Internalization and toxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics on inmortalized human neural stem cells

Global plastic production has increased exponentially in recent decades, and a significant part of it persists in the environment, where it degrades into microplastics and nanoplastics (MPs and NPs). These can enter in humans by ingestion, inhalation, and dermal routes, and there is scientific evidence that they are able to reach the systemic circulation and penetrate and accumulate in various tissues and organs. Neurodevelopmental toxicity of NPs is one of the most worrying effects, as they can cross the blood-brain barrier. In the following study, we analyzed, by transmission electron microscopy, the in vitro uptake of 30-nm polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) into human neural stem cells (NSCs), their accumulation and subcellular localization within the cell. Furthermore, we studied the effects of different concentrations of PS-NPs on cell death, proliferation, and cell differentiation using immunocytochemistry and quantitative real time PCR for specific markers. This study demonstrated that PS-NPs were able to enter the cell, probably by endocytosis, accumulate, and aggregated in human NSCs, without being detected in the nucleus, causing cell death by apoptosis and decreased cell proliferation. This study provides new insights into the interaction and effects of PS-NPs in human NSC and supports the scientific evidence for the involvement of nanoplastic in neurodevelopmental disorders.

CircRNA_102046 Affects the Occurrence and Development of Ischemic Stroke by Regulating the miR-493-5p/ROCK1 Signaling

In our previous studies, the results have revealed that circRNA_102046 is significantly upregulated in plasma of patients with ischemic stroke, which closely related to NIHSS score. Human neural stem cells (hNSCs) were used for characterization and subcellular localization of circRNA_102046, and hNSCs OGD/R model was generated. The proliferation of cells was examined by CCK-8 assay. The expression levels of associated molecules were evaluated using RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence staining or western blotting. The binding and co-localization of associated molecules were also evaluated by RIP and FISH assay. Furthermore, MCAO mouse model was established to examine the effects of circRNA_102046 on the progression of ischemic stroke. Expression of circRNA_102046 was detected in the cytoplasma of hNSCs. Then OGD/R cell model was established, where the levels of circRNA_102046 was significantly up-regulated. Furthermore, knockdown of circRNA_102046 was able to enhance the proliferation and differentiation of OGD/R hNSCs. In further downstream molecular studies, the results indicated that circRNA_102046 could participate in the occurrence and development of ischemic stroke through targeting miR-493-5p. In addition, ROCK1 was identified as the putative target of miR-493-5p, and circRNA_102046 regulates the proliferation and differentiation of hNSCs via the miR-493-5p/ROCK1 signaling. More importantly, the infarct volumes of MCAO mice were remarkably reduced after the treatment with sh-circRNA_102046, which also up- and down-regulate the expression of miR-493-5p and ROCK1, respectively. Elucidating this novel pathway provides a theoretical basis for the development of new diagnostic approach and targeted treatment for ischemic stroke.

Extracellular vesicles from hiPSC-NSCs can prevent peripheral inflammation-induced cognitive dysfunction with inflammasome inhibition and improved neurogenesis in the hippocampus

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem cells (hiPSC-NSCs) are enriched with miRNAs and proteins capable of mediating robust antiinflammatory activity. The lack of tumorigenic and immunogenic properties and ability to permeate the entire brain to incorporate into microglia following intranasal (IN) administrations makes them an attractive biologic for curtailing chronic neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative disorders. We tested the hypothesis that IN administrations of hiPSC-NSC-EVs can alleviate chronic neuroinflammation and cognitive impairments induced by the peripheral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Adult male, C57BL/6J mice received intraperitoneal injections of LPS (0.75 mg/kg) for seven consecutive days. Then, the mice received either vehicle (VEH) or hiPSC-NSC-EVs (~ 10 × 109 EVs/administration, thrice over 6 days). A month later, mice in all groups were investigated for cognitive function with behavioral tests and euthanized for histological and biochemical studies. Mice receiving VEH after LPS displayed deficits in associative recognition memory, temporal pattern processing, and pattern separation. Such impairments were associated with an increased incidence of activated microglia presenting NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes, elevated levels of NLRP3 inflammasome mediators and end products, and decreased neurogenesis in the hippocampus. In contrast, the various cognitive measures in mice receiving hiPSC-NSC-EVs after LPS were closer to naive mice. Significantly, these mice displayed diminished microglial activation, NLRP3 inflammasomes, proinflammatory cytokines, and a level of neurogenesis matching age-matched naïve controls. Thus, IN administrations of hiPSC-NSC-EVs are an efficacious approach to reducing chronic neuroinflammation-induced cognitive impairments.

Assessment of neurotransmitter release in human iPSC-derived neuronal/glial cells: a missing in vitro assay for regulatory developmental neurotoxicity testing

Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived neural stem cells (NSCs) and their differentiated neuronal/glial derivatives have been recently considered suitable to assess in vitro developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) triggered by exposure to environmental chemicals. The use of human-relevant test systems combined with in vitro assays specific for different neurodevelopmental events, enables a mechanistic understanding of the possible impact of environmental chemicals on the developing brain, avoiding extrapolation uncertainties associated with in vivo studies. Currently proposed in vitro battery for regulatory DNT testing accounts for several assays suitable to study key neurodevelopmental processes, including NSC proliferation and apoptosis, differentiation into neurons and glia, neuronal migration, synaptogenesis, and neuronal network formation. However, assays suitable to measure interference of compounds with neurotransmitter release or clearance are at present not included, which represents a clear gap of the biological applicability domain of such a testing battery. Here we applied a HPLC-based methodology to measure the release of neurotransmitters in a previously characterized hiPSC-derived NSC model undergoing differentiation towards neurons and glia. Glutamate release was assessed in control cultures and upon depolarization, as well as in cultures repeatedly exposed to some known neurotoxicants (BDE47 and lead) and chemical mixtures. Obtained data indicate that these cells have the ability to release glutamate in a vesicular manner, and that both glutamate clearance and vesicular release concur in the maintenance of extracellular glutamate levels. In conclusion, analysis of neurotransmitter release is a sensitive readout that should be included in the envisioned battery of in vitro assays for DNT testing.

Developmental neurotoxicity of acrylamide and its metabolite glycidamide in a human mixed culture of neurons and astrocytes undergoing differentiation in concentrations relevant for human exposure

Neural stem cells (NSCs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells were used to investigate effects of exposure to the food contaminant acrylamide (AA) and its main metabolite glycidamide (GA) on key neurodevelopmental processes. Diet is an important source of human AA exposure for pregnant women, and AA is known to pass the placenta and the newborn may also be exposed through breast feeding after birth. The NSCs were exposed to AA and GA (1 ×10^-8 - 3 ×10^-3 M) under 7 days of proliferation and up to 28 days of differentiation towards a mixed culture of neurons and astrocytes. Effects on cell viability was measured using Alamar Blue™ cell viability assay, alterations in gene expression were assessed using real time PCR and RNA sequencing, and protein levels were quantified using immunocytochemistry and high content imaging. Effects of AA and GA on neurodevelopmental processes were evaluated using endpoints linked to common key events identified in the existing developmental neurotoxicity adverse outcome pathways (AOPs). Our results suggest that AA and GA at low concentrations (1 ×10^-7 - 1 ×10^-8 M) increased cell viability and markers of proliferation both in proliferating NSCs (7 days) and in maturing neurons after 14-28 days of differentiation. IC₅₀ for cell death of AA and GA was 5.2 × 10^-3 M and 5.8 × 10^-4 M, respectively, showing about ten times higher potency for GA. Increased expression of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) concomitant with decreased synaptogenesis were observed for GA exposure (10^-7 M) only at later differentiation stages, and an increased number of astrocytes (up to 3-fold) at 14 and 21 days of differentiation. Also, AA exposure gave tendency towards decreased differentiation (increased percent Nestin positive cells). After 28 days, neurite branch points and number of neurites per neuron measured by microtubule-associated protein 2 (Map2) staining decreased, while the same neurite features measured by βIII-Tubulin increased, indicating perturbation of neuronal differentiation and maturation.

Assessing fetal human neural stem cells tumorigenicity potential in athymic rats with penetrating traumatic brain injury (pTBI)

Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) often produce disability in survivors due to unresolved inflammation and progressive neurodegeneration. The central nervous system in mammals is incapable of self-repair. Two decades of preclinical studies and clinical trials have provided insights into TBI pathophysiology that could be utilized to develop clinically relevant therapy. Our laboratory recently reported efficacy of clinical trial grade fetal human neural stem cells (hNSCs) in immunosuppressed rats with penetrating traumatic brain injury (pTBI). Next, in compliance with the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) guidance, this study explores safety by assessing the tumorigenicity potential of intracranial hNSC transplants in athymic rats with pTBI. First, the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) was determined. Then, forty athymic pTBI rats were randomized to either: Group A. pTBI + vehicle or Group B. pTBI + hNSCs at MTD one week after injury with 6-months survival, sufficient time to uncover transplant associated tumorigenicity. A board-certified Pathologist examined hematoxylin-eosin (H&E), Ki67 immunostained brain and spinal cord, serial sections along with several abnormal peripheral masses for evidence of lesion, transplant, and oncogenesis. There was no evidence of transplant derived tumors or oncogenic tissue necrosis. Consistent with athymic literature, the lesion remained unchanged even after robust hNSC engraftment. This safety study supports the conclusion that hNSCs are safe for transplantation in pTBI. The differences in lesion expansion between immunosuppressed and athymic rats in the presence of hNSCs suggests an unexpected role for thymus derived cells in resolution of trauma induced inflammation.

GSH-AuNP anti-oxidative stress, ER stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in amyloid-beta peptide-treated human neural stem cells

Amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides have a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and are thought to promote oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and mitochondrial deficiency, causing neuronal loss in the AD brain. The potential applications of glutathione conjugated gold nanoparticles (GSH-AuNPs) suggest they might have therapeutic value. Several studies have demonstrated that the effects of nanoparticles could provide protective roles in AD. Here, we showed that GSH-AuNPs mediate the viability of human neural stem cells (hNSCs) with Aβ, which was correlated with decreased caspase 3 and caspase 9. Importantly, hNSCs co-treated with GSH-AuNPs were significantly protected from Aβ-induced oxidative stress, as detected using the DCFH-DA, DHE, and MitoSOX staining assays. Furthermore, hNSCs co-treated with GSH-AuNPs were significantly protected from the Aβ-induced reduction in the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and Nrf2 downstream antioxidant target genes (SOD-1, SOD-2, Gpx, Catalase, and HO-1). In addition, GSH-AuNPs rescued the expression levels of ER stress-associated genes (Bip, CHOP, and ASK1) in Aβ-treated hNSCs. GSH-AuNPs normalized ER calcium and mitochondrial cytochrome c homeostasis in Aβ-treated hNSCs. Furthermore, treatment with GSH-AuNPs restored the levels of ATP, D-loop, mitochondrial mass, basal respiration, ATP-linked reparation, maximal respiration capacity, COX activity, mitochondrial membrane potential, and mitochondrial genes (PGC1α, NRF-1 and Tfam) in Aβ-treated hNSCs. Taken together, these findings extend our understanding of the protective effects of GSH-AuNPs against oxidative stress, ER stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in hNSCs with Aβ.

Glycoengineering human neural stem cells (hNSCs) for adhesion improvement using a novel thiol-modified N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) analog

This study sets the stage for the therapeutic use of Ac₅ManNTProp, an N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) analog that installs thiol-modified sialoglycans onto the surfaces of human neural stem cells (hNSC). First, we compared hNSC adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins laminin, fibronectin, and collagen and found preferential adhesion and concomitant changes to cell morphology and cell spreading for Ac₅ManNTProp-treated cells to laminin, compared to fibronectin where there was a modest response, and collagen where there was no observable increase. PCR array transcript analysis identified several classes of cell adhesion molecules that responded to combined Ac₅ManNTProp treatment and hNSC adhesion to laminin. Of these, we focused on integrin α6β1 expression, which was most strongly upregulated in analog-treated cells incubated on laminin. We also characterized downstream responses including vinculin display as well as the phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK). In these experiments, Ac₅ManNTProp more strongly induced all tested biological endpoints compared to Ac₅ManNTGc, showing that the single methylene unit that structurally separates the two analogs finely tunes biological responses. Together, the concerted modulation of multiple pro-regenerative activities through Ac₅ManNTProp treatment, in concert with crosstalk with ECM components, lays a foundation for using our metabolic glycoengineering approach to treat neurological disorders by favorably modulating endpoints that contribute to the viability of transplanted NSCs.

BMP-6 Attenuates Oxygen and Glucose Deprivation-Induced Apoptosis in Human Neural Stem Cells through Inhibiting p38 MAPK Signaling Pathway

Background and Objectives

Neural stem cells (NSCs) remain in the mammalian brain throughout life and provide a novel therapeutic strategy for central nervous system (CNS) injury. Bone morphogenetic protein-6 (BMP-6) had shown a protective effect in different types of cells. However, the role of BMP-6 in NSCs is largely unclear. The present study was aimed to investigate whether BMP-6 could protect human NSCs (hNSCs) against the oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD)-induced cell death.

Methods and Results

Upon challenge with OGD treatment, cell viability was significantly decreased in a time-dependent manner, as indicated by the CCK-8 assay. BMP-6 could attenuate the OGD-induced cell injury in a dose-dependent manner and decrease the number of TUNEL-positive cells. Moreover, BMP-6 markedly weakened the OGD-induced alterations in the expression of procaspase-8/9/3 and reversed the expression of cleaved-caspase-3. Interestingly, noggin protein (the BMP-6 inhibitor) attenuated the neuroprotective effect of BMP-6 in cultured hNSCs. Furthermore, the p38 MAPK signaling pathway was activated by OGD treatment and BMP-6 markedly inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 in a concentration-dependent manner. Pretreatment with noggin abolished the effect of BMP-6 on p38 activation. SB239063, a selective p38 inhibitor, exerted similar effects with BMP-6 in protecting hNSCs against the OGD-induced apoptosis. These results indicated that blocking the phosphorylation of p38 might contribute to the neuroprotective effect of BMP-6 against the OGD-induced injury in hNSCs.

Conclusions

These findings suggested that BMP-6 might be a therapeutic target in the OGD-induced cell death, which provides a novel therapeutic strategy for enhancing host and graft NSCs survival in hypoxic-ischemic brain injury.

Applications of Xylosides in the Manipulation of Stem Cell Niche to Regulate Human Neural Stem Cell Differentiation and Neurite Outgrowth

The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a pivotal role in the regulation of neural stem cell differentiation, axon guidance and growth, and neural plasticity. Glycosaminoglycans, such as heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate, are significant components of brain ECM that dictates neurogenesis and neural repair. Herein, we describe a simple method to assess the effect of xylsoides, which serve as primers and inhibitors of GAG biosynthesis, on human neural stem cell differentiation and neurite outgrowth in in vitro culture conditions.

Activation of type 4 metabotropic glutamate receptor attenuates oxygen and glucose deprivation-induced apoptosis in human neural stem cells via inhibition of ASK1-p38 signaling pathway

Hypoxic ischemic brain injury (HIBI) has been one of the most severe central nervous system (CNS) diseases with high fatality and disability rate. Neural stem cells (NSCs) persist in the mammalian brain throughout life and NSCs-associated therapies might be a promising strategy for the HIBI treatment. In this study, we identified that type 4 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR4) was expressed in cultured human NSCs (hNSCs) isolated from the human fetus cortex and further established the oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) model in hNSCs to study the role of mGluR4 in hypoxic and ischemic injury. The results indicated that mGluR4 activation by using VU0155041 (mGluR4-specific agonist) markedly attenuated the OGD-induced alterations in TUNEL staining, apoptosis rate, cleavages of pro-caspase-8, -9, -3, and Bcl-2/Bax expression balance. Furthermore, mGluR4 activation inhibited the ASK1/p38 signaling pathway. Asiatic acid, as a p38 MAPK activator, is capable of abolishing the neuroprotective effect of mGluR4, while both NQDI-1 (ASK-1 inhibitor) and SB203580 (p38 MAPK inhibitor) exerted similar effects to VU0155041 in the OGD-induced hNSC damage. In conclusion, this study indicates that mGluR4 activation protects hNSCs against the OGD-induced cell death via inhibiting the ASK1-p38 pathway. Activation of mGluR4 might be a promising strategy for enhancing NSCs survival in hypoxic and ischemic injury.

Exposure to human relevant mixtures of halogenated persistent organic pollutants (POPs) alters neurodevelopmental processes in human neural stem cells undergoing differentiation

Halogenated persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFASs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are known to cause cancer, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity and interfere with reproduction and development. Concerns have been raised about the impact of POPs upon brain development and possibly neurodevelopmental disorders. The developing brain is a particularly vulnerable organ due to dynamic and complex neurodevelopmental processes occurring early in life. However, very few studies have reported on the effects of POP mixtures at human relevant exposures, and their impact on key neurodevelopmental processes using human in vitro test systems. Aiming to reduce this knowledge gap, we exposed mixed neuronal/glial cultures differentiated from neural stem cells (NSCs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to reconstructed mixtures of 29 different POPs using concentrations comparable to Scandinavian human blood levels. Effects of the POP mixtures on neuronal proliferation, differentiation and synaptogenesis were evaluated using in vitro assays anchored to common key events identified in the existing developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) adverse outcome pathways (AOPs). The present study showed that mixtures of POPs (in particular brominated and chlorinated compounds) at human relevant concentrations increased proliferation of NSCs and decreased synapse number. Based on a mathematical modelling, synaptogenesis and neurite outgrowth seem to be the most sensitive DNT in vitro endpoints. Our results indicate that prenatal exposure to POPs may affect human brain development, potentially contributing to recently observed learning and memory deficits in children.

Nanogold induces anti-inflammation against oxidative stress induced in human neural stem cells exposed to amyloid-beta peptide

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with progressive memory loss resulting in dementia. Amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides play a critical role in the pathogenesis of the disease by promoting inflammation and oxidative stress, leading to neurodegeneration in the brains of AD patients. Numerous in vitro 3D cell culture models are useful mimics for understanding cellular changes that occur during AD under in vivo conditions. The 3D Bioprinter developed at the CELLINK INKREDIBLE was used in this study to directly investigate the influence of 3D conditions on human neural stem cells (hNSCs) exposed to Aβ. The development of anti-AD drugs is usually difficult, mainly due to a lack of therapeutic efficacy and enhanced serious side effects. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) demonstrate benefits in the treatment of several diseases, including AD, and may provide a novel therapeutic approach for AD patients. However, the neuroprotective mechanisms by which AuNPs exert these beneficial effects in hNSCs treated with Aβ are still not well understood. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that AuNPs protect against Aβ-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in hNSCs under 3D conditions. Here, we showed that AuNPs improved the viability of hNSCs exposed to Aβ, which was correlated with the reduction in the expression of inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-1β. In addition, AuNPs rescued the levels of the transcripts of inhibitory kappa B kinase (IKK) in Aβ-treated hNSCs. The Aβ-mediated increases in mRNA, protein, and nuclear translocation levels of NF-κB (p65), a key transcription factor involved in inflammatory responses, were all significantly abrogated following co-treatment of hNSCs with AuNPs. In addition, treatment with AuNPs significantly restored iNOS and COX-2 levels in Aβ-treated hNSCs. Importantly, hNSCs co-treated with AuNPs were significantly protected from Aβ-induced oxidative stress, as detected using the DCFH-DA and DHE staining assays. Furthermore, hNSCs co-treated with AuNPs were significantly protected from the Aβ-induced reduction in the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and Nrf2 downstream antioxidant target genes (SOD-1, SOD-2, Gpx1, GSH, Catalase, and HO-1). Moreover, AuNPs reduced the aggregates and increased the proteasome activity and the expression of HSP27 and HSP70 genes in Aβ-treated hNSCs. Taken together, these findings provide the first evidence extending our understanding of the molecular mechanisms under 3D scaffold conditions by which AuNPs reverse the inflammation and oxidative stress-induced in hNSCs exposed to Aβ. These findings may facilitate the development of novel treatments for AD.

Generation of Neural Stem Cells from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Characterization of Early Neuronal Development

We describe the protocol for the efficient in vitro differentiation of human neural stem cells (NSCs) from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells). NSCs differentiate via neural epithelial progenitors enabling the analysis of early neuronal development. They represent neural progenitor cells, which are capable of differentiating into neurons and glia.

Mesenchymal stem cells from human umbilical cord regulate the expression of major histocompatibility complex in human neural stem cells and their lineages

hNSCs (human neural stem cells) derived from embryonic tissue and aborted fetal brains are considered to be the most promising candidates for neurodegenerative and other CNS(central nervous system) diseases. However, the most common problem, which limited successful use of these allogeneic hNSC therapy, is immune rejection. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from human umbilical cord (hUC-MSCs) are receiving increasing attention for their immune-modulatory properties. In the current studies, we firstly investigated the immunogenecity of hNSCs as well as their lineages in cultures with the presence or absence of interferon gamma (IFNγ), a pro-inflammatory factors. Our data revealed that the majority of hNSCs and astrocytes expressed MHCI (major histocompatibility complex class I) while neurons hardly expressed MHCI (<5%) in the absence of IFNγ. In addition, neither hNSCs nor neurons expressed MHCII while a subpopulation (about 18 %) of astrocytes expressed MHCII without IFNγ stimulation. However, the addition of IFNγ in cultures significantly increased the expressions of MHCII on hNSCs and astrocytes. However, IFNγ did not affect the expression of MHCI on hNSCs and astrocytes. We then investigated whether hUC-MSCs had the capacity of regulating the immunogenecity of hNSCs as well as their lineages in a co-culture system. We found that hUC-MSCs did not affect the expression of MHCI on hNSCs and their lineages, however, these cells were able to significantly inhibit the IFNγ-induced up-regulation of MHCII on hNSCs and astrocytes (p < 0.001). Thus, our results suggest that hUC-MSCs may serve as potentially useful modulators to reduce the immunogenicity of allogeneic hNSCs in clinical application.

[Effects of paraquat on the proliferation of human neural stem cells via DNA methylation]

Objective: To investigate the effects of Paraquat on neural stem cell proliferation in vitro and explore the its mechanism based on DNA methylation pathway. Methods: Nestin, β-tubulin III, and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were detected by indirect immunofluorescence assay to evaluate self renewal and differentiation potentia of ReNcell CX human neural stem. The cells were treated with terminal concentrations of 0, 5, 25, 50, and 100μmol/L PQ for 24 hours, and the cells were induced by 50 μmol/L PQ for different time (6, 12, 24, 48 h). Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. The proliferation of neural stem cells was evaluated using Sox2/Brdu and Nestin/Brdu double immunofluorescence staining. The global DNA methylation level was assayed by MethyflashTM methylated DNA Quantification kit. The expression levels of Dnmts mRNA and protein were analyzed by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction(qRT-PCR) and Western blot, respectively. Results: Immunofluorescence showed that nestin was primarily expressed in proliferative neural stem cell and peotein biomarkers (β-tubulin III, GFAP) for neuron and astrocyte were expressed in differentiated cells. MTT assay showed PQ induced cell survival rate decrease in a time and dose dependent manner. Double immunfluorescence staining of cells showed colocalization of Sox2 and Brdu. The percentage of Brdu/Sox2 positive cells was significantly lower in the PQ-exposed (25, 50, 100μmol/L PQ treatment) groups compared to control (P<0.05); Meanwhile, The percentage of Brdu/Nestin positive cells was also significantly lower in the PQ-exposed(50,100μmol/L PQ treatment) groups compared to control (P<0.05). The results of global DNA methylation revealed a significant decrease in PQ-exposed groups (P<0.05). Western blot showed that compared with control group, the protein and mRNA levels of Dnmt1, Dnmt3a in PQ-exposed group were significantly decreased (P<0.05), but there was a significant increase in expression level of Dnmt3b in 50, 100 μmol/L PQ-treated group(P<0.05). Conclusion: Paraquat could inhibite the proliferation of human neural stem cells through reducing the level of DNA methylation reaction by suppressing the protein expression and transcription of DNA methylated transferase(Dnmts).

Modeling Glioma with Human Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Neural Lineages

Gliomas are malignant primary tumors of the central nervous system. Their cell-of-origin is thought to be a neural progenitor or stem cell that acquires mutations leading to oncogenic transformation. Thanks to advances in human stem cell biology, it has become possible to derive human cell types that represent putative cells-of-origin in vitro and model the gliomagenesis process by systematically introducing genetic alterations in these human cells. Here, we present methods to derive human neural stem cells (NSCs) from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). Because these NSCs are genetically unmodified at baseline, they can be used as a cellular platform to study the effects of individual oncogenic hits in a well-controlled manner in the backdrop of a human genetic background. We also present some key applications of these NSCs, which include their transduction with lentiviral vectors, their neuroglial differentiation and xenografting methods into immunocompromised mice to assess in vivo behavior.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation promotes functional recovery and differentiation of human neural stem cells in rats after ischemic stroke

Stem cells hold great promise as a regenerative therapy for ischemic stroke by improving functional outcomes in animal models. However, there are some limitations regarding the cell transplantation, including low rate of survival and differentiation. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has been widely used in clinical trials as post-stroke rehabilitation in ischemic stroke and has shown to alleviate functional deficits following stroke. The present study was designed to evaluate the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of combined human neural stem cells (hNSCs) with rTMS in a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model. The results showed that human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) were successfully differentiated into forebrain hNSCs for transplantation and hNSCs transplantation combined with rTMS could accelerate the functional recovery after ischemic stroke in rats. Furthermore, this combination not only significantly enhanced neurogenesis and the protein levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), but also rTMS promoted the neural differentiation of hNSCs. Our findings are presented for the first time to evaluate therapeutic benefits of combined hNSCs and rTMS for functional recovery after ischemic stroke, and indicated that the combination of hNSCs with rTMS might be a potential novel therapeutic target for the treatment of stroke.

Expression analysis of RNA sequencing data from human neural and glial cell lines depends on technical replication and normalization methods

Background

The potential for astrocyte participation in central nervous system recovery is highlighted by in vitro experiments demonstrating their capacity to transdifferentiate into neurons. Understanding astrocyte plasticity could be advanced by comparing astrocytes with stem cells. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) is ideal for comparing differences across cell types. However, this novel multi-stage process has the potential to introduce unwanted technical variation at several points in the experimental workflow. Quantitative understanding of the contribution of experimental parameters to technical variation would facilitate the design of robust RNA-Seq experiments.

Results

RNA-Seq was used to achieve biological and technical objectives. The biological aspect compared gene expression between normal human fetal-derived astrocytes and human neural stem cells cultured in identical conditions. When differential expression threshold criteria of |log₂fold change| > 2 were applied to the data, no significant differences were observed. The technical component quantified variation arising from particular steps in the research pathway, and compared the ability of different normalization methods to reduce unwanted variance. To facilitate this objective, a liberal false discovery rate of 10% and a |log₂fold change| > 0.5 were implemented for the differential expression threshold. Data were normalized with RPKM, TMM, and UQS methods using JMP Genomics. The contributions of key replicable experimental parameters (cell lot; library preparation; flow cell) to variance in the data were evaluated using principal variance component analysis. Our analysis showed that, although the variance for every parameter is strongly influenced by the normalization method, the largest contributor to technical variance was library preparation. The ability to detect differentially expressed genes was also affected by normalization; differences were only detected in non-normalized and TMM-normalized data.

Conclusions

The similarity in gene expression between astrocytes and neural stem cells supports the potential for astrocytic transdifferentiation into neurons, and emphasizes the need to evaluate the therapeutic potential of astrocytes for central nervous system damage. The choice of normalization method influences the contributions to experimental variance as well as the outcomes of differential expression analysis. However irrespective of normalization method, our findings illustrate that library preparation contributed the largest component of technical variance.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12859-018-2382-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

MicroRNA-21 attenuates oxygen and glucose deprivation induced apoptotic death in human neural stem cells with inhibition of JNK and p38 MAPK signaling

Neural stem cells (NSCs) persist in the mammalian brain throughout life and protect against hypoxia-ischemia injury. NSCs are being increasingly recognized as a novel therapeutic target for various neurological disorders. Previous research indicates that miR-21 attenuates hypoxia-ischemia induced apoptotic death in various cell types. However, whether miR-21 plays a role in this protective effect mediated by NSCs is unknown, particularly in human NSCs (hNSCs). The present study investigated whether miR-21 could prevent hNSC injury induced by oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). Upon challenge with OGD treatment, loss of cell viability was observed in cultured hNSCs, as shown by CCK-8 assay. Moreover, quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis indicated that expression of miR-21 increased in a time-dependent manner. TUNEL staining and Western blotting analysis showed that overexpression of miR-21 inhibited excessive hNSCs death induced by OGD treatment. Accordingly, knock down of miR-21 attenuated the neuroprotective effect observed in response to OGD treatment. Furthermore, JNK and p38 MAPKs inhibition was observed after overexpression of miR-21, and knock down of miR-21 had the opposite effect. We suggest that miR-21 prevents OGD-induced hNSCs death and apoptotic-associated protein activities through inhibiting JNK and p38 pathways in cultured hNSCs. Our findings may help to develop strategies for enhancing resident and transplanted NSCs survival after hypoxia-ischemic brain damage.

Aβ42 Peptide Promotes Proliferation and Gliogenesis in Human Neural Stem Cells

Amyloid-β 42 [Aβ_1-42 (Aβ42)] is one of the main Aβ peptide isoforms found in amyloid plaques of brains with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although Aβ42 is associated with neurotoxicity, it might mediate several normal physiological processes during embryonic brain development and in the adult brain. However, due to the controversy that exists in the field, relatively little is known about its physiological function. In the present work, we have analyzed the effects of different concentrations of monomeric Aβ42 on cell death, proliferation, and cell fate specification of human neural stem cells (hNSCs), specifically the hNS1 cell line, undergoing differentiation. Our results demonstrate that at higher concentrations (1 μM), Aβ42 increases apoptotic cell death and DNA damage, indicating that prolonged exposure of hNS1 cells to higher concentrations of Aβ42 is neurotoxic. However, at lower concentrations, Aβ42 significantly promotes cell proliferation and glial cell specification of hNS1 cells by increasing the pool of proliferating glial precursors, without affecting neuronal differentiation, in a concentration-dependent manner. At the molecular level, these effects could be mediated, at least in part, by GSK3β, whose expression is increased by treatment with Aβ42 and whose inhibition prevents the glial specification induced by Aβ42. Since the cellular and molecular effects are known to appear decades before the first clinical symptoms, these types of studies are important in discovering the underlying pathophysiological processes involved in the development of AD. This knowledge could then be used in diagnosing the disease at early stages and be applied to the development of new treatment options.

A Potential Therapy Using Engineered Stem Cells Prevented Malignant Melanoma in Cellular and Xenograft Mouse Models

PURPOSE

In the present study, human neural stem cells (hNSCs) with tumor-tropic behavior were used as drug delivery vehicle to selectively target melanoma. A hNSC line (HB1.F3) was transduced into two types: one expressed only the cytosine deaminase (CD) gene (HB1.F3. CD) and the other expressed both CD and human interferon-β (IFN-β) genes (HB1.F3.CD. IFN-β).

Materials and Methods

This study verified the tumor-tropic migratory competence of engineered hNSCs on melanoma (A375SM) using a modified Boyden chamber assay in vitro and CM-DiI staining in vivo. The antitumor effect of HB1.F3.CD and HB1.F3.CD.IFN-β on melanoma was also confirmed using an MTT assay in vitro and xenograft mouse models.

RESULTS

A secreted form of IFN-β from the HB1.F3.CD.IFN-β cells modified the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process and metastasis of melanoma. 5-Fluorouracil treatment also accelerated the expression of the pro-apoptotic protein BAX and decelerated the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL on melanoma cell line.

CONCLUSION

Our results illustrate that engineered hNSCs prevented malignant melanoma cells from proliferating in the presence of the prodrug, and the form that secreted IFN-β intervened in the EMT process and melanoma metastasis. Hence, neural stem cell-directed enzyme/prodrug therapy is a plausible treatment for malignant melanoma.

Oligodendrocyte differentiation from human neural stem cells: A novel role for c-Src

Human neural stem cells (hNSCs) can differentiate into an oligodendrocyte lineage to facilitate remyelination in patients. Molecular mechanisms underlying oligodendrocyte fate specification remains unknown, hindering the development of efficient methods to generate oligodendrocytes from hNSCs. We have found that Neurobasal-A medium (NB) is capable of inducing hNSCs to oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). We identified several signaling molecules are altered after cultivation in NB medium, including Akt, ERK1/2 and c-Src. While sustained activation of Akt and ERK1/2 during both NB induction and subsequent differentiation was required for OPC differentiation, c-Src phosphorylation was increased temporally during the period of NB induction. Both pharmacological inhibition and RNA interference confirmed that a transient elevation of phospho-c-Src is critical for OPC induction. Furthermore, inactivation of c-Src inhibited phosphorylation of Akt and ERK1/2. In summary, we identified a novel and critical role of c-Src in guiding hNSC differentiation to an oligodendrocyte lineage.

Human Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells Derived From Epileptic Human Brain in a Self-Assembling Peptide Nanoscaffold Improve Traumatic Brain Injury in Rats

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a disruption in the brain functions following a head trauma. Cell therapy may provide a promising treatment for TBI. Among different cell types, human neural stem cells cultured in self-assembling peptide scaffolds have been suggested as a potential novel method for cell replacement treatment after TBI. In the present study, we accessed the effects of human neural stem/progenitor cells (hNS/PCs) derived from epileptic human brain and human adipose-derived stromal/stem cells (hADSCs) seeded in PuraMatrix hydrogel (PM) on brain function after TBI in an animal model of brain injury. hNS/PCs were isolated from patients with medically intractable epilepsy undergone epilepsy surgery. hNS/PCs and hADSCs have the potential for proliferation and differentiation into both neuronal and glial lineages. Assessment of the growth characteristics of hNS/PCs and hADSCs revealed that the hNS/PCs doubling time was significantly longer and the growth rate was lower than hADSCs. Transplantation of hNS/PCs and hADSCs seeded in PM improved functional recovery, decreased lesion volume, inhibited neuroinflammation, and reduced the reactive gliosis at the injury site. The data suggest the transplantation of hNS/PCs or hADSCs cultured in PM as a promising treatment option for cell replacement therapy in TBI.

Effects of Amyloid-β Peptide on the Biology of Human Neural Stem Cells

The amyloid -β peptide (Aβ) is the main component of the amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD). It has been widely demonstrated that Aβ is toxic to neurons and is associated with AD pathology. However, Aβ also appears to have an important biological function both in the adult brain and throughout embryonic development of the nervous system, acting as a trophic factor at low concentrations.It is known that Neural Stem Cells (NSCs) are capable of self-renewal and differentiate into functional glial and neuronal cells. Therefore, human NSCs may be a hope for future therapeutic application in neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. The effects of Aβ peptides on NSCs are still not well understood and remain controversial.In this chapter we outline the materials and methods used for the culture and differentiation of hNS1 cells, a cell line of human NSCs. We describe the preparation of different forms (monomeric, oligomeric and fibrillary) of Aβ peptide and subsequent cell treatment, followed by the analysis of the effects on toxicity, cell proliferation and cell fate specification of hNS1 cells.

Effects of halobenzoquinone and haloacetic acid water disinfection byproducts on human neural stem cells

Human neural stem cells (hNSCs) are a useful tool to assess the developmental effects of various environmental contaminants; however, the application of hNSCs to evaluate water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) is scarce. Comprehensive toxicological results are essential to the prioritization of DBPs for further testing and regulation. Therefore, this study examines the effects of DBPs on the proliferation and differentiation of hNSCs. Prior to DBP treatment, characteristic protein markers of hNSCs from passages 3 to 6 were carefully examined and it was determined that hNSCs passaged 3 or 4 times maintained stem cell characteristics and can be used for DBP analysis. Two regulated DBPs, monobromoacetic acid (BAA) and monochloroacetic acid (CAA), and two emerging DBPs, 2,6-dibromo-1,4-benzoquinone (2,6-DBBQ) and 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone (2,6-DCBQ), were chosen for hNSC treatment. Both 2,6-DBBQ and 2,6-DCBQ induced cell cycle arrest at S-phase at concentrations up to 1μmol/L. Comparatively, BAA and CAA at 0.5μmol/L affected neural differentiation. These results suggest DBP-dependent effects on hNSC proliferation and differentiation. The DBP-induced cell cycle arrest and inhibition of normal hNSC differentiation demonstrate the need to assess the developmental neurotoxicity of DBPs.

Culturing and Cryobanking Human Neural Stem Cells

The discovery and study of human neural stem cells has advanced our understanding of human neurogenesis, and the development of novel therapeutics based on neural cell replacement. Here, we describe methods to culture and cryopreserve human neural stem cells (hNSCs) for expansion and banking. Importantly, the protocols ensure that the multipotency of hNSCs is preserved to enable differentiation to neurons and supporting neuroglia.

Perfusion Stirred-Tank Bioreactors for 3D Differentiation of Human Neural Stem Cells

Therapeutic breakthroughs in neurological disorders have been hampered by the lack of accurate central nervous system (CNS) models. The development of these models allows the study of the disease onset/progression mechanisms and the preclinical evaluation of new therapeutics. This has traditionally relied on genetically engineered animal models that often diverge considerably from the human phenotype (developmental, anatomic, and physiological) and 2D in vitro cell models, which fail to recapitulate the characteristics of the target tissue (cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, cell polarity, etc.). Recapitulation of CNS phenotypic and functional features in vitro requires the implementation of advanced culture strategies, such as 3D culture systems, which enable to mimic the in vivo structural and molecular complexity. Models based on differentiation of human neural stem cells (hNSC) in 3D cultures have great potential as complementary tools in preclinical research, bridging the gap between human clinical studies and animal models. The development of robust and scalable processes for the 3D differentiation of hNSC can improve the accuracy of early stage development in preclinical research. In this context, the use of software-controlled stirred-tank bioreactors (STB) provides an efficient technological platform for hNSC aggregation and differentiation. This system enables to monitor and control important physicochemical parameters for hNSC culture, such as dissolved oxygen. Importantly, the adoption of a perfusion operation mode allows a stable flow of nutrients and differentiation/neurotrophic factors, while clearing the toxic by-products. This contributes to a setting closer to the physiological, by mimicking the in vivo microenvironment. In this chapter, we address the technical requirements and procedures for the implementation of 3D differentiation strategies of hNSC, by operating STB under perfusion mode for long-term cultures. This strategy is suitable for the generation of human 3D neural in vitro models, which can be used to feed high-throughput screening platforms, contributing to expand the available in vitro tools for drug screening and toxicological studies.

Protein Kinase-A Inhibition Is Sufficient to Support Human Neural Stem Cells Self-Renewal

Human pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem cells offer unprecedented opportunities for producing specific types of neurons for several biomedical applications. However, to achieve it, protocols of production and amplification of human neural stem cells need to be standardized, cost effective, and safe. This means that small molecules should progressively replace the use of media containing cocktails of protein-based growth factors. Here we have conducted a phenotypical screening to identify pathways involved in the regulation of hNSC self-renewal. We analyzed 80 small molecules acting as kinase inhibitors and identified compounds of the 5-isoquinolinesulfonamide family, described as protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase G inhibitors, as candidates to support hNSC self-renewal. Investigating the mode of action of these compounds, we found that modulation of PKA activity was central in controlling the choice between self-renewal or terminal neuronal differentiation of hNSC. We finally demonstrated that the pharmacological inhibition of PKA using the small molecule HA1004 was sufficient to support the full derivation, propagation, and long-term maintenance of stable hNSC in absence of any other extrinsic signals. Our results indicated that tuning of PKA activity is a core mechanism regulating hNSC self-renewal and differentiation and delineate the minimal culture media requirement to maintain undifferentiated hNSC in vitro.

S6K Promotes Dopaminergic Neuronal Differentiation Through PI3K/Akt/mTOR-Dependent Signaling Pathways in Human Neural Stem Cells

It has recently been reported that the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway regulates neuronal differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) derived from rats or mice and is essential for the self-renewal of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). However, the roles of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways during proliferation and dopaminergic neuronal differentiation of human neural stem cells (hNSCs) are poorly understood. In this study, we examined the effect of regulation of these intracellular signaling pathways in hNSCs on the potential to maintain proliferation and induce dopaminergic neuronal differentiation. Dopaminergic neuronal differentiation depended on the concentration of insulin in our culture system. Inhibition of PI3K/Akt with LY294002 reduced proliferation and inhibited dopaminergic neuronal differentiation of these cells. We also found that rapamycin, a specific inhibitor of mTOR, significantly reduced neuronal differentiation without affecting proliferation. Inhibition of the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway led to inhibition of p70 ribosomal S6 kinase (S6K) signaling, which reduced dopaminergic neuronal differentiation in hNSCs. Inhibition of S6K by a specific chemical inhibitor, PF-4708671 inhibited dopaminergic neuronal differentiation of hNSCs. As expected, transduction with a dominant negative S6K1 (S6K1-DN) construct impaired dopaminergic neuronal differentiation of hNSCs. Conversely, overexpression of constitutively active S6K1 (S6K1-CA) promoted dopaminergic neuronal differentiation of these cells. In a survival study, 4 weeks after transplantation, no or very few donor cells were viable in striata grafted with S6K1-DN-transduced hNSCs. In contrast, S6K1-CA-transduced hNSCs survived, integrated into striata to generate tubular masses of grafts and differentiated toward TH-positive cells. Taken together, these data demonstrated that insulin promotes dopaminergic neuronal differentiation through a PI3K/Akt/mTOR-dependent pathway and that S6K plays a critical role in dopaminergic neuronal differentiation in hNSCs.

Persistent oxidative stress in human neural stem cells exposed to low fluences of charged particles

Exposure to the space radiation environment poses risks for a range of deleterious health effects due to the unique types of radiation encountered. Galactic cosmic rays are comprised of a spectrum of highly energetic nuclei that deposit densely ionizing tracks of damage along the particle trajectory. These tracks are distinct from those generated by the more sparsely ionizing terrestrial radiations, and define the geometric distribution of the complex cellular damage that results when charged particles traverse the tissues of the body. The exquisite radiosensitivity of multipotent neural stem and progenitor cells found within the neurogenic regions of the brain predispose the central nervous system to elevated risks for radiation induced sequelae. Here we show that human neural stem cells (hNSC) exposed to different charged particles at space relevant fluences exhibit significant and persistent oxidative stress. Radiation induced oxidative stress was found to be most dependent on total dose rather than on the linear energy transfer of the incident particle. The use of redox sensitive fluorogenic dyes possessing relative specificity for hydroxyl radicals, peroxynitrite, nitric oxide (NO) and mitochondrial superoxide confirmed that most irradiation paradigms elevated reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS, respectively) in hNSC over a 1 week interval following exposure. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) was not the major source of elevated nitric oxides, as the use of NOS inhibitors had little effect on NO dependent fluorescence. Our data provide extensive evidence for the capability of low doses of charged particles to elicit marked changes in the metabolic profile of irradiated hNSC. Radiation induced changes in redox state may render the brain more susceptible to the development of neurocognitive deficits that could affect an astronaut's ability to perform complex tasks during extended missions in deep space.

Production of neural stem cells from human pluripotent stem cells

Despite significant advances in commercially available media and kits and the differentiation approaches for human neural stem cell (NSC) generation, NSC production from the differentiation of human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) is complicated by its time-consuming procedure, complex medium composition, and purification step. In this study, we developed a convenient and simplified NSC production protocol to meet the demand of NSC production. We demonstrated that NSCs can be generated efficiently without requirement of specific small molecules or embryoid body formation stage. Our experimental results suggest that a short suspension culture period may facilitate ectoderm lineage specification rather than endoderm or mesoderm lineage specification from hPSCs. The method developed in this study shortens the turnaround time of NSC production from both human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) differentiation. It provides a straightforward and useful strategy for generating NSCs that can benefit a wide range of research applications for human brain research.

Comparative evaluation of chitosan, cellulose acetate, and polyethersulfone nanofiber scaffolds for neural differentiation

Based on accumulating evidence that the 3D topography and the chemical features of a growth surface influence neuronal differentiation, we combined these two features by evaluating the cytotoxicity, proliferation, and differentiation of the rat PC12 line and human neural stem cells (hNSCs) on chitosan (CS), cellulose acetate (CA), and polyethersulfone (PES)-derived electrospun nanofibers that had similar diameters, centered in the 200-500 nm range. None of the nanofibrous materials were cytotoxic compared to 2D (e.g., flat surface) controls; however, proliferation generally was inhibited on the nanofibrous scaffolds although to a lesser extent on the polysaccharide-derived materials compared to PES. In an exception to the trend toward slower growth on the 3D substrates, hNSCs differentiated on the CS nanofibers proliferated faster than the 2D controls and both cell types showed enhanced indication of neuronal differentiation on the CS scaffolds. Together, these results demonstrate beneficial attributes of CS for neural tissue engineering when this polysaccharide is used in the context of the defined 3D topography found in electrospun nanofibers.

Human Stem Cell Derivatives Retain More Open Epigenomic Landscape When Derived from Pluripotent Cells than from Tissues

The growing number of identified stem cell derivatives and escalating concerns for safety and efficacy of these cells towards clinical applications have made it increasingly crucial to be able to assess the relative risk-benefit ratio of a given stem cell from a given source for a particular disease. Discerning the intrinsic plasticity and regenerative potential of human stem cell populations might reside in chromatin modifications that shape the respective epigenomes of their derivation routes. Previously, we have generated engraftable human neuronal progenitors direct from pluripotent human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) by small molecule induction (hESC-I hNuPs). Unlike the prototypical neuroepithelial-like nestin-positive human neural stem cells (hNSCs), these in vitro neuroectoderm-derived Nurr1-positive hESC-I hNuPs are a more neuronal lineage-specific and plastic hESC derivative. In this study, the global chromatin landscape changes in pluripotent hESCs and their neuronal lineage-specific derivative hESC-I hNuPs were profiled using genome-wide mapping and compared to CNS tissue-derived hNSCs. This study found that the broad potential of pluripotent hESCs is defined by an epigenome constituted of open conformation of chromatin mediated by a pattern of Oct-4 global distribution that corresponds closely with those of acetylated nucleosomes genome-wide. The epigenomic transition from pluripotency to restriction in lineage choices is characterized by genome-wide increases in histone H3K9 methylation that mediates global chromatin-silencing and somatic identity. Tissue-resident CNS-derived hNSCs have acquired a substantial number of additional histone H3K9 methylation, therefore, more silenced chromatin. These data suggest that the intrinsic plasticity and regenerative potential of human stem cell derivatives can be differentiated by their epigenomic landscape features, and that human stem cell derivatives retain more open epigenomic landscape, therefore, more developmental potential for scale-up regeneration, when derived from the hESCs in vitro than from the CNS tissue in vivo.

Characterization of ionic currents in human neural stem cells

The profile of membrane currents was investigated in differentiated neuronal cells derived from human neural stem cells (hNSCs) that were obtained from aborted fetal cortex. Whole-cell voltage clamp recording revealed at least 4 different currents: a tetrodotoxin (TTX)-sensitive Na(+) current, a hyperpolarization-activated inward current, and A-type and delayed rectifier-type K(+) outward currents. Both types of K(+) outward currents were blocked by either 5 mM tetraethylammonium (TEA) or 5 mM 4-aminopyridine (4-AP). The hyperpolarization-activated current resembled the classical K(+) inward current in that it exhibited a voltage-dependent block in the presence of external Ba(2+) (30microM) or Cs(+) (3microM). However, the reversal potentials did not match well with the predicted K(+) equilibrium potentials, suggesting that it was not a classical K(+) inward rectifier current. The other Na(+) inward current resembled the classical Na(+) current observed in pharmacological studies. The expression of these channels may contribute to generation and repolarization of action potential and might be regarded as functional markers for hNSCs-derived neurons.