, respectively, on a Swiss skeletal sample and to quantify the utility of the measurements as a novel approach in osteometric sex assessment. Four talus and three patella measurements on dry bone were obtained from 234 individuals of the modern cemetery SIMON Identified Skeletal Collection. The previously derived discriminant functions were applied, accuracies determined, the utility of the different measurements was assessed and new multivariable equations constructed. Accuracies varied between 67% and 86% for talus and 63% and 84% for patella, similar to those reported by the original studies. Multivariable equations should be preferred over equations based on single measurements and combining the most significant measurements rather than using several variables obtained the best possible accuracy. The new discriminant functions did not provide a substantial improvement to the original ones. The overall utility of talus and patella is limited, allowing sex estimation with sufficient certainty only in a small proportion of individuals. Discriminant functions developed in contemporary Greek or Spanish populations are in principle applicable also to Swiss contemporary populations. We recommend that at present existent studies of this type should be validated and tested rather than developing new formulas.

A revision of vulture feeding classification

Pioneering fieldwork identified the existence of three feeding groups in vultures: gulpers, rippers and scrappers. Gulpers engulf soft tissue from carcasses and rippers tear off pieces of tough tissue (skin, tendons, muscle), whereas scrappers peck on small pieces of meat they find on and around carcasses. It has been shown that these feeding preferences are reflected in the anatomy of the skull and neck. Here, we demonstrate that these three feeding groups also emerge when body core and limb bones are added to the analysis. However, the resulting classification differs from that which is based on skull morphology for three species, namely Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus, 1758), Gypohierax angolensis (Gmelin, 1788) and Gyps indicus (Scopoli, 1786). The proposed classification would improve the interrelationship between form and feeding habits in vultures. Moreover, the results of this study reinforce the value of the categorisation system introduced by Kruuk (1967), and expanded by König (1974, 1983), Houston (1988) and Hertel (1994), as it would affect not only the skull morphology but the whole-body architecture.

Morphological variability and genetic diversity in Carex buxbaumii and Carex hartmaniorum (Cyperaceae) populations

Background

Carex buxbaumii and C. hartmaniorum are sister species of the clade Papilliferae within the monophyletic section Racemosae. An unambiguous identification of these species is relatively difficult due to the interspecific continuum of some morphological characters as well as the intraspecific variability. The study was aimed at determining the range of variability, both morphological and genetic, within and between these two closely related and similar species.

Methods

The sedges were collected during botanical expeditions to Armenia, Estonia, the Netherlands, and Poland. The morphological separation of the two species and their populations was tested using the Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA). The genetic variability of the 19 Carex populations was assessed in the presence of eight Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) primers.

Results

Results of the study indicate a considerable genetic affinity between the two sedge species (mean Si = 0.619). However, the populations of C. hartmaniorum are, morphologically and genetically, more homogenous than the populations of C. buxbaumii. Compared to C. hartmaniorum, C. buxbaumii usually has wider leaf blades, a shorter inflorescence, a lower number of spikes which are shorter, but wider, and longer bracts and utricles. The AMOVA showed a larger variation between the populations of C. buxbaumii, representing 25.65% of the total variation in the taxon. Two populations of C. buxbaumii (from Poland and Estonia) are separated from the remaining populations, both genetically and morphologically; their individuals show shorter utricles and glumes, compared to the typical specimens of C. buxbaumii, and correspond with the morphology of putative infraspecific taxa described by Cajander (var. brevisquamosa and var. confusa).

Conclusions

The taxonomic status of the putative infraspecific taxa within C. buxbaumii requires further studies throughout the distribution range of C. buxbaumii, addressing habitats, morphology and genetics (including a chromosome count or a combination of different genetic methods), particularly as the variability in C. buxbaumii may be associated with the species’ polyploid origin.

Multivariate characterization of phenotypic traits of five native cattle populations from Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

Abergelle, Arado, Begait, Irob, and Raya are important native cattle populations that are well adapted to the harsh natural conditions in Tigray, Ethiopia. However, little is known about their phenotypic characteristics and inter-population variability. Understanding the phenotypic characteristics is the crucial step in an effort of maintaining genetic diversity and conserving important traits for adaptation. A total of 1650 native matured cattle from the five populations were used to investigate the phenotypic characteristics and variability based on 21 qualitative traits and 21 body measurements using uni- and multivariate, and discriminant analysis. All the qualitative traits and body measurements showed highly significant breed difference except the tail base thickness. Values for most of the body measurements were higher in Begait cattle compared to the other cattle populations. The stepwise discriminant analysis extracted eighteen variables for characterizing the female populations and thirteen variables for the male populations. The pair-wise Mahalanobis distance showed the highest morphological distance between Begait and Irob, and the closest distance between Abergelle and Irob cattle populations. High correct assignment to source population was obtained for both sexes of all breeds except Abergelle and Irob. The discriminant function graph discerned each population with no clear distinction between Abergelle and Irob. These results indicate that the five cattle populations under investigation are clustered into four distinct breeds. However, the present phenotypic characterization should be confirmed with molecular genetic diversity investigation to use as a base in their conservation, breeding, and selection strategies.

Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the putative skeletal remains of Sieur de Marle: Genetic support for anthropological assessment of biogeographic ancestry

In 1932, seven burials were discovered on a Texas plantation that was originally the site of a 17th-century Caddo Indian village. Of the seven excavated graves, one set of remains (an adult male) was notably buried in a manner inconsistent with traditional Caddoan burial practices and has long been purported to be the remains of Sieur de Marle (a member of the French explorer La Salle's last expedition). Diary accounts of La Salle's expedition scribe report that Sieur de Marle died along a river near an Indian village during a trek to Canada to find help for colonists left behind at the ill-fated Fort St. Louis. Additionally, two lead projectiles recovered from the grave were ballistically analyzed and determined to be consistent with ammunition used in 17th-century weaponry. In the 1980s, anthropologists requested access to the remains for study, but the skull was missing. Cranial measurements recorded in 1940 and 1962 (by two independent anthropologists) were used to investigate the ancestry of this individual; and the Giles-Elliot (G-E) discriminant function was calculated to be 18.1, within the Anglo-European range. Dietary isotope testing on non-cranial skeletal elements determined that this unknown male's diet was rich in animal/marine protein sources, which differs appreciably from Caddo Indian populations of that time period. In order to genetically assess this individual's biogeographic ancestry and to provide further support that this individual is of European descent, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequencing was performed using the Applied Biosystems™ Precision ID mtDNA Whole Genome Panel. mtDNA sequencing of multiple sections from two different long bones yielded compiled results consistent with either Haplogroup H or R, both predominantly European mtDNA haplogroups. Further anthropological calculations were conducted using cranial measurements, FORDISC™ software, and discriminant function analysis. Two-way, four-way, and multigroup discriminant function analyses further classify this set of unidentified remains as being White (European) in origin, with posterior probabilities of 0.999, 0.881 and 0.986, respectively. Combined with historical records of Sieur de Marle's death, as well as overlays of historical and contemporary maps which demonstrate that the plantation site aligns with Joutel's diary accounts of de Marle's burial, these collective results support that these remains are of a European male and may possibly belong to this prominent member of La Salle's expedition team.

A Study of Clinical Features and Risk Factors of Self-Referring Emergency Department Headache Patients: A Comparison with Headache Center Outpatients

BACKGROUND

Nonlife-threatening headaches account for 3% of emergency department (ED) admissions, with social and economic negative consequences. We aim to investigate clinical features and risk factors of nonlife-threatening headache patients referring to ED versus those referring to headache outpatient clinics.

METHODS

During 6 months, we promptly reevaluated in our headache unit (HU) patients discharged from ED. We compared the clinical characteristics of patients who referred to ED with those of HU outpatients visited in the same time interval. Discriminant Function Analysis and Correspondence Analysis were used to determine risk factors for ED referral.

RESULTS

We recruited 49 post-ED patients and 126 outpatients. The main reasons for ED admission were poor response to acute treatment and aura-related symptoms. Headache diagnoses made in ED were generally not confirmed later (overall concordance of 47%), except for cluster headache (CH) and migraine with aura (MA). ED patients complained higher headache intensity, longer duration, and prolonged aura compared to outpatients. Aura was the main risk factor associated with ED admission on statistical models, while less prominent risk factors were sex, age, and years from migraine onset.

CONCLUSIONS

ED patients presented a more severe headache clinical phenotype compared with outpatients. Headache diagnosis remains difficult in the emergency setting and is more easily achieved for the headache forms with standout features, such as MA or CH. According to statistical models, the aura is the most important risk factor for ED admissions.

Individual identification of birds with complex songs: The case of green-backed flycatchers Ficedula elisae

Vocal individual identification has been demonstrated in many animals, with discriminant function analysis (DFA) and spectrographic cross-correlation (SPCC) being the two most frequent methods. Successful vocal individual identification requires high among-individual differences and within-individual stability over time for vocal features. Lack of vocal individual identification is common in songbirds with complex songs, and most vocal individual identification studies are made in bird species with simple vocalizations. Here, we applied vocal individual identification with the two methods on a songbird, green-backed flycatcher Ficedula elisae. We based its complex songs by division into first, second, and third phrases. DFA resulted in a correct distinction rate of 94.5 % between one first-phrase type and another. SPCC similarity was significantly higher within than among types for first and second phrases, respectively. For first-phrase types with recordings from different days during a breeding season, the correct DFA rate was 87.1 %. SPCC similarity within type changed significantly among days, but was still significantly higher than that among types. In conclusion, first phrases of the complex songs met the two requirements and could be effectively used for vocal individual identification in this species. This study filled a gap in vocal individual identification in birds with complex songs.

Discrimination of topsoil environments in a karst landscape: an outcome of a geochemical mapping campaign

The study presented in this work emerged as a result of a multiyear regional geochemical survey based on low-density topsoil sampling and the ensuing geochemical atlas of Croatia. This study focuses on the Dinaric part of Croatia to expound the underlying mechanisms controlling the mobilities and variations in distribution of potentially harmful elements as observed from different environmental angles. Although serious environmental degradation of the vulnerable karst soil landscapes was expected to occur chiefly through the accumulation of various heavy metals, the most acute threat materialized through the soil acidification (Al-toxicity) affecting the entire Dinaric karst area. This picture surfaced from the analysis of all three investigated discriminant function models employing the abovementioned environmental criteria selected autonomously with respect to the evaluated soil geochemistry, namely, geologic setting, regional placement and land use. These models are presented by not only the characteristic discriminant-function diagrams but also a set of appropriate mathematically derived geochemical maps disclosing the allocations of potential threats to the karst soil landscapes posed by soil acidity.

A Play-Based, Peer-Mediated Pragmatic Language Intervention for School-Aged Children on the Autism Spectrum: Predicting Who Benefits Most

This study explored characteristics of children with autism with large intervention effects following a peer-mediated pragmatic language intervention, to devise algorithms for predicting children most likely to benefit. Children attended a 10-week intervention with a typically-developing peer. Data from a pilot study and RCT formed the dataset for this study. The POM-2 measured intervention outcomes. Children completed the EVT-2, TACL-4, and Social Emotional Evaluation at baseline, and parents completed the CCC-2 and CCBRS. High CCC-2 Use of Context and CCBRS Separation Anxiety scores and comparatively lower EVT-2, CCC-2 Nonverbal Communication and Cohesion scores predicted children with large intervention effects. Results can be used by clinicians to predict which children within their clinics might benefit most from participating in this intervention.

Morphometric study of the facial skeleton in Jordanians: A computed tomography scan-based study

Several studies have shown variability in osteometric measurements of the skull between populations. Therefore, each population should have specific standards to optimize the accuracy of identification. The aim of this study was to evaluate the sexual dimorphism in metric relations between anatomical points of the skull using CT scans in a Jordanian population by means of discriminant function analysis, to determine which continuous variables discriminate between sexes, and to examine the craniofacial changes according to age. 500 CT scans (240 males and 260 females) were used and a total of 11 craniofacial parameters were studied. The data were analyzed using distriminant function analysis. Sexual dimorphism was found mainly in the young adult group. Significant age related changes were noticed in minimum frontal breadth, orbital height and orbital index. In all subjects, the analysis of multivariate (dimorphic variables) and stepwise functions gave an accuracy of 58.8% and 57.0% respectively. Using stepwise analysis, the most dimorphic variables to estimate sex were maximum frontal breadth, bimaxillary breadth and orbital index. The multivariate analysis of all variables gave an accuracy of 58.8%. The percentages of correct sexing in Jordanian population were high using the single variable analysis in females only. In females, classification accuracies of 70.4% using bimaxillary breadth, 70.0% using the orbital index, and 68.1% using maximum frontal breadth were obtained. Additionally, discriminant analysis was conducted separately for each age group. Higher percentages of correct sexing were obtained only in young adults. The results of the discriminant function analysis did not appear to be significant. The results of discriminant function were insignificant in middle aged and elderly groups. Being female and young increases the percentages of correct sexing. Generally, low levels of accuracy of sexual dimorphism were obtained in our study, suggesting that population estimates of dimorphism are highly variable and the equations derived from the discriminant function analysis are not reliable in sex estimation in Jordanians.

Assessment of nutritional status using anthropometric variables by multivariate analysis

BACKGROUND

Undernutrition is a serious health problem and highly prevalent in developing countries. There is no as such confirmatory test to measure undernutrition. The objective of the present study is to determine a new Composite Score using anthropometric measurements. Composite Score was then compared with other methods like body mass index (BMI) and mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) classification, to test the significance of the method.

METHODS

Anthropometric data were collected from 780 adult Oraon (Male = 387, Female = 393) labourers of Alipurduar district of West Bengal, India, following standard instruments, and protocols. Nutritional status of the study participants were assessed by conventional methods, BMI and MUAC. Confirmatory factor analysis was carried out to reduce 12 anthropometric variables into a single Composite Score (C) and classification of nutritional status was done on the basis of the score. Furthermore, all the methods (BMI, MUAC and C) were compared and discriminant function analysis was adopted to find out the percentage of correctly classified individuals by each of the three methods.

RESULT

The frequency of undernutrition was 45.9% according to BMI category, 56.7% according to MUAC category and 51.8% according to newly computed Composite Score. Further analysis showed that Composite Score has a higher strength of correct classification (98.7%), compared to BMI (95.9%) and MUAC (96.2%).

CONCLUSION

Therefore, anthropometric measurements can be used to identify nutritional status in the population more correctly by calculating Composite Score of the measurements and it is a non-invasive and relatively correct way of identification.

Sex estimation from skull base radiographs in a contemporary Colombian population

The aim is to study the sexual dimorphism of the base of the skull in radiographs of a bone collection of contemporary Colombian adults, with the intention of formulating discriminant functions capable of classifying sex in this population. The sample consisted of 115 skull base radiographs, (44 females and 71 males), which originated from the Colombian Human Skeletals Collection. Radiographs with good contrast were selected. Images of skulls with asymmetries and fractures were excluded. Five measures: Maximum cranial base length, Foramen magnum length, Maximum cranial breadth, Bizygomatic breadth, Foramen magnum breadth length, were preformed using ImageJ5 software ^®; an intra-observer error was determined using paired t-test. Statistical analysis showed a sexual dimorphism for all variables (p < 0.05). The step-by-step procedure of the discriminant function selected 2 variables from the 5 (Foramen magnum length and Bizygomatic breadth) and the precision was between 86.4% and 88.6% in the determination of sex. However cross-validation showed an accuracy of 85.7% to male and 87.2% to female. The skull base is highly dimorphic. The established discriminant functions can be used to estimate sex in the Colombian population.

Effectiveness of Morphological Sex Determination in the East Asian Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica gutturalis) on Spring Migration

Hyun-Young Nam, Seung-Yeon Lee, Sook-Young Cho, Chang-Yong Choi, Se-Young Park, Gi-Chang Bing, Chang-uk Park, Seul-Gi Seo, and Yang-Mo Kim (2018) Information on sexual dimorphism helps explain a species' evolution in sexual selection and conservation issues such as sex-specific response in environmental changes. The Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) is a well-known sexually dimorphic species in which males have longer tail streamers than females. However, when compared with the European-African or American subspecies, little information is available on morphological sex determination in the East Asian subspecies H. r. gutturalis, especially outside the breeding season, when opportunities for molecular sexing are often limited and morphological clues may be the only ones available for sex determination. We collected morphological data on H. r. gutturalis during the northbound spring migration at a stopover site off the Korean coast. Two of eight measured variables - streamer length (the difference in length between the 5th and 6th rectrices; T6-T5) and length of the white patch on the outermost tail (6th rectrix; T6) - were selected as the best predictors for sex determination by stepwise discriminant analysis. Quadratic discriminant functions based on these variables showed that 92.4-93.5% of females and 82.9% of males were correctly classified. Our results provide baseline information that will benefit more accurate sex determination of the East Asian Barn Swallows, especially during the early months of a calendar year in non-breeding and stopover areas.

Phylogenetic and morphological investigation of the Mochlus afer-sundevallii species complex (Squamata: Scincidae) across the arid corridor of sub-Saharan Africa

The aridification of Africa resulted in the fragmentation of forests and the expansion of an arid corridor stretching from the northeast to southwest portion of sub-Saharan Africa, but the role this corridor has had in species-level diversification of southern African vertebrates is poorly understood. The skink species Mochlus afer and M. sundevallii inhabit wide areas of the arid corridor and are therefore an ideal species pair for studying patterns of genetic and phenotypic diversity associated with this landscape. However, species boundaries between these taxa have been controversial. Using multi-locus molecular and morphological datasets, we investigate diversification patterns of the M. afer-sundevallii Species Complex across the arid corridor. Although analyses of genetic data reveals some genetic structure among geographic populations, results of phylogenetic and morphological analyses provide little support for two distinct evolutionary lineages, suggesting that populations previously referred to as M. afer and M. sundevallii represent a single species, Mochlus sundevallii. Genetic diversity is unequally distributed across the arid corridor, with observed patterns consistent with aridification-facilitated diversification southward across southern Africa. Additional geographic and population-level sampling is necessary before more conclusive inferences can be drawn about the role historical climate transitions have played in skink diversification patterns across southern Africa.

Multivariate classification of the geographic origin of Chinese cabbage using an electronic nose-mass spectrometry

An electronic nose-mass spectrometry (EN-MS) that profiles volatile compounds is a candidate device for identifying the geographic origin of cultivation of agricultural products when an adequate algorithm is derived. The objectives of this study were to apply two types of multivariate analysis, discriminant function analysis (DFA) and principal component analysis (PCA), to the volatile compounds detected by an EN-MS for the geographic classification of Chinese cabbage cultivated in Korea (42 samples) or in China (29 samples). DFA showed that Chinese cabbage from Korea were completely separable from those originating in China with 12 volatile compounds among the 151 detected. PCA revealed that Chinese cabbage data fell into two completely separable origins of Korea and China. This is the first study involving EN-MS data of volatile compounds with multivariate statistics to discriminate the geographical origin of Chinese cabbage, with further applications for other agricultural products.

Morphometric analysis of mandibular ramus for sex determination on digital orthopantomogram

BACKGROUND

Identification of sex from skeletal remains is an important tool in forensic science. Mandibular ramus can be used for sex determination either on dry mandible or through orthopantomogram (OPG).

AIM

To determine the sex from mandibular ramus using digital OPG.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The morphometric analysis was conducted on mandibular ramus of 1000 digital OPG using Kodak Master View version 4.3 software. Statistical analysis was performed, and independent t-test and discriminant function were applied.

RESULTS

The participants' age ranged from 21-60 years with an equal number of males and females. The mean dimensions of all parameters for ramus were higher in males and highly significant (P < 0.001). The total mean length of minimum and maximum ramus breadth was 27.44 ± 3.41 mm and 32.27 ± 3.40 mm, respectively. The maximum and projective ramus height was 71.78 ± 5.98 mm and 65.62 ± 6.19 mm, respectively. The coronoid height was 59.23 ± 6.08 mm. The correlation of gender with morphology of mandibular ramus was significant (P < 0.05). The overall accuracy for diagnosing sex was 69%, whereas for diagnosing male and female, the accuracy was 68% and 70%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Measurements of mandibular ramus using OPG are helpful in sex determination.

A Multivariate Analysis of Metal Concentrations in Two Fish Species of the Nyl River System, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Increased toxicity due to high metal concentrations may hinder the ecological integrity of aquatic ecosystems in sustaining life. The non-biodegradable nature of metals may result in bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms. Due to ecological and social aspects it is imperative for monitoring schemes to identify possible impacts to the systems integrity. This paper discusses accumulation patterns of seven metals (Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Sr and Zn) in tissues of two fish species, namely Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis mossambicus at two selected sites, the first located upstream of Modimolle (NRS1), and the second located downstream of the town (NRS2). Gills, liver, muscle and skin tissues were analysed for metal concentrations using standard microwave digestion and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry techniques. Statistical results indicated higher concentrations of metals at NRS2 in comparison to NRS1, indicating that Modimolle plays a potential role in introducing metals into the aquatic system.

Generating level-dependent models of cervical and thoracic spinal cord injury: Exploring the interplay of neuroanatomy, physiology, and function

The majority of spinal cord injuries (SCI) occur at the cervical level, which results in significant impairment. Neurologic level and severity of injury are primary endpoints in clinical trials; however, how level-specific damages relate to behavioural performance in cervical injury is incompletely understood. We hypothesized that ascending level of injury leads to worsening forelimb performance, and correlates with loss of neural tissue and muscle-specific neuron pools. A direct comparison of multiple models was made with injury realized at the C5, C6, C7 and T7 vertebral levels using clip compression with sham-operated controls. Animals were assessed for 10weeks post-injury with numerous (40) outcome measures, including: classic behavioural tests, CatWalk, non-invasive MRI, electrophysiology, histologic lesion morphometry, neuron counts, and motor compartment quantification, and multivariate statistics on the total dataset. Histologic staining and T1-weighted MR imaging revealed similar structural changes and distinct tissue loss with cystic cavitation across all injuries. Forelimb tests, including grip strength, F-WARP motor scale, Inclined Plane, and forelimb ladder walk, exhibited stratification between all groups and marked impairment with C5 and C6 injuries. Classic hindlimb tests including BBB, hindlimb ladder walk, bladder recovery, and mortality were not different between cervical and thoracic injuries. CatWalk multivariate gait analysis showed reciprocal and progressive changes forelimb and hindlimb function with ascending level of injury. Electrophysiology revealed poor forelimb axonal conduction in cervical C5 and C6 groups alone. The cervical enlargement (C5-T2) showed progressive ventral horn atrophy and loss of specific motor neuron populations with ascending injury. Multivariate statistics revealed a robust dataset, rank-order contribution of outcomes, and allowed prediction of injury level with single-level discrimination using forelimb performance and neuron counts. Level-dependent models were generated using clip-compression SCI, with marked and reliable differences in forelimb performance and specific neuron pool loss.

Correlation between in vitro and in vivo antimalarial activity of compounds using CQ-sensitive and CQ-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum and CQ-resistant strain of P. yoelii

Present efforts have been made to establish a correlation between in vitro and in vivo antimalarial activity using MIC, IC₅₀ and IC₉₀ values against CQ-sensitive (3D7) and CQ-resistant (K1) strains of Plasmodium falciparum and in vivo activity against Plasmodium yoelii. The method of discriminant function analysis (DFA) was applied to analyze the data. It was observed that in vitro IC₉₀ values against both 3D7 and K1 strains (p < 0.001) have strong correlation with in vivo curative activity. The respective IC₅₀ and IC₉₀ values of compounds, which cured mice (i.e., animals did not show recrudescence of parasitemia even after 60 days posttreatment), ranged between 3 and 14 nM and 14 and 186 nM against 3D7 and between 9 and 65 nM and 24 and 359 nM against the K1 strain of P. falciparum. Whereas the IC₅₀ and IC₉₀ values of compounds which exhibited in vivo suppressive activity in mice ranged between 10 and 307 nm and 61 and >965 nM, respectively, against 3D7 and 75 and >806 nm and 241 and >1232 nM against the K1 strain of P. falciparum. The findings suggest that IC₉₀ values against both 3D7 and K1 strains (p < 0.02) are the main contributors for the prediction of in vivo curative activity of a new molecule. Apart from this, a reasonable correlation between MIC and IC₅₀ values of compounds has also been established.

Metric assessment of ancestry from the vertebrae in South Africans

Ancestry estimation is one of the four basic steps for developing a biological profile. Research has shown that there are a certain amount of morphological and anthropometric differences among skeletons in populations. The aim of this study was to examine the Pretoria Bone Collection to analyze the ancestral variation in the vertebrae of the South African black and white population. The sample was composed of complete vertebrae from 144 individuals (73 whites, 71 blacks). Ancestry differences were assessed using the discriminant function procedure. Regarding the results of this study, when vertebral columns were evaluated, the data indicated (with high reliability) a difference between the two ancestries. The analysis provided an accuracy rate of 98 % in males and 93.5 % in females. Compared to skeleton pieces such as the skull and the pelvis, which have been studied often with high reliability results, these rates are highly significant.

Sex determination using discriminant function analysis in Indigenous (Kurubas) children and adolescents of Coorg, Karnataka, India: A lateral cephalometric study

Aim: To test the validity of sex discrimination using lateral cephalometric radiograph and discriminant function analysis in Indigenous (Kuruba) children and adolescents of Coorg, Karnataka, India. Methods and materials: Six hundred and sixteen lateral cephalograms of 380 male and 236 females of age ranging from 6.5 to 18 years of Indigenous population of Coorg, Karnataka, India called Kurubas having a normal occlusion were included in the study. Lateral cephalograms were obtained in a standard position with teeth in centric occlusion and lips relaxed. Each radiograph was traced and cephalometric landmarks were measured using digital calliper. Calculations of 24 cephalometric measurements were performed. Results: Males exhibited significantly greater mean angular and linear cephalometric measurements as compared to females (p < 0.05) (Table 5). Also, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in all the variables according to age (Table 6). Out of 24 variables, only ULTc predicts the gender. The reliability of the derived discriminant function was assessed among study subjects; 100% of males and females were recognized correctly. Conclusion: The final outcome of this study validates the existence of sexual dimorphism in the skeleton as early as 6.5 years of age. There is a need for further research to determine other landmarks that can help in sex determination and norms for Indigenous (Kuruba) population and also other Indigenous population of Coorg, Karnataka, India.

Evaluation of sexual dimorphism by discriminant function analysis of toe length (1T-5T) of adult Igbo populace in Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Sex determination is an important and one of the foremost criteria in establishing the identity of an individual, and this is achieved by investigating various anatomical structures to establish sex discriminatory features. The present study conducted baseline data for the toe with a view of finding discriminatory sex characteristics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 420 subjects were studied by direct linear measurements of the toe length (big toe [1T] to the fifth toes [5T]) of both feet using a digital Vernier caliper with accuracy of 0.01 mm. Statistical Package for Social Sciences  (IBM, version 23, Armonk, New York, USA), Levene's ANOVA outcome informed the use of t-tests to compare mean differences. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) was used to evaluate the possibility of sex categorization. The significance level was set at 95%.

RESULTS

The mean ± standard deviation values of the right (R) toes for the males were 49.63 ± 4.43 mm (1T), 36.92 ± 5.14 mm (2T), 30.35 ± 4.95 mm (3T), 25.55 ± 3.97 mm (4T) and 22.21 ± 2.94 mm (5T), whereas the female values were 45.73 ± 4.07 mm (1T), 33.31 ± 4.66 mm (2T), 26.63 ± 4.02 mm (3T), 22.89 ± 3.43 mm (4T), and 19.77 ± 2.70 mm (5T). The left male values were 49.16 ± 4.32 mm (1T), 36.82 ± 5.16 mm (2T), 30.88 ± 4.91 mm (3T), 26.13 ± 3.99 mm (4T), and 22.46 ± 3.24 mm (5T), whereas the female values were 45.33 ± 4.05 mm (1T), 33.05 ± 4.70 mm (2T), 27.27 ± 4.29 mm (3T), 23.10 ± 3.36 mm (4T), 19.81 ± 2.59 mm (5T). From the results, males displayed significantly higher mean values than females in all measured parameters (t = 2.405, P = 0.018) with no asymmetry (P > 0.05); although T3 and T4 were larger on the left foot. The DFA model when tested with the present data derived a significant F likelihood ratio test (P < 0.001), a Wilks' lambda predictability value of 0.759 having a model accuracy of 69.5% with a better prediction for female (70%) than males (69%).

CONCLUSION

The use of toe length alone may not be effective for sex differentiation; however, it can serve as an adjunct in forensic investigation involving sex identification.

Identifying the performance characteristics of a winning outcome in elite mixed martial arts competition

OBJECTIVES

To determine those performance indicators that have the greatest influence on classifying outcome at the elite level of mixed martial arts (MMA). A secondary objective was to establish the efficacy of decision tree analysis in explaining the characteristics of victory when compared to alternate statistical methods.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observational.

METHODS

Eleven raw performance indicators from male Ultimate Fighting Championship bouts (n=234) from July 2014 to December 2014 were screened for analysis. Each raw performance indicator was also converted to a rate-dependent measure to be scaled to fight duration. Further, three additional performance indicators were calculated from the dataset and included in the analysis. Cohen's d effect sizes were employed to determine the magnitude of the differences between Wins and Losses, while decision tree (chi-square automatic interaction detector (CHAID)) and discriminant function analyses (DFA) were used to classify outcome (Win and Loss).

RESULTS

Effect size comparisons revealed differences between Wins and Losses across a number of performance indicators. Decision tree (raw: 71.8%; rate-scaled: 76.3%) and DFA (raw: 71.4%; rate-scaled 71.2%) achieved similar classification accuracies. Grappling and accuracy performance indicators were the most influential in explaining outcome. The decision tree models also revealed multiple combinations of performance indicators leading to victory.

CONCLUSIONS

The decision tree analyses suggest that grappling activity and technique accuracy are of particular importance in achieving victory in elite-level MMA competition. The DFA results supported the importance of these performance indicators. Decision tree induction represents an intuitive and slightly more accurate approach to explaining bout outcome in this sport when compared to DFA.

Determination of sex from radiographic measurements of the humerus by discriminant function analysis in Saudi population, Qassim region, KSA

BACKGROUND

Diagnosis of sex from skeleton or individual bone plays an important role in identifying unknown bodies, parts of bodies or skeletal remains for forensic purposes. This study aims to examine the applicability of the measurements taken from the humerus to assess sex, and to contribute to establishing discriminant function equations for Saudi populations for medico legal applications.

MATERIAL & METHODS

Archived X-ray radiographs of humerus for 387 patients (216 males & 171 females) who attended the orthopedic clinics at Suleiman Al-Habib Hospital, Qassim region, KSA in the period from January 2011 to December 2013 were reviewed and analyzed. Five dimensions, including maximum length, vertical head diameter, diameter of head+greater tubercle, right-left diameter at midshaft, and epicondylar breadth were taken and subjected to Univariate and multivariate discriminant function analysis.

RESULTS

The studied radiographic dimensions of the humerus indicate that there are significant differences (p<0.05) between the males and females measurements while the difference between right and left measurements was not significant. The findings revealed that the proximal part of the humerus has greater diagnostic accuracy than distal and middle parts. Accuracy of correct classification varies between 68.0% (epicondylar breadth) and 90.4% (vertical head diameter) for univariate analyses. When the multivariate analyses were conducted, three functions were produced, with the accuracy of ranging between 88.4% and 94.3%.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested that the dimensions of the humerus, especially the measurements taken from the proximal parts, could be used successfully for sex diagnosis.

Levels and profiles of chlorinated and brominated contaminants in Southern Hemisphere humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae

The study documents the levels and profiles of selected contaminants [polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and methoxylated PBDEs (MeO-PBDEs)] in blubber biopsy samples collected from humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in Antarctic Peninsula waters. In addition, we investigated year-to-year and sex-related differences in the bioaccumulation patterns. Except for hexachlorobenzene (HCB), whose concentrations were in the same range as those found in whales from the Northern Hemisphere, levels of all other compounds were lower in Southern Hemisphere whales compared to literature data on animals from the Arctic and subarctic region. The mean contribution to the sum of all anthropogenic organohalogen compounds (ΣOHC) decreased in the following order ΣPCBs (44%)>HCB (31%)>ΣDDXs (13%)>ΣCHLs (4.6%)>ΣHCHs (4.4%)>ΣPBDEs (0.9%). The predominant compounds within each chemical class were: PCBs 153, 149, 101 and 138; p,p'-DDE; γ-HCH; trans-nonachlor; PBDEs 99 and 47. The most dominant MeO-PBDE congener was 6-MeO-BDE 47. As samples were collected during three consecutive summer seasons, year-to-year trends could be assessed indicating a significant decrease from 2000 to 2003 for ΣCHL levels. Higher ΣPBDE concentrations and higher values of the ΣPBDE / ΣMeO-PBDE ratio, as well as higher ratios between the two MeO-BDEs (2'-MeO-BDE 68/6-MeO-BDE 47) were found in females compared to males. Higher ΣMeO-PBDE concentrations and higher values of the ratios between the lower chlorinated and the higher chlorinated PCBs were found in males than in females. In addition, five out of six significant differences found through discriminant function analysis were gender-related. The literature reports both feeding in mid- to low-latitudes and sex-related differences in migration patterns for humpback whales from the Southern Hemisphere, indicating that the hypothesis of dietary differences between males and females cannot be excluded. Nevertheless, additional studies are required for further investigation of this hypothesis.

Prevalence and early signs of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among 18-36 month-old children of Tianjin in China

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to estimate the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among 18-36 month old children in the Tianjin Municipality of China, and to identify early signs of autistic children and the predictability of each individual symptom.

METHODS

A total of 8 000 children were screened to do a questionnaire based on CHAT modified to include more early signs of autism at the age of 18-36 months. Then the at-risk children were reexamined 1.5 years later and ASD children were identified based on DSM-IV. Early signs of autism were analyzed retrospectively by using discriminant function analysis performed among ASD children, children not followed up and children followed up but failing to meet ASD criteria.

RESULTS

Three hundred and sixty seven children were screened as being at-risk to ASD, and 22 of them were identified as having ASD in the subsequent diagnosis. The prevalence of ASD was 27.5 per 10 000 in Tianjin of China with a male to female ratio of 4:1. Items addressing social interactions and communications had higher predictability than other items to distinguish autistic children from non-autistic ones. Pretend play, functional play, showing and reading parents' facial expressions distinguished autistic children from those not followed up, nevertheless those followed up but failing to meet ASD criteria were not included.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of ASD found in our study was lower than that reported in some studies by western researchers. Autism has its specific symptoms, such as deficits in social awareness, social relatedness, and social referencing.

Palatal rugae: An effective marker in population differentiation

BACKGROUND

The superiority of dentofacial structures as scientific identifiers, particularly in mass disasters is well known. Special techniques like rugoscopy are valuable not only in identification of skeletal remains but can also facilitate population differentiation, as few studies have shown.

AIM

The present study is to classify and compare the differences in rugae shape in populations of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha and to evaluate the discriminatory ability of rugae shape in population differentiation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One hundred maxillary casts from each group, equally divided between the sexes and in a narrow age range, were classified as per rugae shapes. The incidence of rugae shape was recorded and their association with ethnicity was tested using Chi-square analysis and step wise discriminant function analysis. All analysis was undertaken using SPSS 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA) and MS Excel Package.

RESULTS

Straight and nonspecific rugae were most prevalent in Andhra Pradesh, whereas the wavy forms and unifications prevailed in Odisha. A hitherto unknown nonspecific "plaque pattern" was detected in considerable numbers in Andhra Pradesh population. The accuracy of the discriminant function analysis in differentiating the study populations was 93.5%.

CONCLUSION

Significant differences in rugae shape between the two populations emerged that also allowed a fair differentiation, thus validating previous reports of a good discriminatory ability of rugae shapes. Perhaps, more studies in genetically diverse populations as in India could also unearth new rugae patterns and further the identification process.

Predicting function from sequence in a large multifunctional toxin family

Venoms contain active substances with highly specific physiological effects and are increasingly being used as sources of novel diagnostic, research and treatment tools for human disease. Experimental characterisation of individual toxin activities is a severe rate-limiting step in the discovery process, and in-silico tools which allow function to be predicted from sequence information are essential. Toxins are typically members of large multifunctional families of structurally similar proteins that can have different biological activities, and minor sequence divergence can have significant consequences. Thus, existing predictive tools tend to have low accuracy. We investigated a classification model based on physico-chemical attributes that can easily be calculated from amino-acid sequences, using over 250 (mostly novel) viperid phospholipase A₂ toxins. We also clustered proteins by sequence profiles, and carried out in-vitro tests for four major activities on a selection of isolated novel toxins, or crude venoms known to contain them. The majority of detected activities were consistent with predictions, in contrast to poor performance of a number of tested existing predictive methods. Our results provide a framework for comparison of active sites among different functional sub-groups of toxins that will allow a more targeted approach for identification of potential drug leads in the future.

Mandibular ramus: An indicator for sex determination - A digital radiographic study

Background:

The identification of skeletal remains is of paramount importance in medico-legal investigations. The skeletal components most often investigated for gender determination are the pelvis and skull, with the mandible being a practical element to analyze sexual dimorphism in the fragmented bones. Presence of a dense layer of compact bone makes it very durable and well preserved than many other bones. Mandibular ramus can be used to differentiate between sexes and it also expresses strong univariate sexual dimorphism. When skeleton sex determination is considered, metric analyses on the radiographs are often found to be of superior value owing to their objectivity, accuracy, and reproducibility.

Aims and Objectives:

(1) To measure, compare, and evaluate the various measurements of mandibular ramus as observed on orthopantomographs. (2) To assess the usefulness of mandibular ramus as an aid in sex determination.

Materials and Methods:

A retrospective study was conducted using orthopantomographs of 50 males and 50 females, which were taken using Kodak 8000C Digital Panoramic and Cephalometric System (73 kVp, 12 mA, 13.9 s). Mandibular ramus measurements were carried out using Master View 3.0 software. The measurements of the mandibular ramus were subjected to discriminant function analysis.

Results:

We observed each variable of the mandibular ramus to be a significant predictor in classifying a given sample (P < 0.001).

Conclusion:

This study on mandibular ramus measurements using orthopantomograph shows strong evidence suggesting that the ramus can be used for gender determination for forensic analysis.