Ethnic differences in meat consumption attitudes, norms and behaviors: A survey of White, South Asian and Black ethnic groups in the UK

A reduction in meat consumption is necessary to mitigate negative impacts of climate change and adverse health outcomes. The UK has an increasingly multi-ethnic population, yet there is little research on meat consumption habits and attitudes among ethnic groups in the UK. We ran a survey (N = 1014) with quota samples for ethnic groups and analyzed attitudes, behaviors and norm perceptions of White, South Asian and Black British respondents. Most respondents believe overconsumption of red and processed meat has negative impacts on health (73.3%) and the environment (64.3%).South Asian respondents were statistically significantly less likely to be meat eaters than White respondents (OR = 0.44, 95% CIs: 0.30-0.65, t = -4.15, p = 0.000), while there was no significant difference between White and Black respondents (OR = 1.06, 95% CIs: 0.63-1.76, t = 0.21, p = 0.834). Both South Asian (OR = 2.76, 95% CIs: 1.89-4.03 t = 5.25, p = 0.000) and Black respondents (OR = 2.09, 95% CIs: 0.1.30-3.35, t = 3.06, p = 0.002) were significantly more likely to express being influenced by friends and family in their food choices than White respondents. South Asian (OR = 3.24,95% CIs: 2.17-4.84, t = 5.74, p = 0.000) and Black (OR = 2.02,95% CIs: 1.21-3.39, t = 2.69, p = 0.007) respondents were also both significantly more likely to report they would want to eat similarly to their friends and family than White respondents. Statistical analyses suggested some gender and socioeconomic differences across and among ethnic groups, which are reported and discussed. The differences in meat consumption behaviors and norm conformity between ethnic groups raises the prospect that interventions that leverage social norms may be more effective in South Asian groups than Black and White groups in the UK.

How may we effectively motivate people to reduce the consumption of meat? Results of a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials

PURPOSE

Excessive meat consumption (MC) is associated with multiple health risks. Additionally, it can undermine environmental sustainability and affect the potential improvement of animal welfare. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of literacy interventions (LIs) in reducing MC.

METHODS

Studies assessing the efficacy of LIs addressing health risks, environmental sustainability and/or animal welfare in reducing MC were searched. We used random-effects meta-analysis to estimate the overall efficacy and conducted subgroup analyses to identify the most effective information contents. Additionally, meta-regression analyses investigated participants' age, LI duration, and follow-up length influence on LIs' efficacy.

RESULTS

Fourteen studies involving more than ten thousand subjects were meta-analyzed. The pooled estimate showed that LIs had a small (Hedges's g = 0.15; 95%CI: 0.06-0.25) but statistically significant effect in reducing MC. Subgroup analysis showed that the highest efficacy was achieved when subjects were alarmed about health risks (g = 0.29; 95% CI: -0.02, 0.60), compared to informing about the risks for the environment (g = 0.18; 95% CI: -0.15, 0.51) and for animal welfare (g = 0.02; 95%CI: -0.08, 0.11). The meta-regression analysis indicated that LIs had greater efficacy in younger individuals and when the intervention duration was longer. Conversely, it was suggested that efficacy improves as the length of follow-up increases.

CONCLUSIONS

Informing about health risks related to MC temporarily decreased its intake, while informing about the impact on environmental sustainability or animal welfare was ineffective. Furthermore, long-lasting LIs achieve long-term dietary change toward MC.

Beyond gender: Exploring sexual orientation, race and motivations among Brazilian flexitarians

In this study, we analyzed 989 Brazilian individuals identified as flexitarians to explore the relationship between gender, sexual orientation, and meat consumption reduction behavior, while evaluating the impact of motivations driving individuals towards this dietary model. To achieve this goal, we tested the following hypotheses: women consume less meat than men; LGBT women consume less meat than heterosexual women; LGBT men consume less meat than heterosexual men; and women are more motivated by the environmental impact of meat. Our findings revealed that although gender significantly influences motivations, with women showing a greater influence from animal ethics, flexitarians of both genders exhibit similar meat consumption patterns. Neither sexual orientation nor gender influence meat reduction patterns among flexitarians. However, the race/ethnicity of white individuals is a predominant factor among those who reduce meat consumption the most. Consequently, we conclude that (i) the social theories applied to explain gender differences in meat exclusion behavior may not be the most suitable for explaining meat reduction behavior, and (ii) intersectional approaches are needed to investigate flexitarianism.

Environmental co-benefits of health policies to reduce meat consumption: A narrative review

Global meat consumption has risen steadily in recent decades, with heterogeneous growth rates across regions. While meat plays a critical role in providing essential nutrients for human health, excessive consumption of meat, particularly red and processed meat, has also been associated with a higher risk of certain chronic diseases. This has led public authorities, including the World Health Organization, to call for a reduction in meat consumption. How governments can effectively reduce the health costs of meat consumption remains a challenge as implementing effective policy instruments is complex. This paper examines health-related policy instruments and potential economic mechanisms that could reduce meat consumption. Health-related taxation could be the most effective instrument. Other policy instruments, such as informational and behavioral instruments, along with regulations, could discourage meat consumption depending on the policy design. We also provide evidence on the link between meat consumption and the environment, including climate, biodiversity, water use, and pollution. Promoting healthy behaviors by reducing meat consumption can then have environmental co-benefits and promote broader sustainable development goals. We also discuss the policy-related challenges that need to be addressed to meet environmental co-benefits.

Similarities and differences between vegetarians and vegans in motives for meat-free and plant-based diets

Plant-based diets are quickly gaining popularity for their benefits to animal welfare, the environment, and public health. Compared to meat-eaters, meat-abstainers such as vegetarians and vegans are especially motivated by animal rights and the environment. However, little is known about the motivational and psychological factors that distinguish vegetarians from vegans, and what prevents vegetarians to shift towards a fully plant-based diet. In a sample of vegans (n = 335) and vegetarians (n = 182), we investigated a) motives for reducing or quitting meat consumption and b) motives for reducing or quitting animal product (dairy and egg products) consumption, as well as moral psychological and social-contextual factors that may explain potential differences. Results demonstrate that vegetarians and vegans tend to be similar in their motives to abstain from meat consumption and are most strongly motivated by animal rights. However, vegetarians are less motivated by health, environmental, and especially animal rights for dairy/egg reduction compared to meat reduction and compared to vegans. Lower moral concern for animals, stronger beliefs in human supremacy over animals, and heightened veganism threat among vegetarians (vs. vegans) partly explained why vegetarians were less strongly motivated by animal rights for dairy/egg reduction. Human supremacy beliefs also explained differences between vegetarians and vegans in health and environmental motives for dairy/egg reduction. Furthermore, vegetarians reported significantly less social support for plant-based diets and perceived more practical barriers to plant-based diets than vegans. These findings reveal meaningful differences in the motivational and psychological profiles of vegetarians and vegans and highlight the value of distinguishing between motives for meat-free diets and motives for plant-based diets.

How perceptions of meat consumption norms differ across contexts and meat consumer groups

Social norm perceptions are implicit standards describing what is typically done or seen as acceptable and have shown to be important both in sustaining meat consumption as well as facilitating meat reduction. Norm perceptions depend on individual differences and the contexts (e.g., supermarket, restaurant). Yet, evidence how norm perceptions differ within and across individuals is scarce. The primary aim of this study was to investigate how descriptive, injunctive, and personal norms perceptions favouring meat consumption differ across contexts and meat consumer groups. The second aim was to investigate how generic dynamic norm perceptions vary across meat consumer groups. British meat eaters (n = 1205, 25-65 years) participated in an online cross-sectional survey. Weekly meat, fish and meat substitute consumption was measured with the adapted Oxford Meat Frequency Questionnaire. All but dynamic norm perceptions were measured for the supermarket, restaurant and worksite cafeteria context. Dynamic norms were measured without a specified context. A two-step cluster analysis was conducted to identify meat consumer groups. Descriptive norm perceptions favouring meat consumption were strongest in supermarket and restaurant contexts, compared to the worksite cafeteria. Injunctive and personal norms favouring meat consumption were both perceived strongest in the supermarket, followed by the restaurant, and least in the worksite cafeteria context. Four meat consumer groups were identified and those with higher meat intake (i.e., Meat lovers and Exceeders) perceived norms favouring meat consumption stronger and norms favouring meat avoidance weaker than the groups with lower meat intake (i.e., Flexitarians and Moderates). While norm perceptions differed between meat consumer groups, the pattern of contextual differences is similar for these meat consumer groups. Our findings underscore the importance of considering contexts and meat consumer groups in efforts to reduce meat consumption.

Associations between meat consumption and all-cause and cause-specific mortality in middle-aged and older adults with frailty

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to explore the associations between different types of meat consumption and mortality risk among people with frailty.

DESIGN

Longitudinal study.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

We included 19,913 physically frail participants from the UK Biobank.

MEASUREMENTS

We used the validated brief food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to measure meat consumption. Baseline diet data from 2006 to 2010 were collected, and participants were followed up until March 23, 2021. Cox proportional hazards regression models were conducted to examine the associations of meat consumption with mortality risk.

RESULTS

We identified 3,622 all-cause deaths, 1,453 cancer deaths, and 1,663 cardiovascular deaths during a median follow-up time of 11.2 years. Higher consumption of unprocessed poultry (per 25 g/day increment) was associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 0.81, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.75-0.88), cancer mortality (HR 0.84, 95% CI 0.74-0.96), and cardiovascular mortality (HR 0.72, 95% CI 0.63-0.81). Consumption of unprocessed red meat had a U-shaped relationship with mortality. Moderate consumption of unprocessed red meat 1.0-1.9 times/week was associated with a 14% (95% CI: 3 %-24%) lower risk of all-cause mortality than the lowest consumption frequency group (0-0.9 times/week). The hazard of cancer and CV mortality was also lower in the 1.0-1.9 times/week group, though the associations were not statistically significant. More frequent consumption of processed meat was associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality (HR 1.20, 95% CI 1.07-1.34) and cardiovascular mortality (HR 1.20, 95% CI 1.02-1.42). Fish consumption was not associated with all types of mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher consumption of processed meat, not fish, was associated with increased all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. In contrast, higher consumption of unprocessed poultry and moderate consumption of unprocessed red meat was associated with reduced all-cause, cancer, and cardiovascular mortality. These findings warrant further investigation to establish optimal dietary patterns for frail individuals.

Bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers' behavior towards rabbit, beef, chicken, turkey, and lamb meat: A comparative review

In bodybuilders' diets, protein plays a crucial role in supporting muscle growth and repairing damaged muscle tissue. These individuals meet their protein needs by combining dietary sources with supplements. Animal-based proteins are often preferred over plant-based proteins because they are believed to better support muscle protein synthesis. This review explores the meat consumption patterns of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers, focusing on rabbit, beef, chicken, turkey, and lamb. We describe and compare the types of meat bodybuilders commonly consume and provide an overview of protein supplements, including meat-based options, plant-based alternatives, and whey-based products. Our aim is to gain insight into the dietary preferences of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers, considering their nutritional requirements and the potential effect on the meat industry. We conducted an extensive search across various databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar. We found that individual choices vary based on factors such as attitudes, trust, taste, texture, nutritional content, ethical considerations, and cultural influences. Nutritional factors, including protein content, amino acid profiles, and fat levels, significantly influence the preferences of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers. However, it is crucial to maintain a balance by incorporating other essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, healthy fats, vitamins, and minerals to ensure a complete and balanced diet. The findings from this review can inform strategies and product development initiatives tailored to the needs of bodybuilders and discerning meat enthusiasts.

Seroepidemiological and biomolecular survey on Toxoplasma gondii in Sardinian wild boar (Sus scrofa)

Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite able of infecting all warm-blooded animals. Toxoplasmosis is one of the major foodborne diseases globally. The consumption of wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat from recreational hunting has been linked to outbreaks of human toxoplasmosis. The island of Sardinia (Italy) contains a large wild boar population, thus providing an opportunity to assess the distribution of Toxoplasma in this species and the associated risks of transmission to humans. A total of 562 wild boars were screened: heart and meat juice samples were tested for T. gondii DNA via nested-PCR and IgG anti-Toxoplasma by commercial ELISA. Anti-Toxoplasma IgG were detected in 24.6% (138/562) of animals, while 37.2% (209/562) of the heart samples were PCR positive. The prevalence of T. gondii antibodies and DNA highlights the potential role of wild boar as an important reservoir for this parasite. The study suggests that wild boar could play a significant role in spreading the parasite to humans. As wild boar numbers are increasing throughout their range, their potential role in transmitting toxoplasmosis should be communicated to stakeholders, and the impact of different population control methods on disease transmission should be thoroughly assessed to mitigate potential threats effectively.

Flexitarians in Brazil: Who are they, what do they eat, and why?

In this study, we conducted the first scientific investigation focusing on Brazilian flexitarians, aiming to characterize their socio-economic and demographic profiles, motivations for adopting flexitarianism, the frequency of animal-based meat consumption, and the primary meat substitutes they consume. To accomplish this, we distributed an online questionnaire with the assistance of university students and researchers from various regions of the country. Data were collected from 1029 individuals in Brazil who self-identified as flexitarians. Our findings reveal that the flexitarian dietary model is primarily adopted by women, constituting 76% of the sample (n = 786). Their motivations include concerns about the environmental impact of meat consumption (n = 361, 35%), personal health (n = 344, 33%), and animal welfare (n = 219, 21%). Flexitarians exhibit varying consumption patterns, which can be categorized into three groups: light flexitarians (consuming meat 36 times a week), medium flexitarians (consuming meat 7 times a week), and heavy flexitarians (consuming meat 4 times a week). The flexitarian dietary pattern is characterized by reduced beef consumption (less than 2 times per week) and higher consumption of chicken (3 times per week). It is complemented by plant-based protein sources and eggs as the primary meat substitutes. The recognition of legumes as the principal meat substitutes opens avenues for an expanded discussion on sustainable food systems and alternative meat products in Brazil. This provides opportunities to enhance the availability and accessibility of these foods and to develop nutritional interventions that prioritize plant-based proteins.

Association of fish and meat consumption with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: Guangzhou Biobank Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease. Unhealthy dietary habit is one of major risk factors of NAFLD. However, the associations between specific types of fish and meat consumption and NAFLD remain inconclusive. We explored the associations of fish and meat consumption with NAFLD risk in middle-aged and older Chinese.

METHODS

We collected information on 1,862 participants aged 50 years or older from Guangzhou Biobank Cohort Study in 2009 to 2010. Fish and meat consumption was assessed using a validated food-frequency questionnaire. NAFLD was diagnosed by ultrasound. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the associations of fish and meat consumption with the presence of NAFLD.

RESULTS

The average age was 61.0 (standard deviation = 6.5) years for the participants, 50.2% were women, and 37.2% were diagnosed with NAFLD. After adjusting for age, sex, education, family income, occupation, smoking status, drinking status, physical activity and several metabolic traits, compared with 0 serving/week (one serving = 50 g), fatty fish consumption of ≥ 3 servings/week showed higher odds of NAFLD (odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.64 (1.12, 2.39)). The highest (≥ 11 servings/week of red meat and poultry; ≥ 3 servings/week of processed meat) versus the lowest (0-3 servings/week of red meat and poultry; 0 serving/week of processed meat) consumption of all other types of meats, including red meat, poultry and processed meat, showed no association with NAFLD (1.17 (0.75, 1.81), 1.02 (0.42, 2.50) and 0.85 (0.50, 1.45), respectively). Aquatic and sea food, and red meat had negative indirect effects on NAFLD via systolic blood pressure and/or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Processed meat had positive indirect effects on NAFLD via body mass index, waist circumference, fasting plasma glucose and triglycerides.

CONCLUSION

High consumption of fatty fish was associated with higher NAFLD risk. Our results, if causal, provide evidence that limiting consumption of fatty fish can be considered as part of NAFLD lifestyle prevention and treatment.

The effects of food anthropomorphism on consumer behavior: A systematic literature review with integrative framework and future research directions

Anthropomorphizing or humanizing food is a common marketing practice that has gained significant scholarly attention in the past few years. The present systematic review analyzes articles that examined the effects of anthropomorphizing various food and food ingredients on consumers' behavior to synthesize the existing body of work into an integrative framework, provide managerial recommendations, and identify avenues for future research. Using the Prisma 2020 statement for systematic reviews, a systematic search of four databases (EBSCO, PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science) for peer-reviewed, quantitative articles published in English till the March 10, 2023 was undertaken, resulting in a final number of 21 articles meeting our selection criteria. The identified articles studied anthropomorphism of one of the three categories of food - regular food, misshapen/irregularly-shaped food, and meat animal. Analysis based on an integrative framework suggests that, in general, anthropomorphizing misshapen produce and regular food has a positive effect on behavior towards the food (e.g., purchase intention) and the restaurant/brand (e.g., restaurant visit intention) among adult consumers through elicitation of cognitive and affective responses. However, anthropomorphizing meat animals reduces consumers' intention to buy or eat meat by evoking negative emotions such as guilt. Similarly, anthropomorphizing regular food discourages consumption among children. The framework highlights several moderating variables of these effects. Based on the insights from this literature review, several recommendations for practitioners and researchers are suggested.

Feeling morally troubled about meat, dairy, egg, and fish consumption: Dissonance reduction strategies among different dietary groups

A largescale shift towards plant-based diets is considered a critical requirement for tackling ethical, environmental, and global health issues associated with animal food production and consumption. Although previous research has identified psychological strategies that enable meat-eaters to justify and continue meat consumption and feel less morally conflicted about it, research on the psychological strategies that enable consumers to continue dairy, egg, and fish consumption is scarce. We conducted an online survey study using an adjusted version of the Meat-Eating Justification Scale to investigate the use of psychological strategies to cope with cognitive dissonance related to meat, dairy, egg, and fish consumption in omnivores (n = 186), pescatarians (n = 106), vegetarians (n = 143), vegans (n = 203), and flexitarians (n = 63). Results indicated greater use of meat-related dissonance reduction strategies among omnivores as compared to other dietary groups, greater use of fish-related dissonance reduction strategies among fish consumers (omnivores, flexitarians and pescatarians) compared to vegetarians and vegans, and greater use of dairy and egg-related dissonance reduction strategies among dairy and egg consumers (omnivores, flexitarians, pescatarians, and vegetarians) as compared to vegans. This pattern was particularly clear for justifications used to defend animal product consumption, denial of animal suffering, and use of dichotomization when considering meat and fish consumption. These findings highlight the importance of extending the research on dissonance reduction strategies beyond meat consumption and studying the consumption of a range of animal products. This can help in identifying the psychological barriers to adopting a plant-based diet and informing interventions for behaviour change.

Implication of red meat consumption habits in serum uric acid levels and mood disorders among first-trimester pregnant women

BACKGROUND

Dietary pattern involving meat consumption has an association with serum uric acid level which subsequently has an impact on moods. However, this relationship is not clearly established in pregnant women, particularly those who are accustomed to daily meat consumption.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the relationship between red meat consumption and uric acid level and the subsequent impact on mood disorders in 1st trimester pregnant women.

METHODOLOGY

A total of 92 pregnant women in their first trimester (8-12 weeks), were selected for this study. Socio-demographic characteristics including age, body mass index (BMI), educational qualification, sleep hours, blood pressure and exercise status were recorded. To assess meat consumption, classification based on the recruited population consumption was divided into low and high meat consumption groups. Serum uric acid level was estimated in plasma. Mood disorder, namely, depression and anxiety were assessed using a self-reported Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) questionnaire. Collected data was analysed using different statistical tools.

RESULTS

Logistic regression analysis showed higher odds of depression (OR = 0.059, 95% CI 0.02-0.172, p < 0.001) and anxiety (OR = 0.144, 95% CI 0.055-0.375, p < 0.001) in the high meat consumption group. Further, the potential confounders, high BMI and less exercise increased the odds of depression and anxiety in high meat consumption groups. Linear regression analysis revealed a significant influence of meat consumption on uric acid level (F (1, 90) = 305.385, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The study recommends regular clinical screening of mood disorders, and recommends reasonable consumption of lean meat and/or replacing some portions with fish, as well as, a commitment to eating a healthy, balanced diet. It also suggests extensive studies because it could be linked to postpartum mood disorders among those who consume red meat every day.

'It's just pølse': Convenient meat consumption and reduction in Norway

Meat consumption and convenience food are both located at the heart of contemporary, industrialized, unhealthy and unsustainable food systems. In this article, we study the intersections between convenience food and 'meatification' of diets, focusing on the 'pølse'-an umbrella term including both hotdogs and a range of sausages-as the epitome of convenience food in Norway. We explore how the pølse is embedded in Norwegian food practices, and why it is considered convenient in different contexts. In doing so, we seek to explain how pølse eating is co-shaped by socio-material scripting processes that further entrench meat in food practices and complicate meat-reduction efforts. The analysis is based on 52 in-depth household interviews and autophotography in four geographical contexts in Norway, in addition to 22 park interviews and survey data centering on household food and meat practices. We use a theoretical apparatus combining social practice theory, foodscapes and socio-material scripts to analyse the conveniencization of pølse. The articles demonstrates how meat consumption and convenience food become entwined in specific social practices, and how conveniencization intersects with practices of care, notions of class, social expectations and normativity. Moreover, we show that despite the range of plant-based 'pølse' substitutes on offer, meat-eaters remain skeptical to its taste, and substitutes rather seem to offer a way into established social occasions for non-meat eaters than a way out of meat eating.

Game changers for meat and masculinity? Male athletes' perspectives on mixed and plant-based diets

The dietary choices of male athletes are increasingly a topic of moral and nutritional debate. Though it has long been a consensus that athletes require animal products to advance their athletic goals, this understanding is now challenged in academic and popular sources based on nutritional evidence and concern about the environmental impacts of animal products. In order to better understand how (semi-)professional male athletes perceive plant-based diets and diets containing animal products, thirteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with male athletes competing nationally and internationally, including mixed and plant-based eaters. Interviews were analysed through reflexive thematic analysis, in line with a critical, qualitative research methodology. Justifications for meat, situated knowledge and masculinity were used as theoretical lenses. Our analysis shows how athletes reproduce nutritional claims about the necessity of protein for athletes, but disagree on the suitability of plant-based sources. This nutritional discourse derives from a broad range of sources, including professional nutritionists, friends, online influencers, and media. Second, when explaining their own food practices, food being 'nice' and 'normal' - common justifications for meat as evidenced in the 4N theory - often supersede necessity. Embedding these views in their everyday lives as athletes shows that food environments and shared eating practices fortify a mixed diet as normal, and plant-based diets as anomalous. It further shows how the view of meat being normal is subject to shifting masculinity norms. Interviewees reject meat eating as normal and masculine for men, while male athletes who show dedication, constraint, and knowledge in a plant-based diet are viewed positively. As role models for diet and masculinity, this has implications for a potential role of athletes in a societal transition towards lower consumption of animal products.

Fake meat or meat with benefits? How Dutch consumers perceive health and nutritional value of plant-based meat alternatives

Animal agriculture has a large impact on the environment. Hence, there is an increasing demand for meat alternatives - more sustainably produced plant-based products that replace meat as meal component. Demands for meat alternatives also seem to be fuelled by consumers' belief that meat alternatives are healthier than meat products. In an online questionnaire study, we examined whether consumers indeed perceived meat alternatives to be healthier, to what degree consumers adequately estimated the nutritional value of meat (alternatives), and whether a nutrition claim could misguide consumers. In a panel of 120 Dutch consumers, it was found that meat alternatives were generally perceived as being healthier than meat products. According to supermarket data, meat alternatives contained less protein and saturated fat, higher levels of fibre and salt compared to meat. Consumers were found to overestimate the protein content of meat alternatives relative to meat products, especially when meat alternatives carry a 'high in protein' claim. The current beliefs about the healthiness and nutritional content of meat and meat alternatives are precarious and a fair, transparent, and understandable environment should be created for the conscious consumer.

Survey of New Zealand consumer attitudes to consumption of meat and meat alternatives

This study examined consumers' consumption, motivations, and concerns regarding meat and meat alternatives by means of an online survey of 1061 New Zealand consumers and review of literature. Outcomes of the survey indicate New Zealanders are overwhelmingly omnivorous (93%), regard taste as the most important factor in their meat purchasing decision followed by price and freshness and consider environmental impact and social responsibility of less importance. Those surveyed indicated willingness to pay 17-24% more for food safety and sustainability related meat attributes. About half of respondents lowered their meat consumption the previous year, mainly red and processed meats, due to lack of affordability and health concerns. Although those surveyed showed high awareness about meat alternatives, their consumption level of the products was very low and more prevalent for female, younger and more educated individuals. Overall, the outlook for meat consumption and meat industry in New Zealand is positive and is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future.

Loss framing effect on reducing excessive red and processed meat consumption: Evidence from Italy

A reduction of meat consumption is crucial for addressing public health problems, especially in industrialized countries. Among low-cost interventions, emotionally provocative health-information strategies could be effective options in fostering meat reduction. Through an online experimental survey, administrated to a quota-based national sample (N = 1142), this study analysed the profile of Italians consuming red/processed meat above World Health Organization (WHO) recommended amounts. Via a between-subjects design, the research tested whether two health frame-nudges (societal impact and individual impact of over consumption) persuaded these individuals to reduce future meat consumption. Results showed that adhering to an omnivore diet, higher consumption of meat than peers, household size (larger) and positive moral perception of meat consumption increased the likelihood of overconsumption. In addition, both nudges proved to be effective in positively impacting future intentions to reduce meat consumption among individuals exceeding WHO recommended amounts. The two frame-nudges were more effective among females, respondents with children in the household and individuals with a low health status perception.

Insights into parents' and teachers' support for policies promoting increased plant-based eating in schools

Global environmental and public health challenges related to current food systems call for large-scale shifts towards increasingly plant-based diets, especially in Western meat-centric societies. School meal systems can play a role in these changes due to their widespread prevalence and multi-sectoral impact. However, there is a lack of evidence about how adults involved in the school meals system perceive school-based pro-environmental food policies, which limits the ability to align those policies with the needs and expectations of the school community. This study aimed to address this knowledge gap by exploring parents' (n = 104) and teachers' (n = 252) support for policies to promote increased plant-based eating in public schools in a highly meat-centric EU country (Portugal). Overall, teachers seemed to be slightly more supportive of such policies and displayed more favorable (injunctive and dynamic) norms toward plant-based eating, more negative appraisals of meals with meat (i.e., perceived healthiness, naturalness, and sustainability), and lower attachment to meat consumption. Furthermore, injunctive norms in favor of plant-based meals were linked with higher support for measures promoting plant-based meals in schools, in both samples (parents, teachers). Lower meat attachment and favorable perceived meal attributes (e.g., perceptions about plant-based and fish meals) were associated with teachers' support for measures promoting plant-based meals in schools. These findings suggest that future efforts and research with parents and teachers to enable less meat-centric and more flexitarian food practices in schools should consider social and motivation variables relevant to plant-forward transitions.

The association between meat consumption and muscle strength index in young adults: the mediating role of total protein intake and lean mass percentage

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to analyse the associations between the consumption of different types of meat and the muscle strength index (MSI) and to examine whether this relationship is mediated by total protein intake (TPI) and lean mass percentage (LM%) in young adults.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study with first-year university students from Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. Different types of meat consumption (total, red, processed, and white and fish) were separately evaluated using a Food-Frequency Questionnaire. MSI was determined from the handgrip and standing long jump tests. ANCOVA models were used to test the mean differences in MSI by categories of meat consumption. Serial multiple mediation models were used to explore the mediating role of TPI and LM% in the relationship between meat consumption and MSI. All analyses were adjusted for age, sex, and socioeconomic level, identified through a directed acyclic graph. Additional analyses were performed with a small subsample including alcohol intake, tobacco smoking, physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and total energy intake as covariates in the multiple mediation models.

RESULTS

A total of 230 students (mean age 21.1 ± 2.1 years, 66.5% women) were included in the analysis. Young adults with higher meat consumption (total, red, and white and fish) had higher MSI adjusted means than their peers with lower meat consumption (p < 0.05). These associations did not remain after controlling for TPI and LM%. In adjusted mediation analyses, a significant indirect effect was observed through TPI and LM% in the associations between each of the types of meat consumption and MSI. In the additional analyses, a greater effect of white and fish meat consumption on muscle strength through mediation of TPI and LM% was reported compared to red or processed meat consumption, and no significant effects were observed between processed meat consumption and MSI.

CONCLUSION

Higher consumption of total, red, and white and fish meat was associated with increased MSI in young adults. TPI and LM% mediated this relationship.

Education- and income-related differences in processed meat consumption across Europe: The role of food-related attitudes

PURPOSE

Dietary behaviors differ between socio-economic groups and are one key determinant of health inequalities. Psychological factors such as attitudes are assumed to underlie the relation between inequality and dietary behaviors, but this assumption has rarely been tested empirically. We focus on a specific food group shown as detrimental to health: processed meat.

METHODS

In two representative international surveys (Survey 1: N = 10,226 participants from nine European countries - Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Spain, UK; Survey 2: N = 9149 participants from the same countries, except not including Austria and the Netherlands), participants reported inequality indicators (education, income), processed meat consumption as well as their attitudes toward nutrition and food.

PRINCIPAL RESULTS

There were diverging relationships between indicators of inequality and processed meat consumption: the higher the educational attainment, the lower the consumption of processed meat (r_Survey1 = -0.062, p < .001; r_Survey2 = -0.071, p < .001). At the same time, higher income was related to higher processed meat consumption (r_Survey1 = 0.088, p < .001; r_Survey2 = 0.152, p < .001). A path model showed that four of seven attitude factors mediated the relation between education and processed meat consumption (i.e., indifference toward nutrition and food, preference for regional and fresh food, processed food consumption, health efforts); none of the attitude factors mediated the relation between income and overall processed meat consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Processed meats are consumed very frequently across European countries. The relation between inequality and processed meat consumption is heterogeneous and partially mediated by attitudes. More research is needed to better understand how psychological factors explain social inequality in nutrition behaviors and health in general.

Consumer perception of the challenges facing livestock production and meat consumption

With the global meat market growing and intensive livestock farming systems increasing, the impacts of livestock are a growing concern among consumers, further influencing their meat consumption. Understanding consumer perceptions of livestock production is therefore a key issue. This study surveyed 16,803 respondents in France, Brazil, China, Cameroon and South Africa to investigate the different perceptions of the ethical and environmental impacts of livestock production among consumer segments in different countries based on their sociodemographic characteristics. On average, the current respondents in Brazil and China and/or who consume little meat, are female, not in the meat sector and/or more educated, are more likely to think that livestock meat production causes serious ethical and environmental problems; while those in China, France and Cameroon and/or who consume little meat and/or are women, younger, not in the meat sector, and/or more educated, are more likely to agree that reducing meat consumption could be a good solution to these problems. Additionally, an affordable price and sensory quality are the main drivers of food purchases for the current respondents. In conclusion, sociodemographic factors have significant effects on consumer perception of livestock meat production and meat consumption habits. Perceptions of the challenges facing livestock meat production differ between countries in different geographic regions based on social, economic, cultural contexts and dietary habits.

Evaluating the effectiveness of vegetarian appeals in daily life: Comparing positive and negative imagery, and gauging differential responses

Persuasive appeals designed to reduce meat consumption often employ graphic images of the harms perpetuated by eating meat (e.g., cruel factory farming practices). However, because people are motivated to see themselves as moral, appeals that highlight omnivores' moral failings might be resisted or even backfire. Furthermore, individuals differ in ways that may influence their motivations and attitudes toward animals and meat-eating, and their responses to these appeals. Thus, in a two-week intervention study (N = 427), we compared effects of two vegetarian appeals-one employing graphic negative imagery (footage of factory farming cruelty), the other employing positive imagery (footage from farmed animal sanctuaries)-on daily meat consumption and related affects and cognitions. We also examined several personality traits and other individual differences that may confer differential effects of these appeals. Although neither appeal significantly reduced meat consumption, both the positive and negative appeal increased intentions to eat less meat, and led to more negative affect and cognition when eating meat. Moreover, several individual difference variables moderated the effects of these appeals on actual and intended meat consumption. Findings are discussed in relation to the difficulty of changing morally troublesome behaviour, and the use of graphic appeals despite their unclear impact on behaviour.

Meat, myself, and I: The role of multiple identities in meat consumption

Excessive consumption of meat challenges global food security and environmental sustainability. In the mounting literature on identity as a motivator of behaviour, meat consumption has been associated with a handful of identities. Identity theory suggests that people hold multiple identities on different levels of abstraction, but how identities at different levels of abstraction interact and possibly co-determine intentions and behaviour remains largely unanswered. Inspired by research on attitudes and goal hierarchies, this study investigates a hierarchical model of meat-related identities and their relation to intentions to consume red meat. By means of a survey of Danish consumers (N = 1001), we identified identities related to the consumption of red meat (e.g., flexitarian identity), using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling. We also controlled for the most important additional antecedents identified in prior research. Evidence was found that more abstract identities (e.g., national identity, environmental identity) mostly influence intentions to eat meat indirectly, meditated through more behaviour-specific identities (e.g., flexitarian identity). However, some higher-order identities also appear to have a direct impact on intentions to eat meat after controlling for more behaviour-specific identities, which suggests a less hierarchical structure manifesting itself, possibly due to the behaviour being instrumental at reaching different, functionally unrelated goals that are related to different identities. Policy recommendations towards reducing meat consumption are proposed.

Red/processed meat consumption and non-cancer-related outcomes in humans: umbrella review

The associations of red/processed meat consumption and cancer-related health outcomes have been well discussed. The umbrella review aimed to summarise the associations of red/processed meat consumption and various non-cancer-related outcomes in humans. We systematically searched the systematic reviews and meta-analyses of associations between red/processed meat intake and health outcomes from PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library databases. The umbrella review has been registered in PROSPERO (CRD 42021218568). A total of 40 meta-analyses were included. High consumption of red meat, particularly processed meat, was associated with a higher risk of all-cause mortality, CVD and metabolic outcomes. Dose-response analysis revealed that an additional 100 g/d red meat intake was positively associated with a 17 % increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), 15 % increased risk of CHD, 14 % of hypertension and 12 % of stroke. The highest dose-response/50 g increase in processed meat consumption at 95 % confident levels was 1·37, 95 % CI (1·22, 1·55) for T2DM, 1·27, 95 % CI (1·09, 1·49) for CHD, 1·17, 95 % CI (1·02, 1·34) for stroke, 1·15, 95 % CI (1·11, 1·19) for all-cause mortality and 1·08, 95 % CI (1·02, 1·14) for heart failure. In addition, red/processed meat intake was associated with several other health-related outcomes. Red and processed meat consumption seems to be more harmful than beneficial to human health in this umbrella review. It is necessary to take the impacts of red/processed meat consumption on non-cancer-related outcomes into consideration when developing new dietary guidelines, which will be of great public health importance. However, more additional randomised controlled trials are warranted to clarify the causality.

Characterisation of meat consumption across socio-demographic, lifestyle and anthropometric groups in Switzerland: results from the National Nutrition Survey menuCH

OBJECTIVE

Characterising meat consumption in Switzerland across socio-demographic, lifestyle and anthropometric groups.

DESIGN

Representative national data from the menuCH survey (two 24-hour dietary recalls, anthropometric measurements and a lifestyle questionnaire) were used to analyse the total average daily intake of meat and main meat categories. Energy-standardised average intake (g/1000 kcal) was calculated and its association with 12 socio-demographic, lifestyle and anthropometric variables was investigated using multivariable linear regression.

SETTING

Switzerland.

PARTICIPANTS

Totally, 2057 participants aged 18-75 years.

RESULTS

Average total meat intake was 109 g/d, which included 43 g/d of processed meat, 37 g/d of red meat and 27 g/d of white meat. Energy-standardised meat intake was highest for men, the Italian-language region and the youngest age group (18-29 years). Regression results showed significantly lower total meat and red meat consumption (g/1000 kcal) for women than men. However, there were no sex-specific differences for white meat. Total meat and white meat consumption were positively associated with the 18-29 age group, compared with 30-44 years, non-Swiss compared with Swiss participants and one-parent families with children compared with couples without children. Consumption of all categories of meat showed positive associations for BMI > 25 kg/m² compared with BMI 18·5-25 kg/m² and for French- and Italian-language regions compared with German-language region.

CONCLUSION

The current study reveals that there are significant differences in the amounts and types of meat consumed in Switzerland, suggesting that evidence-based risks and benefits of these categories need to be emphasised more in meat consumption recommendations.

Meat and interpersonal motives: the case of self-enhancement

Meat eaters have a more hierarchical, less egalitarian view at the world than vegetarians. This can be manifested in social dominance orientation, at the intergroup level, but also at the interspecies level, yielding more empathy with nonhuman animals, and at the interpersonal level. We examined if interpersonal motives in human-human relationships and empathy with people are associated with frequency of meat eating, using a cross-sectional survey (N = 580). For the motives power and affiliation, no significant relationships emerged, but the self-enhancement motive was positively related to the number of days that participants ate meat. This predicted additional variance over and above variables at the intergroup and interspecies level, such as social dominance orientation and human-animal continuity. Empathy with people was negatively related to meat consumption, but this was explained by its correlation with empathy with animals. Discussion focuses on the importance of the self-enhancement motive in attachment to meat, the symbol of human superiority, as well as resistance to meat refusers.

The Food System Summit's Disconnection From People's Real Needs

The United Nations (UN) Food Systems Summit held in September 2021 has left the world with a jumble of ideas and no clear path forward for transforming the world's food systems. The Summit was touted as the ultimate place to provide the world with solutions - but it never clarified the problems with the dominant food systems leaving participants with no coherent or cohesive framework. Most distressingly, the Food Systems Summit did not put the COVID-19 pandemic and ensuing food crisis anywhere on its agenda. In this Policy Perspective, the author, the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, provides his first-hand account of the effects of the Summit not focusing on people's immediate needs during a food crisis. The author briefly touches upon the Summit's role in the global debate around meat consumption. This debate exemplifies how the Summit did very little to change the substance of global food debates. Instead, the Summit can be understood as an inter-corporate contest that did not have any substantive regard for social justice or human rights.

A reversal of defaults: Implementing a menu-based default nudge to promote out-of-home consumer adoption of plant-based meat alternatives

Restaurants are characterized by high levels of meat being consumed in this out-of-home setting, while plant-based meat alternatives remain a niche product, thus preserving a high environmental impact of food consumption. We tested whether subtly re-designing the restaurant menu, so that plant-based meat alternatives were perceived as the default to a greater extent, increased consumer selection of plant-based meat alternatives. Consumers' freedom of choice was preserved by leaving all choice options on the menu. An online experiment in The Netherlands showed that consumers choose plant-based meat alternatives more often relative to meat when the plant-based option is framed as the default. In a field experiment in a Dutch restaurant, we found that the amount of ordered plant-based meat alternative dishes substantially increased relative to an equivalent meat dish when implementing a default nudge (bean alternative: from 8.6% to 80.0%; seaweed alternative: from 16.1% to 58.3%). Thus, re-designing the menu in a way that suggests that plant-based meat alternatives are the default, while preserving autonomous decision-making, is a promising route to promote out-of-home adoption of plant-based meat alternatives in restaurants.

Exploring the dynamics of women consumer preference, attitude and behaviour towards meat and meat products consumption in India

Urbanisation and changing food habits in India have resulted in a shift in consumption from cereals to protein-based foods. Women play a major role in India in all activities related to food at household and therefore, the current paper reports the findings of the qualitative work conducted to understand women consumers' preference and perception towards meat and its attributes as a function of their awareness. The study collected the responses from 510 women residents of Metropolitan city of Bengaluru, India using questionnaires directly by face-to-face interviews and generated data on preference for fresh meat, purchase habits, value added meat products consumption, awareness about meat quality, and future expectations about meat sector. Findings from the current study indicate that, chicken is the most preferred meat (41.76%) while beef was least preferred (5.88%). The 40.59% of respondents preferred meat tenderness as an important eating quality followed by juiciness (37.06%) and flavor (12.94%). Consumers rated ritual slaughter, animal welfare and food safety as relevant issues in meat production, whereas regulations pertaining to meat production, processing of meat and food labelling were of minor significance. The study provide an insight into the significance of various consumer behaviour with respect to choice of meat, awareness on ritual slaughter, animal welfare and processing which is helpful in prioritizing future consumer research and policy decisions in India.

Meat consumption and consumer attitudes - A Norwegian perspective

Norway has lower meat consumption than other North European countries. Meat is acknowledged as important for food security in Norway, as Norway's agricultural possibilities are best suited for free-ranging and self-foraging animals. Meat has a strong position in the Norwegian diet, particularly as a centrepiece for special occasions. Good taste, product variety, and affordable price make meat a convenient choice. Norwegian consumers are not worried about animal welfare in local production, nor highly driven by environmental motives for reducing their consumption. Meat analogues have a very small market share, and taste and processing level do not make it a primary replacement for meat reducers. Still, Norwegian consumers' attitudes towards meat have become more diverse in later years. More consumer segments display meat-reducing behaviours citing both health and sustainability reasons. Females are particularly interested in reducing meat consumption, young age and urban lifestyle are other characteristics of meat reducing segments.

Self-reported consumption frequency of meat and fish products among young adults in Kazakhstan

Background: Meat and dairy products are important ingredients in Kazakhstan, although there are indications that high consumption of red and processed meat is associated with a risk of several non-communicable diseases and has an adverse impact on the environment. Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the dietary habits of young adults in Kazakhstan, particularly meat and fish consumption frequency among university students in five regions of Kazakhstan. Methods: The assessment of meat and fish consumption was based on the food frequency questionnaire. Region of residence, age, sex, weight, height and parental education were also self-reported. Results: Meat consumption among the participants was lower than recommended consumption of 1500 g per week in Kazakhstan but almost two-fold higher than the World Cancer Research Fund recommendations of 500 g per week. Approximately 24% of the participants reported to consume meat every day. Only 8.6% of the participants reported fish consumption in line with the recommendation of approximately 270 g per week in Kazakhstan. Meat and fish consumption was fairly homogeneous across regions and sex. Conclusion: The results from this study contribute to the relatively limited information on meat and fish consumption in Kazakhstan. Further knowledge on dietary habits and probably improved nutrition recommendations on meat consumption in Kazakhstan are needed to protect public health and the environment.

Where we work determines what we eat: A qualitative exploration of the multi-dimensional influences on meat consumption when home and office working during the Covid 19 lockdown in London, UK

Food choices, including the decision to consume meat, are complex and determined by many inter-related influences. This study examined the choice of working professionals to consume meat in the context of forced changes in working conditions during lockdowns in London during the Covid 19 outbreak in 2020–21. Guided by an adapted Ecological Framework depicting influences on food choice in this context, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 33 employees of a financial services consultancy who normally work from offices in central London but were homeworking at the time of research. Food choices associated with all meals (but especially lunches) when working in each setting were explored. Four key themes emerged from the research. Firstly, when office-working the influence of colleagues (social environment factor) on the choice to consume meat was variable and individual-level factors, particularly personality traits, impacted the extent of social influence. Secondly, limited availability of non-meat options and preferences for buying meat-based meals outside the home (physical environment factor), contributed to more meat consumption when office-working. Thirdly, alignment of food choices between household members (social environment factor), largely for convenience reasons, resulted in a greater likelihood of non-meat meals being eaten when homeworking. Finally, not having to commute (physical environment factor) meant participants had more time available, resulting in changes to routines and priorities (individual-level factors), with some reduced meat consumption. Overall, research findings contribute to building understanding of how both home and office-working influence the choice to consume meat. Findings may be used to inform strategies to reduce meat consumption, which will in turn play a role in supporting global climate change targets and reducing harm to the natural environment associated with food choices.

Meat consumption and flexitarianism in the Low Countries

Against the backdrop of meat production and consumption being increasingly contested, this paper presents a narrative descriptive review of (reductions in) meat consumption in the Netherlands and Belgium with a focus on trends during the period 2010-2020. Based on household panel purchasing data and supply balance sheet data as proxies, our analysis shows that meat consumption in the Netherlands is relatively stable, based on supply balance sheet data, despite an estimated annual decrease of around 250 g per capita per year based on household panel purchasing data. Meanwhile, household purchasing panel data for Belgium show a more steady and stronger decline with an annual decrease of slightly >1 kg per capita per year over the past decade, as well as more fluctuations based on supply balance sheet data. The 'Covid-year' 2020 displays a distinct pattern in both countries which deserves further exploration. Both countries face growing shares of (self-declared) flexitarians (ranging from around or above 30% in Belgium to 40% or more in the Netherlands depending on the data source and its definition of flexitarians) and consumers who claim to intend reducing their meat consumption in the future. The analysis reveals important differences in research methodologies, sample compositions, and analytical techniques. Such differences raise caveats for direct comparison between countries and impose challenges for the (European) monitoring of the so-called 'protein transition'. Although some change is occurring, the data suggest that meat reduction calls resonate still more in terms of people's attitudes, awareness, and intentions than in overt dietary behavioral change. Overall, our findings provide reason to conclude that the established meat-centered food system and its dominant meat-eating culture are still prevailing in the Low Countries.

Meat consumption and all-cause mortality in 5763 patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Whether meat consumption is related to risk of mortality in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) remains poorly understood.

METHODS

In the UK Biobank, 5763 patients with IBD were recruited from 2007 to 2010 and finished a brief food frequency questionnaire at baseline. We followed them until March 13, 2021 to document all-cause death events. Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) for all-cause mortality associated with consumptions of fish, unprocessed poultry, unprocessed red meat, and processed meat among the patients.

FINDINGS

During 67,095 person-years (mean follow-up 11·7 years, mean age 57·3, 52·5% female), we documented 590 death events. Higher consumption of processed meat was associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality in patients with IBD (HR comparing >4·0 with 0-0·9 time/week=1·52, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1·05-2·19), but the P-trend for each 25 g increment was 0·075. This association remained significant in patients with Crohn's disease (HR 1·77, 95% CI 1·01-3·10) but not in patients with ulcerative colitis (HR 1·34, 95% CI 0·82-2·20). Consumptions of fish (HR 1·27, 95% CI 0·84-1·91), unprocessed poultry (HR 0·59, 95% CI 0·28-1·21), or unprocessed red meat (HR 0·87, 95% CI 0·60-1·26) were not significantly associated with the mortality of patients with IBD.

INTERPRETATION

More frequent consumption of processed meat was associated with an increased risk of mortality in patients with IBD, while no associations were observed for consumption of other types of meat. Our exploratory and speculative findings should be cautiously interpreted and need further replication in other cohorts.

FUNDING

The National Natural Science Foundation of China (81,970,494); Key Project of Research and Development Plan of Hunan Province (2019SK2041).

Rationalisation of meat consumption in New Zealand adolescents

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to describe meat consumption rationalisation and relationships with meat consumption patterns and food choice motivations in New Zealand adolescents.

DESIGN

This was a cross-sectional study of adolescents from high schools across New Zealand. Demographics, dietary habits, and motivations and attitudes towards food were assessed by online questionnaire and anthropometric measurements taken by researchers. The 4Ns questionnaire assessed meat consumption rationalisation with four subscales: 'Nice', 'Normal', 'Necessary' and 'Natural'.

SETTING

Nineteen secondary schools from eight regions in New Zealand, with some purposive sampling of adolescent vegetarians in Otago, New Zealand.

PARTICIPANTS

Questionnaires were completed by 385 non-vegetarian and vegetarian (self-identified) adolescents.

RESULTS

A majority of non-vegetarian adolescents agreed that consuming meat was 'nice' (65 %), but fewer agreed that meat consumption was 'necessary' (51 %). Males agreed more strongly than females with all 4N subscales. High meat consumers were more likely to agree than to disagree that meat consumption was nice, normal, necessary and natural, and vegetarians tended to disagree with all rationalisations. Adolescent non-vegetarians whose food choice was motivated more by convenience, sensory appeal, price and familiarity tended to agree more with all 4N subscales, whereas adolescents motivated by animal welfare and environmental concerns were less likely to agree.

CONCLUSIONS

To promote a reduction in meat consumption in adolescents, approaches will need to overcome beliefs that meat consumption is nice, normal, necessary and natural.

Backlash against Meat Curtailment Policies in online discourse: Populism as a missing link

Given overwhelming evidence that current levels of meat consumption jeopardize human and planetary health, there is a need for governmental action to reduce meat consumption (i.e., Meat Curtailment Policies, or MCPs). However, few such policies are actually being implemented, in part due to fear of backlash. Better understanding the ideological underpinning of backlash is thus crucial for designing strategies that can further the much needed transition towards more plant-based diets. To address this issue, this study unravels the diverse ideological notions informing backlash in discourse against MCPs. Data consists of three news articles in right-wing publications and over 2700 corresponding comments, posted on Facebook in response to policy proposals to reduce animal protein consumption in the Netherlands. Analysis of the data is based on a framework for ideological discourse analysis, which enables the identification of ideological notions through recognizing semantic and formal structures in text. The research reveals that next to the well documented notions related to neoliberalism (e.g., freedom of choice) and carnism (e.g., meat is normal), populist notions are a significant ideological basis of backlash. In addition, ideological notions related to populism, such as anti-elitism, are interlocked with carnism and neoliberalism. The analysis contributes to a better understanding of the socio-political nature of backlash against MCPs. It suggests that while notions related to carnism can explain how people justify their meat consumption, such notions are only partly relevant for explaining resistance to MCPs. Such resistance is not just an individual response, but a theme around which groups of people converge, through shared ideologies.

Can graphic warning labels reduce the consumption of meat?

The classification of red meat as "probably carcinogenic" and processed meat as "carcinogenic" was followed by pleas to place warning labels, akin to those used for tobacco products, onto meat products. These labels educate people about the health risks associated with the target behavior and are typically accompanied by graphic imagery that elicits disgust (e.g., a picture of blackened lungs). Although the emotion of disgust has been shown to be an effective tool to affect consumer attitudes toward meat, it remains unclear whether such graphic warning labels that recruit disgust would also affect people's intentions to reduce their meat consumption. Two experiments reveal that graphic warning labels, by recruiting disgust, can increase people's intention to reduce their current levels of meat consumption. However, by eliciting disgust, graphic warning labels can simultaneously trigger reactance: graphic images can make people feel they are being manipulated, thereby ironically decreasing meat-reduction intentions. In a final experiment, we aimed to circumvent reactance by providing disgusting information under the guise of trivia, thereby avoiding the perception that the disgusting information was meant to manipulate. Via this route, disgust becomes a potent tool to influence consumers' intentions to consume meat. Ethical concerns are discussed.

An appetite for meat? Disentangling the influence of animal resemblance and familiarity

Consumers in modern society are often less exposed to meat that resembles the animal, and thus are less familiar with it, making it difficult to disentangle the influence of these two inputs (familiarity vs. animal resemblance) on meat appetite. Across three studies, we sought to systematically disentangle the impact of familiarity and animal resemblance on meat appetite using inductive (Study 1) and experimental (Studies 2a-2b) approaches. In Study 1 (N = 229) we separated familiarity and animal resemblance into orthogonal dimensions using 28 meat products. Participants provided free associations and rated the products on familiarity, animal resemblance, and appetitive appeal. In Studies 2a and 2b (N = 514) we experimentally examined the independent contributions of familiarity and animal resemblance, using stimuli normed in Study 1. We hypothesized that animal resemblance has its most pronounced influence on appetite when meat products are unfamiliar. Participants' free associations and ratings of the products were in line with this conditional hypothesis (Study1), as were the experimental manipulations of familiarity and animal resemblance (Studies 2a-2b), confirmed by a mini meta-analysis. In all three studies, familiarity had a pervasive influence on appetite. These findings suggest that product familiarity can attenuate the psychological impact that animal reminders have on appetite. Thus, interventions aimed at eliciting animal associations with meat should consider the familiarity of the products employed.

Population group differences in subjective importance of meat in diet and red and processed meat consumption

Red and processed meat (RPM) consumption associates directly with several unfavorable health outcomes and with environmental impact of diet. RPM consumption differs between certain population groups, and moreover, encompasses various subjective meanings. Literature on determinants of subjective importance of meat in diet (SIM), however, is scarce. Aims of this study were to determine which sociodemographic and -economic characteristics associate with SIM and RPM consumption. The study was based on the FinHealth 2017 Study. The sample comprised 4671 participants aged 18-74 years. SIM was asked with a question including five response options from "not important at all" to "very important". Habitual dietary intake including RPM consumption was studied with a food frequency questionnaire. RPM consumption level grew in parallel with SIM categories. RPM consumption was high and SIM prevailing in men, those living in rural areas, and those with low education. Women living in household with children consumed more RPM than other women but did not find meat more important. Conversely, men living in household with children found meat more important but did not consume it more than other men. Domain analyses considering individuals within the highest RPM consumption quintile revealed that the oldest age group found meat significantly less important than the youngest group. In order to be able to lower RPM consumption at population level and to move towards healthier and climate-wiser diets, it is important to identify subgroups that consume much meat but also subgroups that find meat especially important. Such dietary transition may be especially challenging to subgroups that consume much meat and also consider it important. Actions to support the dietary transition in different population groups should be developed.

A dynamic social norm messaging intervention to reduce meat consumption: A randomized cross-over trial in retail store restaurants

Perceptions of social norms around eating behavior can influence food choices. Communicating information about how others are changing their eating behavior over time (dynamic descriptive social norms) may motivate individuals to change their own food selection and consumption. Following a four-week baseline period, 22 in-store restaurants of a major retail chain across the UK were randomized to display a dynamic descriptive social norm message intended to motivate a shift from meat-to plant-based meals either during the first two, or last two weeks of the four-week study period. A linear regression model showed there was no evidence of an effect of the intervention (β = -0.022, p = .978, 95% CIs: -1.63, 1.58) on the percentage sales of meat- vs plant-based dishes. Fidelity checks indicated that adherence to the intervention procedure was often low, with inconsistencies in the placement and display of the intervention message. In four stores with high fidelity the estimated impact of the intervention was not materially different. The lack of apparent effectiveness of the intervention may reflect poor efficacy of the intervention or limitations in its implementation in a complex food purchasing environment. The challenges highlighted by this study should be considered in future design and evaluation of field trials in real-world settings.

Examination of students' willingness to change behaviour regarding meat consumption

The aim of this study was to assess the behaviour of Swiss students regarding meat consumption by analysing their current consumption habits, attitudes and knowledge, acceptance of meat alternatives and willingness to reduce meat intake. Data were collected through an online survey conducted in universities and universities of applied sciences among German- and French-speaking students in Switzerland (n = 498). By segmenting the student population using an adapted transtheoretical model of change, four distinct clusters were identified: passive (14.7%), curious (6%), awoken (44.7%) and active consumers (34.6%). The results provide a deeper insight into Swiss students' dietary patterns, attitudes and knowledge concerning the impact of meat consumption as along with concrete practical interventions to target the different clusters and initiate and promote behaviour change regarding meat consumption. The ideal recommendations depend on the current stage of behaviour change. However, to reduce meat consumption, policy makers need to set specific, quantifiable goals within defined time frames while involving a variety of stakeholders.

A genome-wide association study on meat consumption in a Japanese population: the Japan Multi-Institutional Collaborative Cohort study

Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on the dietary habits of the Japanese population have shown that an effect rs671 allele was inversely associated with fish consumption, whereas it was directly associated with coffee consumption. Although meat is a major source of protein and fat in the diet, whether genetic factors that influence meat-eating habits in healthy populations are unknown. This study aimed to conduct a GWAS to find genetic variations that affect meat consumption in a Japanese population. We analysed GWAS data using 14 076 participants from the Japan Multi-Institutional Collaborative Cohort (J-MICC) study. We used a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire to estimate food intake that was validated previously. Association of the imputed variants with total meat consumption per 1000 kcal energy was performed by linear regression analysis with adjustments for age, sex, and principal component analysis components 1-10. We found that no genetic variant, including rs671, was associated with meat consumption. The previously reported single nucleotide polymorphisms that were associated with meat consumption in samples of European ancestry could not be replicated in our J-MICC data. In conclusion, significant genetic factors that affect meat consumption were not observed in a Japanese population.

The impact of masculinity stress on preferences and willingness-to-pay for red meat

This work explores the effects of masculinity stress-distress arising from a perceived discrepancy with male gender norms-on red meat consumption, which has potentially substantial individual, collective, and ecological consequences. Across three studies, we demonstrate a positive indirect effect of masculinity stress on red meat consumption through beliefs that meat consumption can augment masculinity, an effect which is moderated by one's self-assessed traditional masculinity (study 1). We further demonstrate attenuation of the effect of masculinity stress on red meat preference when a red meat product is associated with an out-group (i.e., women; study 2) and show that this effect does not extend to women. In study 3, we show that the effect of masculinity stress on choice of red meat is attenuated following a masculinity affirmation. We finish with a detailed discussion of implications and directions for future research. Taken together, we provide convergent evidence that masculinity stress is associated with red meat preference, and that this preference can be discouraged by leveraging out-group reference information and masculinity affirmation. In so doing, this research provides a series of contributions to the literatures on meat eating and vegetarianism specifically, as well as gender identity maintenance more broadly.

"How do you know someone's vegan?" They won't always tell you. An empirical test of the do-gooder's dilemma

A growing number of people (privately) endorse the benefits associated with adopting a meat-free diet. Yet, the societal transition to a more plant-based diet is taking place rather slowly. Why do people's private meat-free preferences fail to materialize in their daily food choices? One potential explanation is that vegetarians and vegans, at this time still a minority group, are worried about eliciting stigma and thus may not feel comfortable expressing their meat-free preferences during social interactions with meat-eaters. Their self-silencing could reinforce the notion that adopting a meat-free diet is nothing more than a niche phenomenon, and in turn discourage others from eliminating meat from their diet as well, thus perpetuating the non-vegetarian norm. Adapting the classic conformity paradigm by Asch, we found that vegetarian and vegan participants were hesitant to express their meat-free preferences. Vegan and vegetarian participants avoided signing a petition that promoted veg*an food options after a majority of confederates had declined to do so. When the experimenter endorsed veg*an food options, however, participants went against the majority, and did sign the petition. Together, these findings point to a pivotal role for exemplars and institutions: by signaling that there are allies who endorse a meat-free diet, they may liberate vegetarians and vegans to publicly express their deviant, meat-free preferences, and thus speed up wider societal change.

A qualitative examination of the motivations behind vegan, vegetarian, and omnivore diets in an Australian population

There is a growing shift towards meat reducing diets, especially in Western nations, in the last decade. Whilst research has examined the potential motivations in adopting meat reducing diets, there are a limited number of studies which directly compare diet-related motivations across dietary groups, especially comparing meat reducing diet groups to omnivores. As such, it is unclear whether these dietary groups have distinctly different motivations for adopting their diets. This study aimed to examine the motivations that underlie people's dietary choices, and to compare these across three dietary groups; vegan, vegetarian, omnivore. A sample of 701 participants participated in the study (Mage = 30.09, SDage = 10.91). Participants were asked to self-describe the diet they follow and provide a written response as to why they choose to follow this diet. A content analysis indicated that the participants' motivations were similar across the three dietary groups. Similar reasons included health and environment, with the health reason common across all three groups. For vegan and vegetarians the most common was animal welfare. However, taste and enjoyment for diet was most common for omnivores. The overlap in responses across the dietary groups suggests that dietary motivations are similar across these three groups. Therefore, rather than simply employing motivations to encourage reduced meat diets, it may be better to develop more personalised interventions to achieve this.

Explaining intention to reduce red and processed meat in the UK and Italy using the theory of planned behaviour, meat-eater identity, and the Transtheoretical model

This study aimed to contribute to the growing literature investigating the psychosocial factors associated with intentions to reduce red and processed meat consumption, given the significant negative impact of meat on public health and in contributing to climate change. A framework combining the Theory of Planned Behaviour with meat-eater identity and the Transtheoretical Model was used to explain intention to reduce red and processed meat consumption across participant samples in the UK and Italy, to identify the factors involved in encouraging behaviour change whilst also considering differences in culinary practices. University students in the UK (n = 320) and Italy (n = 304) completed an online survey including measures from the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Transtheoretical Model, as well as a measure of meat-eater identity. The results showed differences in the relative impact of subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, and meat-eater identity, on behavioural intention across the different stages of change and across the two countries. On the other hand, attitude remained a stable predictor across the different stages of change and in both countries. The results are discussed in relation to existing literature, with the goal of increasing understanding of how reduced meat consumption might be encouraged across different populations.

Organic food use, meat intake, and prevalence of gestational diabetes: KOALA birth cohort study

Purpose

To evaluate whether consumption of organic food and reduced intake of meat products in pregnancy are associated with lower prevalence of gestational diabetes (GD).

Methods

Women participating in the KOALA Birth Cohort Study with valid informed consent, a singleton pregnancy and information on their food intake were considered in this cross-sectional analysis. Participants with and without GD were compared with each other in terms of dietary characteristics (n = 37 and n = 2766, respectively). Multivariable logistic regression (LR) was used to adjust for relevant covariates.

Results

Organic food consumption tended to be lower, although not significantly, in women with GD compared to women without GD, whereas consumption of meat was positively associated with GD prevalence. LR modelling showed that GD was significantly associated with higher consumption of meat and, in addition, also of cheese, after adjustment for other relevant covariates. GD was associated with some indicators of animal product intake, namely dietary animal to plant protein ratio and maternal plasma arachidonic acid (for the latter, data available for n = 16 and n = 1304, respectively). Food patterns of participants with GD were characterised by more meat products and less vegetarian products.

Conclusions

Due to the low number of participants with GD, results have to be interpreted cautiously. Consumption of organic food during pregnancy does not seem to be markedly associated with a lower GD prevalence; lower intake of meat and cheese, irrespective of its origin (organic or conventional), does. The latter supports previous studies suggesting a causal association between consumption of animal products and GD.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00394-021-02601-4.

Attitudes, perceptions and behaviours regarding meat consumption in Germany: results of the NEMONIT study

Meat consumption in Germany is presently higher than recommended for a healthy and sustainable nutrition. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore German consumers' attitudes, perceptions and behaviours regarding meat consumption based on data from 1807 participants (20-80 years) of the NEMONIT study (2012/13). Data were obtained using computer-assisted telephone interviews including 24-h recalls and a food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The majority (97 %) of the participants were meat consumers and most of them stated that an ideal meal should contain meat. Their main motives for meat consumption were good taste, usual habit and the perception of meat as a healthy and satiable food. The stated meat consumption frequency was higher than the 'desired' consumption frequency, answered in a FFQ. Most participants would agree with two meat meals per week, but only 17 % assumed that the German population would agree. Therefore, framework conditions do not motivate people enough to reduce their meat consumption. Options for action which can be implemented in daily routine are needed. Meat is still a largely appreciated food in Germany, but the results indicate a potential for behavioural changes which must be exploited urgently to reduce meat consumption to a healthy and sustainable level.