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Wood MR, Bernal I, Lalancette RA. Crystal structure and analytical profile of 1,2-diphenyl-2-pyrrolidin-1-ylethanone hydrochloride or `α-D2PV': a synthetic cathinone seized by law enforcement, along with its diluent sugar, myo-inositol. Acta Crystallogr C Struct Chem 2024; 80:91-97. [PMID: 38441142 PMCID: PMC10996188 DOI: 10.1107/s2053229624000561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
A confiscated package of street drugs was characterized by the usual mass spectral (MS) and FT-IR analyses. The confiscated powder material was highly crystalline and was found to consist of two very different species, accidentally of sizes convenient for X-ray diffraction. Thus, one each was selected and redundant complete sets of data were collected at 100 K using Cu Kα radiation. The selected crystals contained: (a) 1,2-diphenyl-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)ethanone hydrochloride hemihydrate or 1-(2-oxo-1,2-diphenylethyl)pyrrolidin-1-ium chloride hemihydrate, C18H20NO+·Cl-·0.5H2O, (I), a synthetic cathinone called `α-D2PV', and (b) the sugar myo-inositol, C6H12O6, (II), probably the only instance in which the drug and its diluent have been fully characterized from a single confiscated sample. Moreover, the structural details of both are rather attractive showing: (i) interesting hydrogen bonding observed in pairwise interactions by the drug molecules, mediated by the chloride counter-anions and the waters of crystallization, and (ii) π-π interactions in the case of the phenyl rings of the drug which are of two different types, namely, π-π stacking and edge-to-π. Finally, the inositol crystallizes with Z' = 2 and the resulting diastereoisomers were examined by overlay techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Wood
- Carl A. Olson Memorial Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Rutgers University, 73 Warren St., Newark, NJ 07102, USA
- Ocean County Sheriff’s Office, Forensic Science Laboratory, Toms River, NJ 08753, USA
| | - Ivan Bernal
- Carl A. Olson Memorial Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Rutgers University, 73 Warren St., Newark, NJ 07102, USA
- Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, 2050 Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Roger A. Lalancette
- Carl A. Olson Memorial Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Rutgers University, 73 Warren St., Newark, NJ 07102, USA
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2
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Persson M, Vikingsson S, Kronstrand R, Green H. Characterization of neurotransmitter inhibition for seven cathinones by a proprietary fluorescent dye method. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:339-347. [PMID: 37489044 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
Many new psychoactive substances (NPS) are stimulants, and information about their potency and abuse potential is often lacking. To start addressing this need, a method measuring the inhibition of the dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine transporters (DAT, SERT, and NET) by stimulant drugs was developed. The use of a proprietary fluorescent dye mixture and three cell lines (CHO-K1, HEK 293, and MDCK), each expressing a single transporter, allowed for a semiautomated, one-pot determination of inhibition in a 384-well format. The method was validated using well characterized stimulants, including cocaine, amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), α-PVP, and fluoxetine and performed similarly to other methods. Seven synthetic cathinones all showed highest potency for DAT inhibition, followed by NET and SERT. The rank potency for DAT inhibition IC50 (nM) was MPHP (4.53) > 4Cl-α-PVP (8.05) > 3F-α-PVP (12.7) > α-PiHP (13.4) > N-ethylpentylone (16.9) > N-ethylhexedrone (44.5) > 4-methylpentedrone (261). All but 4-methylpentedrone were more potent than amphetamine (257) and cocaine (111). The DAT/SERT inhibition ratio for the cathinones was in the range from 5.02 for 4-methylpentedrone to >3730 for α-PiHP, compared to 1.64 for cocaine and >4030 for α-PVP. All seven substances had inhibition profiles similar to those of potent stimulants with high abuse potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattias Persson
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Robert Kronstrand
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Henrik Green
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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Pulver B, Fischmann S, Gallegos A, Christie R. EMCDDA framework and practical guidance for naming cathinones. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38389255 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Cathinones are often sold as "legal" alternatives to controlled stimulants such as amphetamine, MDMA and cocaine. Cathinones are the second largest group of new psychoactive substances (NPS), with close to 170 monitored by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). Although all cathinones are related to the parent compound cathinone, one of the psychoactive principles in khat, assigning consistent, informative and user-friendly common names to these substances is challenging. Over time different naming approaches have been applied, leading to cathinones being known by several names. This work provides a framework and practical examples for the consistent naming of cathinones which is easy to understand and can be applied by the forensic community, researchers, clinical practitioners, and policy makers. The scope of the issue and rationale for earlier naming approaches are also discussed. The new naming framework has been developed based on established naming approaches and centered around the common "cathinone," and "phenone" motifs/scaffolds. The proposed framework establishes clear rules to derive the EMCDDA framework names for cathinones. Each name is, in turn, composed by a principal name containing a parent letter, derived after the "cathinone" or the "phenone" scaffold. Additional substitutions are prepended to the principal name. The framework also provides for exceptions for several cathinones and structural analogs scheduled under UN and EU legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Pulver
- State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Forensic Science Institute, Kiel, Germany
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Svenja Fischmann
- State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Forensic Science Institute, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ana Gallegos
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rachel Christie
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, Portugal
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Tomašević N, Vujović M, Kostić E, Ragavendran V, Arsić B, Matić SL, Božović M, Fioravanti R, Proia E, Ragno R, Mladenović M. Molecular Docking Assessment of Cathinones as 5-HT 2AR Ligands: Developing of Predictive Structure-Based Bioactive Conformations and Three-Dimensional Structure-Activity Relationships Models for Future Recognition of Abuse Drugs. Molecules 2023; 28:6236. [PMID: 37687065 PMCID: PMC10488745 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28176236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Commercially available cathinones are drugs of long-term abuse drugs whose pharmacology is fairly well understood. While their psychedelic effects are associated with 5-HT2AR, the enclosed study summarizes efforts to shed light on the pharmacodynamic profiles, not yet known at the receptor level, using molecular docking and three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3-D QSAR) studies. The bioactive conformations of cathinones were modeled by AutoDock Vina and were used to build structure-based (SB) 3-D QSAR models using the Open3DQSAR engine. Graphical inspection of the results led to the depiction of a 3-D structure analysis-activity relationship (SAR) scheme that could be used as a guideline for molecular determinants by which any untested cathinone molecule can be predicted as a potential 5-HT2AR binder prior to experimental evaluation. The obtained models, which showed a good agreement with the chemical properties of co-crystallized 5-HT2AR ligands, proved to be valuable for future virtual screening campaigns to recognize unused cathinones and similar compounds, such as 5-HT2AR ligands, minimizing both time and financial resources for the characterization of their psychedelic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nevena Tomašević
- Kragujevac Center for Computational Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac, Radoja Domanovića 12, P.O. Box 60, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Maja Vujović
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Niš, Bulevar Dr. Zorana Đinđića 81, 18000 Niš, Serbia; (M.V.); (E.K.)
| | - Emilija Kostić
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Niš, Bulevar Dr. Zorana Đinđića 81, 18000 Niš, Serbia; (M.V.); (E.K.)
| | - Venkatesan Ragavendran
- Department of Physics, Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya, Kanchipuram 631561, Tamil Nadu, India;
| | - Biljana Arsić
- Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, University of Niš, Višegradska 33, 18000 Niš, Serbia;
| | - Sanja Lj. Matić
- Department of Science, Institute for Informational Technologies, University of Kragujevac, Jovana Cvijića bb, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia;
| | - Mijat Božović
- Faculty of Science and Mathematics, University of Montenegro, Džordža Vašingtona bb, 81000 Podgorica, Montenegro;
| | - Rossella Fioravanti
- Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Medicine, Rome Sapienza University, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Eleonora Proia
- Rome Center for Molecular Design, Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Medicine, Rome Sapienza University, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (E.P.); (R.R.)
| | - Rino Ragno
- Rome Center for Molecular Design, Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Medicine, Rome Sapienza University, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (E.P.); (R.R.)
| | - Milan Mladenović
- Kragujevac Center for Computational Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac, Radoja Domanovića 12, P.O. Box 60, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
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Lenzi M, Gasperini S, Corli G, Marti M, Hrelia P. Genotoxicity Evaluation of The Novel Psychoactive Substance MTTA. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10498. [PMID: 37445675 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
MTTA, also known as mephtetramine, is a stimulant novel psychoactive substance characterized by a simil-cathinonic structure. To date, little has been studied on its pharmaco-toxicological profile, and its genotoxic potential has never been assessed. In order to fill this gap, the aim of the present work was to evaluate its genotoxicity on TK6 cells in terms of its ability to induce structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations by means of a cytofluorimetric protocol of the "In Vitro Mammalian Cell Micronucleus (MN) test". To consider the in vitro effects of both the parental compound and the related metabolites, TK6 cells were treated with MTTA in the absence or presence of an exogenous metabolic activation system (S9 mix) for a short-term time (3 h) followed by a recovery period (23 h). No statistically significant increase in the MNi frequency was detected. Specifically, in the presence of S9 mix, only a slight increasing trend was observable at all tested concentrations, whereas, without S9 mix, at 75 µM, almost a doubling of the negative control was reached. For the purposes of comprehensive evaluation, a long-term treatment (26 h) was also included. In this case, a statistically significant enhancement in the MNi frequency was observed at 50 µM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monia Lenzi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Sofia Gasperini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgia Corli
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 00186 Rome, Italy
| | - Patrizia Hrelia
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
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Wronikowska-Denysiuk O, Michalak A, Pankowska A, Kurach Ł, Kozioł P, Łazorczyk A, Kochalska K, Targowska-Duda K, Boguszewska-Czubara A, Budzyńska B. Relationship between GABA-Ergic System and the Expression of Mephedrone-Induced Reward in Rats-Behavioral, Chromatographic and In Vivo Imaging Study. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9958. [PMID: 37373105 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24129958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone is a psychoactive drug that increases dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline levels in the central nervous system via interaction with transporters or monoamines. The aim of the presented study was to assess the role of the GABA-ergic system in the expression of mephedrone-induced reward. For this purpose, we conducted (a) a behavioral evaluation of the impact of baclofen (a GABAB receptors agonist) and GS39783 (a positive allosteric modulator of GABAB receptors) on the expression of mephedrone-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) in rats, (b) an ex vivo chromatographic determination of the GABA level in the hippocampi of rats subchronically treated with mephedrone and (c) an in vivo evaluation of GABA hippocampal concentration in rats subchronically administered with mephedrone using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). The results show that GS39783 (but not baclofen) blocked the expression of CPP induced by (20 mg/kg of) mephedrone. The behavioral effect was consistent with chromatographic analysis, which showed that mephedrone (5 and 20 mg/kg) led to a decrease in GABA hippocampal concentration. Altogether, the presented study provides a new insight into the involvement of the GABA-ergic system in the rewarding effects of mephedrone, implying that those effects are at least partially mediated through GABAB receptors, which suggests their potential role as new targets for the pharmacological management of mephedrone use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Wronikowska-Denysiuk
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Chair of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Michalak
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Chair of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Pankowska
- Department of Radiography, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Street, 20-081 Lublin, Poland
| | - Łukasz Kurach
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Chair of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Paulina Kozioł
- Department of Radiography, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Street, 20-081 Lublin, Poland
| | - Artur Łazorczyk
- Department of Radiography, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Street, 20-081 Lublin, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kochalska
- Department of Radiography, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Street, 20-081 Lublin, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Targowska-Duda
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Boguszewska-Czubara
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Barbara Budzyńska
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Chair of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
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Jones CB, Eltit JM, Dukat M. Do 2-(Benzoyl)piperidines Represent a Novel Class of hDAT Reuptake Inhibitors? ACS Chem Neurosci 2023; 14:741-748. [PMID: 36745029 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
2-(Benzoyl)piperidines (analogues of 1a), structural hybrids of the clinically employed ADHD medication methylphenidate (2) and the abused synthetic cathinone pentedrone (3), have been previously reported to act as novel and selective reuptake inhibitors of the human dopamine transporter (hDAT). One of the more potent benzoylpiperidines, as is the case with methylphenidate analogues, is its 3,4-dichloroaryl counterpart. Here, we demonstrate using homology models that these compounds (i.e., benzoylpiperidines and methylphenidate analogues) likely bind in a comparable manner at hDAT. In addition, it is shown here that the 3,4-dichlorobenzoylpiperidine analogue of 1a is more potent than its 3,4-dimethyl counterpart, suggesting that the electronic character of the substituents might play a role in the potency of these hybrids. Furthermore, the 3,4-benz-fused (i.e., naphthyl) benzoylpiperidine analogue acts in the same manner as its corresponding methylphenidate counterpart at hDAT. As with its methylphenidate counterpart, the naphthyl compound also acts, rather uniquely (although with lower potency) relative to other members of the two series, at the human serotonin transporter (hSERT). In conclusion, the benzoylpiperidines represent a novel structural class of hDAT reuptake inhibitors that function in a manner similar to their methylphenidate counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles B Jones
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 980540, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Jose M Eltit
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 980551, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Małgorzata Dukat
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 980540, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
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Niello M, Sideromenos S, Gradisch R, O´Shea R, Schwazer J, Maier J, Kastner N, Sandtner W, Jäntsch K, Lupica CR, Hoffman AF, Lubec G, Loland CJ, Stockner T, Pollak DD, Baumann MH, Sitte HH. Persistent binding at dopamine transporters determines sustained psychostimulant effects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2114204120. [PMID: 36730201 PMCID: PMC9963675 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2114204120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychostimulants interacting with the dopamine transporter (DAT) can be used illicitly or for the treatment of specific neuropsychiatric disorders. However, they can also produce severe and persistent adverse events. Often, their pharmacological properties in vitro do not fully correlate to their pharmacological profile in vivo. Here, we investigated the pharmacological effects of enantiomers of pyrovalerone, α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone as compared to the traditional psychostimulants cocaine and methylphenidate, using a variety of in vitro, computational, and in vivo approaches. We found that in vitro drug-binding kinetics at DAT correlate with the time-course of in vivo psychostimulant action in mice. In particular, a slow dissociation (i.e., slow koff) of S-enantiomers of pyrovalerone analogs from DAT predicts their more persistent in vivo effects when compared to cocaine and methylphenidate. Overall, our findings highlight the critical importance of drug-binding kinetics at DAT for determining the in vivo profile of effects produced by psychostimulant drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Niello
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Spyridon Sideromenos
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Ralph Gradisch
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Ronan O´Shea
- Electrophysiology Research Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD21224
| | - Jakob Schwazer
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Julian Maier
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Nina Kastner
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Walter Sandtner
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Kathrin Jäntsch
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Carl R. Lupica
- Electrophysiology Research Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD21224
| | - Alexander F. Hoffman
- Electrophysiology Research Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD21224
| | - Gert Lubec
- Department of Neuroproteomics, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020Salzburg, Austria
| | - Claus J. Loland
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2200Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas Stockner
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniela D. Pollak
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD21224
| | - Harald H. Sitte
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
- AddRess, Center for Addiction Research and Science, Medical University of Vienna, 1090Vienna, Austria
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9
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Shetty RA, Hoch AC, Sumien N, Forster MJ, Gatch MB. Comparison of locomotor stimulant and drug discrimination effects of four synthetic cathinones to commonly abused psychostimulants. J Psychopharmacol 2023; 37:520-528. [PMID: 36738095 DOI: 10.1177/02698811221142566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The underground market is constantly flooded with newer synthetic as alternatives to the older cathinones. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has identified four cathinone compounds of particular concern: 3,4-methylenedioxy-alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (3,4-MD-α-PHP), 4-chloro-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (4-Cl-α-PPP), alpha-pyrrolidinoisohexiophenone (α-PiHP) and 4-chloro-pentedrone (4-Cl-pentedrone). AIMS The current study aimed to evaluate the behavioral pharmacology of four synthetic cathinones. METHODS 3,4-MD-α-PHP, 4-Cl-α-PPP, α-PiHP, and 4-CPD were tested for locomotor activity in mice and in a drug discrimination assay with rats trained to discriminate either methamphetamine or cocaine. RESULTS Locomotor stimulant effects of 3,4-MD-α-PHP ((effective dose) ED50 = 1.98 mg/kg), α-PiHP (ED50 = 2.46 mg/kg), and 4-Cl-α-PPP (ED50 = 7.18 mg/kg) were observed within 10 min following injection and lasted from 2 to 3.5 h. The stimulant action of 4-CPD (ED50 = 17.24 mg/kg) was delayed, occurring 40-70 min following injection. The maximal motor stimulant actions of 3,4-MD-α-PHP and α-PiHP 1 were equivalent to that of cocaine and methamphetamine, whereas 4-CPD (50% of cocaine) and 4-Cl-α-PPP (73% of cocaine) were less efficacious. All of the test compounds fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine, 3,4-MD-α-PHP (ED50 = 2.28 mg/kg), α-PiHP (ED50 = 3.84 mg/kg), and 4-Cl-α-PPP (ED50 = 15.56 mg/kg). Only 3,4-MD-α-PHP (ED50 = 1.65 mg/kg), α-PiHP (ED50 = 1.87 mg/kg), and 4-Cl-α-PPP (ED50 = 9.79 mg/kg) fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of methamphetamine. 4-Cl-pentedrone caused 55-70% methamphetamine-appropriate responding at doses that also suppressed responding and produced convulsions. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that 3,4-MD-α-PHP, α-PiHP, and 4-Cl-α-PPP have a potential for abuse similar to that of methamphetamine and cocaine. In contrast, 4-Cl-pentedrone may not be popular for recreational use due to its convulsant effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritu A Shetty
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Adam C Hoch
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Nathalie Sumien
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Michael J Forster
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Michael B Gatch
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
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Ford BM, Spindle TR, Simola N. Editorial: The toxicology of drugs of abuse. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1142265. [PMID: 36798528 PMCID: PMC9927633 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1142265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Ford
- Center for Toxicology and Environmental Health North Little Rock, Little Rock, AR, United States
| | - Tory R Spindle
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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11
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Crulli B, Dines AM, Blanco G, Giraudon I, Eyer F, Liechti ME, Miró Ò, Hovda KE, Heyerdahl F, Yates C, Vallersnes OM, Wood DM, Dargan PI. Novel psychoactive substances-related presentations to the emergency departments of the European drug emergencies network plus (Euro-DEN plus) over the six-year period 2014-2019. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2022; 60:1318-1327. [PMID: 36322684 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2022.2137524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) have been increasingly reported in the last 15-20 years. We aimed to describe presentations to the emergency department (ED) with acute recreational drug toxicity involving NPS. METHODS Data were extracted from the European Drug Emergencies Network (Euro-DEN) Plus database for all presentations to ED (36 EDs in 24 European countries) with acute toxicity between January 2014 and December 2019. Patient demographics, agents involved, and clinical outcomes were described and the subgroup of presentations involving NPS was compared with the rest of the cohort. RESULTS Out of 43,633 Euro-DEN Plus presentations, 3304 (7.6%) involved at least one NPS. Agents were identified mainly based on self-report or clinical presentation, with analytical confirmation being performed only in 17.9% of NPS presentations. The proportion of NPS presentations varied by centre (0-48.8%). For centres where data were available for all 6 years, NPS-related presentations peaked in 2015 (11.9%). In 2014, 78.4% of NPS agents reported were cathinones, while only 3.4% were synthetic cannabinoids (SCs); conversely, in 2019 only 11.6% of NPS agents reported were cathinones, while 72.2% were SCs. NPS-related presentations involved younger patients (median 30 (23-37) vs. 32 (25-40) years, p < 0.001) and more males (84.8 vs. 75.8%, p < 0.001) compared with the rest of the cohort. Patients presenting to ED after using NPS were more likely to self-discharge (22.8 vs. 15.1%), less likely to be admitted to critical care (3.6 vs. 6.1%) but had a longer length of stay in hospital (median 5.1 (2.7-18.7) vs. 4.7 (2.5-9.2) h, p < 0.001). Death occurred in 0.5% of all presentations involving NPS and in 0.4% of non-NPS presentations. CONCLUSIONS This large multicentre series of NPS presentations to European EDs showed marked geographical variation and changes over time in the proportion of presentations to ED involving NPS, as well as the proportion of NPS subgroups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Crulli
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - Alison M Dines
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - Georgina Blanco
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - Isabelle Giraudon
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Florian Eyer
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Òscar Miró
- Emergency Department, Hospital Clínic, IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Knut E Hovda
- Department of Acute Medicine, The National CBRNE Centre of Medicine, Medical Division, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Fridtjof Heyerdahl
- Division of Prehospital Services, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Christopher Yates
- Emergency Department, Hospital Son Espases, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
| | - Odd Martin Vallersnes
- Department of General Practice, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Oslo Accident and Emergency Outpatient Clinic, City of Oslo Health Agency, Oslo, Norway
| | - David M Wood
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK.,Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Paul I Dargan
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK.,Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
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12
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Sutlović D, Kuret S, Definis M. New psychoactive and classic substances in pooled urine samples collected at the Ultra Europe festival in Split, Croatia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 72:198-204. [PMID: 34587666 DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2021-72-3509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We believe that analysing pooled urine samples for recreational drugs used at mass events can provide useful information about trends in drug use. An opportunity arose with the Ultra Europe music festival, which is attended by more than 150,000 people from over 150 countries every year. We analysed 30 pooled urine samples collected from portable chemical toilets located at or close to the Ultra Europe music festival venue in Split, Croatia in 2016–2018 to detect the presence of classic and new psychoactive substances (NPS). Four urine samples collected in 2016 were from a toilet without added chemicals (otherwise used to kill the smell) while the remaining samples were collected from toilets with added chemicals. Samples were qualitatively analysed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) using the full-scan mode. Data were compared with the Wiley mass spectral library of designer drugs and our in-house library containing about 1000 compounds and metabolites. We identified forty-six different substances and metabolites, 26 of which were classic substances/metabolites, mostly from the stimulants group, while 20 were NPS. In the NPS group, most of them were phenethylamines and cathinones. The variety of substances was the highest on the first day of the festival regardless of the year, but 2018 showed a significant drop compared to the previous two years. The results of our study revealed a stable trend of classic drug consumption, while NPS trend changed from one year to another.
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13
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Sisco E, Burns A, Moorthy AS. Development and evaluation of a synthetic cathinone targeted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method. J Forensic Sci 2021; 66:1919-1928. [PMID: 34190349 PMCID: PMC10010760 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
To address challenges associated with the increased prevalence of novel psychoactive substances (NPSs), laboratories often adopt new techniques or new methods with the goal of obtaining more detailed chemical information with a higher level of confidence. To demonstrate how new methods applied to existing techniques can be a viable approach, a targeted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method for synthetic cathinones was developed. To create the method, a range of GC-MS parameters were first investigated using a seven-component test solution with the goal of minimizing compounds with overlapping acceptance windows by maximizing retention time differences within a reasonable runtime. Once developed, the targeted method was evaluated through several studies and was compared to a general GC-MS confirmatory method. The method produced a twofold increase in retention time differences of the test solution compounds with a 3.83-min shorter runtime than the general method. Limitations of the method were also studied by analyzing an additional forty-eight cathinones to identify instances where definitive compound identification may not be possible due to overlapping acceptance windows and mass spectra. Thirty-eight pairs of compounds had retention times differences of less than 2% and, of those thirty-eight, one pair had indistinguishable mass spectra. A set of case samples were also analyzed using the method to evaluate suitability for casework. An increase in split ratio was required to obtain acceptable sensitivity. The development of this method is part of a larger project to measure benefits and drawbacks of different drug chemistry workflows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Sisco
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Amber Burns
- Maryland State Police Forensic Sciences Division, Pikesville, MD, USA
| | - Arun S Moorthy
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
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14
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Caffino L, Mottarlini F, Bilel S, Targa G, Tirri M, Maggi C, Marti M, Fumagalli F. Single Exposure to the Cathinones MDPV and α-PVP Alters Molecular Markers of Neuroplasticity in the Adult Mouse Brain. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7397. [PMID: 34299015 PMCID: PMC8307734 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones have gained popularity among young drug users and are widely used in the clandestine market. While the cathinone-induced behavioral profile has been extensively investigated, information on their neuroplastic effects is still rather fragmentary. Accordingly, we have exposed male mice to a single injection of MDPV and α-PVP and sacrificed the animals at different time points (i.e., 30 min, 2 h, and 24 h) to have a rapid readout of the effect of these psychostimulants on neuroplasticity in the frontal lobe and hippocampus, two reward-related brain regions. We found that a single, low dose of MDPV or α-PVP is sufficient to alter the expression of neuroplastic markers in the adult mouse brain. In particular, we found increased expression of the transcription factor Npas4, increased ratio between the vesicular GABA transporter and the vesicular glutamate transporter together with changes in the expression of the neurotrophin Bdnf, confirming the widespread impact of these cathinones on brain plasticity. To sum up, exposure to low dose of cathinones can impair cortical and hippocampal homeostasis, suggesting that abuse of these cathinones at much higher doses, as it occurs in humans, could have an even more profound impact on neuroplasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Caffino
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
| | - Francesca Mottarlini
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (S.B.); (M.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Giorgia Targa
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
| | - Micaela Tirri
- Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (S.B.); (M.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Coralie Maggi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
| | - Matteo Marti
- Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (S.B.); (M.T.); (M.M.)
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Fabio Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy; (L.C.); (F.M.); (G.T.); (C.M.)
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15
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Grifell M, Mir Fuster G, Ventura Vilamala M, Galindo Guarín L, Carbón Mallol X, Hart CL, Pérez Sola V, Colom Victoriano F. Self-reported Subjective Effects of Analytically Confirmed New Psychoactive Substances Consumed by e-Psychonauts: Protocol for a Longitudinal Study Using a New Internet-Based Methodology. JMIR Res Protoc 2021; 10:e24433. [PMID: 34255715 PMCID: PMC8285746 DOI: 10.2196/24433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background During the last few years, the continuous emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) has become an important public health challenge. The use of NPS has been rising in two different ways: buying and consuming NPS knowingly and the presence of NPS in traditional drugs as adulterants. The rise of NPS use is increasing the number of different substances in the market to an extent impossible to study with current scientific methodologies. This has caused a remarkable absence of necessary information about newer drug effects on people who use drugs, mental health professionals, and policy makers. Current scientific methodologies have failed to provide enough data in the timeframe when critical decisions must be made, being not only too slow but also too square. Last but not least, they dramatically lack the high resolution of phenomenological details. Objective This study aims to characterize a population of e-psychonauts and the subjective effects of the NPS they used during the study period using a new, internet-based, fast, and inexpensive methodology. This will allow bridging an evidence gap between online surveys, which do not provide substance confirmation, and clinical trials, which are too slow and expensive to keep up with the new substances appearing every week. Methods To cover this purpose, we designed a highly personalized, observational longitudinal study methodology. Participants will be recruited from online communities of people who use NPS, and they will be followed online by means of a continuous objective and qualitative evaluation lasting for at least 1 year. In addition, participants will send samples of the substances they intend to use during that period, so they can be analyzed and matched with the effects they report on the questionnaires. Results The research protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Hospital del Mar Research Institute on December 11, 2018. Data collection started in August 2019 and was still ongoing when the protocol was submitted (September 2020). The first data collection period of the study ended in October 2020. Data analysis began in November 2020, and it is still ongoing. The authors expect to submit the first results for publication by the end of 2021. A preliminary analysis was conducted when the manuscript was submitted and was reviewed after it was accepted in February 2021. Conclusions It is possible to conduct an institutional review board–approved study using this new methodology and collect the expected data. However, the meaning and usefulness of these data are still unknown. International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) DERR1-10.2196/24433
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Grifell
- Mental Health Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry and Legal Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States.,Energy Control, Asociació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neuropsychiatry and Addiction, Parc de Salut Mar, Premia De Mar, Spain
| | | | | | - Liliana Galindo Guarín
- Mental Health Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Carl L Hart
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States.,Division on Substance Abuse, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Víctor Pérez Sola
- Mental Health Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry and Legal Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neuropsychiatry and Addiction, Parc de Salut Mar, Premia De Mar, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francesc Colom Victoriano
- Mental Health Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neuropsychiatry and Addiction, Parc de Salut Mar, Premia De Mar, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, Madrid, Spain.,Departament of Basic, Evolutive and Education Psychology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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16
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Gatch MB, Shetty RA, Sumien N, Forster MJ. Behavioral effects of four novel synthetic cathinone analogs in rodents. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e12987. [PMID: 33155384 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A new generation of novel cathinone compounds has been developed as stimulant substitutes to avoid drug control laws and detection of use by blood tests. Dipentylone, N-ethylhexedrone, 4-chloroethcathinone (4-CEC), and 4'-methyl-α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone (MPHP) were tested for in vivo psychostimulant-like effects to assess their abuse liability. Locomotor activity was assessed in an open-field assay using Swiss-Webster mice to screen for locomotor stimulant effects and to identify behaviorally-active dose ranges, times of peak effect, and durations of action. Discriminative stimulus effects were assessed in separate groups of Sprague-Dawley rats trained to discriminate cocaine or methamphetamine from vehicle. Dipentylone, N-ethylhexedrone, 4-CEC, and MPHP dose-dependently increased locomotor activity. Dipentylone, N-ethylhexedrone, and MPHP produced maximal stimulant effects similar to cocaine and methamphetamine. 4-CEC was less efficacious, producing peak stimulant effects of about 74% of that of methamphetamine. The compounds were less potent than methamphetamine and approximately equipotent with cocaine. The doses of cocaine, methamphetamine, dipentylone, and 4-CEC that produced peak effects lasted 2 to 3 h, the peak dose of N-ethylhexedrone lasted 4 h, and the peak dose of MPHP lasted 6 h. All four compounds fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of methamphetamine and cocaine, although full substitution by 4-CEC occurred at doses that substantially decreased response rate. Only 4-CEC fully substituted for MDMA. These data provide evidence that the novel cathinone compounds dipentylone, N-ethylhexedrone, 4-CEC, and MPHP demonstrate potential for abuse as psychostimulants, given their ability to stimulate locomotor activity and their substitution for the discriminative stimulus effects of methamphetamine and cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B. Gatch
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience University of North Texas Health Science Center Fort Worth Texas USA
| | - Ritu A. Shetty
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience University of North Texas Health Science Center Fort Worth Texas USA
| | - Nathalie Sumien
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience University of North Texas Health Science Center Fort Worth Texas USA
| | - Michael J. Forster
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience University of North Texas Health Science Center Fort Worth Texas USA
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17
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Niello M, Cintulová D, Raithmayr P, Holy M, Jäntsch K, Colas C, Ecker GF, Sitte HH, Mihovilovic MD. Effects of Hydroxylated Mephedrone Metabolites on Monoamine Transporter Activity in vitro. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:654061. [PMID: 33897439 PMCID: PMC8063026 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.654061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone is a largely abused psychostimulant. It elicits the release of monoamines via the high affinity transporters for dopamine (DAT), norepinephrine (NET) and serotonin (SERT). Stereoselective metabolic reactions are involved in the inactivation and the elimination of its chemical structure. However, during these processes, several structures are generated and some of them have been reported to be still pharmacologically active. In this study 1) we have newly synthetized several putative mephedrone metabolites, 2) compared their activity at monoamine transporters, 3) generated quantitative structure activity relationships, and 4) exploited the chemical structure of the putative metabolites to screen a urine sample from a drug user and dissect mephedrone metabolism. We have found that most of the tested metabolites are weak inhibitors of monoamine transporters and that all of them are more potent at DAT and NET in comparison to SERT. The only exception is represented by the COOH-metabolite which shows no pharmacological activity at all three monoamine transporters. The enantioselectivity of mephedrone and its metabolites is present mainly at SERT, with only minor effects at DAT and NET being introduced when the β-keto group is reduced to an OH-group. Importantly, while at DAT the putative metabolites did not show changes in inhibitory potencies, but rather changes in their substrate/blocker profile, at SERT they showed mainly changes in inhibitory potencies. Molecular modeling suggests that the hydrophobic nature of a specific SERT subpocket may be involved in such loss of affinity. Finally, the assessment of the putative metabolites in one urine sample of mephedrone user displayed two previously uncharacterized metabolites, 4-COOH-nor-mephedrone (4-COOH-MC) and dihydro-4- nor-mephedrone (dihydro-4-MC). These results confirm and expand previous studies highlighting the importance of the stereochemistry in the pharmacodynamics of phase-1 metabolites of mephedrone, established their structure-activity relationships at DAT, NET and SERT and pave the way for a systematic dissection of mephedrone metabolic routes. Given the number of structures found having residual and modified pharmacological profiles, these findings may help in understanding the complex subjective effects of administered mephedrone. Moreover, the dissection of mephedrone metabolic routes may help in developing new therapies for treating psychostimulants acute intoxications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Niello
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Philip Raithmayr
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marion Holy
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kathrin Jäntsch
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | - Claire Colas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard F Ecker
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald H Sitte
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
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18
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TANG W, CHANG J, WANG Y, WANG A, WANG R. [Research progress on chiral separation of amphetamines, ketamine, cathinones]. Se Pu 2021; 39:271-280. [PMID: 34227308 PMCID: PMC9403806 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1123.2020.05020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Enantiomers are ubiquitous in nature, and they are especially important in the field of pharmaceutical chemistry. Although the enantiomers of chiral drugs have identical chemical structures, they differ notably in their pharmacological, toxicological, pharmacokinetic, metabolic, and other biological activities. The same is true for amphetamines, ketamine, and cathinones, as the chiral separation of these three drugs is representative of drugs. Gas chromatography (GC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and capillary electrophoresis (CE) are widely used for the chiral separation of these three kinds of drugs. There are some similarities among the three methods for the chiral separation of amphetamines, ketamine, and cathinones: n-trifluoroacetyl-L-prolinyl chloride and (+)R-α-methoxy-α-trifluoromethylphenylacetic acid are the two typical chiral derivatization reagents used in GC. In HPLC, three kinds of chiral stationary phases are used: proteins, polysaccharides, and macrocyclic antibiotics. Cyclodextrin and its derivatives are most commonly used in CE. However, these three methods have inherent shortcomings. In the case of GC, impurities produced during chiral derivatization may interfere with the analysis, and high reaction temperatures affect the efficiency of chiral separation. HPLC has limited application scope and is expensive. In CE, there has no established process to determine the appropriate chiral selector. In recent years, research into application of the chiral separation of the above-mentioned three kinds of drugs has its own characteristics in forensic toxicology. The chiral separation of amphetamine drugs is mostly used to infer the prototype and synthesis route of drugs on the market. The chiral separation of ketamine involves a variety of biological samples. For cathinones, chiral separation methods emphasize their wide applicability. In this review, 66 reports published in professional local and overseas magazines during the past decade are collated. The characteristics of the enantiomers of amphetamines, ketamine, and cathinones as well as the mechanism of chiral recognition are briefly introduced. The commonness of the research and the application of chiral separation in forensic toxicology are reviewed. This paper proposes that the chiral separation of drugs can be further investigated from the following three aspects: 1) the use of computer technology to establish a molecular model for exploring the mechanism of chiral recognition; 2) developing new technologies for chiral separation and carrying out commercial research on the supercritical fluid method; 3) applying chiral separation to judicial practice, pharmaceutical research and development, and other practical fields.
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19
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Donnadieu-Rigole H, Peyrière H, Benyamina A, Karila L. Complications Related to Sexualized Drug Use: What Can We Learn From Literature? Front Neurosci 2020; 14:548704. [PMID: 33328844 PMCID: PMC7732585 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.548704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemsex is described as the use of specific psychoactive substances (PS) during sexual activity to sustain, enhance, disinhibit or facilitate the sexual experience. It preferentially concerns men who have sex with men (MSM). They use new synthetic substances like cathinones, methamphetamines, gamma-butyrolactone/gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GBL/GHB), ketamine, and cocaine. The prevalence of chemsex varies from 3 to 31% during lifetime. The Internet has participated significantly in the evolution of sexual behaviors, both in terms of sexual dating and the availability of new synthetic substances. The advent of geolocation applications contributed to the development of chemsex. The literature describes many complications linked to these sexual practices; the main clinical effects related to cathinones consumption were psychiatric symptoms; agitation, hallucinations, anxiety, suicidal ideation, paranoia, and confusion. Regular GBL/GHB consumption alter cognitive functions, particularly memory and emotion management. Use of these drugs in party and play is dramatically associated with high-risk sexual behaviors. The prevalence of hepatitis B, hepatitis C syphilis, and HIV is higher in men who use methamphetamine and Viagra and/or who declared they practiced slamming, chemsex, and fisting. Other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as gonorrhea have increased with methamphetamine and GHB/GBL use. Actually, the care of individuals who practice Chemsex in a problematic way is currently not codified, but the use of integrative and specific interventions is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Donnadieu-Rigole
- Addictions Department, Saint Eloi Hospital, University Hospital of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.,INSERM U 1058, Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections (PCCI), Montpellier, France
| | - Hélène Peyrière
- INSERM U 1058, Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections (PCCI), Montpellier, France.,Addictovigilance Center, Department of Medical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Amine Benyamina
- Centre d'Enseignement, de Recherche et de Traitement des Addictions, Hôpital Universitaire Paul-Brousse (APHP), Villejuif, France.,Paris-Saclay University, Saint-Aubin, France
| | - Laurent Karila
- Centre d'Enseignement, de Recherche et de Traitement des Addictions, Hôpital Universitaire Paul-Brousse (APHP), Villejuif, France.,Paris-Saclay University, Saint-Aubin, France.,Unité de Recherche PSYCOMADD, Villejuif, France
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20
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Nytka M, Borovcová L, Fryčák P, Barták P, Lemr K. Signal enhancement in desorption nanoelectrospray ionization by custom-made inlet with pressure regulation. J Mass Spectrom 2020; 55:e4642. [PMID: 32910468 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The efficiency of desorption/ionization becomes more critical as the sampled surface area decreases. Desorption electrospray and desorption nanoelectrospray belong to ambient ionizations and enable direct surface analysis including mass spectrometric imaging. Lateral resolution in tens of micrometers was demonstrated for desorption nanoelectrospray previously, but sensitivity of the surface scan can be an issue. For desorption electrospray, the drag force in the source is driven by the flow of used gases and vacuum suction. Ion signal intensity can be improved by controlling the nebulizing gas flow rate or auxiliary pumping of a closed compartment in front of the mass spectrometer inlet. Because nanoelectrospray generates charged droplets without the assistance of a nebulizing gas, only vacuum suction drives the gas flow. In this study, the effect of pressure drop between the atmospheric and evacuated region of a mass spectrometer on the ion signal intensity was investigated for desorption nanoelectrospray. A modification of the commercial inlet was designed. An auxiliary pump was directly connected to an inner compartment of the modified mass spectrometer inlet through a needle valve that enabled the regulation of the reduced pressure. Adjustment of the pressure drop significantly increased signal intensity (more than one order of magnitude in some cases). To a lesser extent, the temperature of a heated capillary (an integral part of the inlet) also influenced the signal intensity. The applicability of desorption nanoelectrospray equipped with pressure regulation was demonstrated by the analysis of synthetic cathinones or a pill of paracetamol. Because pressure in the inlet depends on the diameters of orifices and the power of vacuum systems of mass spectrometers, the effect of the pressure regulation can be different for different instruments. Nevertheless, the presented results confirmed the importance of pressure drop-driven transport for desorption nanoelectrospray efficiency and can encourage its new applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianna Nytka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Borovcová
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Fryčák
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Barták
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Lemr
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
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21
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Fattore L, Marti M, Mostallino R, Castelli MP. Sex and Gender Differences in the Effects of Novel Psychoactive Substances. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10090606. [PMID: 32899299 PMCID: PMC7564810 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10090606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex and gender deeply affect the subjective effects and pharmaco-toxicological responses to drugs. Men are more likely than women to use almost all types of illicit drugs and to present to emergency departments for serious or fatal intoxications. However, women are just as likely as men to develop substance use disorders, and may be more susceptible to craving and relapse. Clinical and preclinical studies have shown important differences between males and females after administration of “classic” drugs of abuse (e.g., Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), morphine, cocaine). This scenario has become enormously complicated in the last decade with the overbearing appearance of the new psychoactive substances (NPS) that have emerged as alternatives to regulated drugs. To date, more than 900 NPS have been identified, and can be catalogued in different pharmacological categories including synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic stimulants (cathinones and amphetamine-like), hallucinogenic phenethylamines, synthetic opioids (fentanyls and non-fentanyls), new benzodiazepines and dissociative anesthetics (i.e., methoxetamine and phencyclidine-derivatives). This work collects the little knowledge reached so far on the effects of NPS in male and female animal and human subjects, highlighting how much sex and gender differences in the effects of NPS has yet to be studied and understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liana Fattore
- Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council (CNR), Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
- Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 00187 Rome, Italy
| | - Rafaela Mostallino
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy; (R.M.); (M.P.C.)
| | - Maria Paola Castelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy; (R.M.); (M.P.C.)
- National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
- Center of Excellence “Neurobiology of Addiction”, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
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22
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Matsuta S, Shima N, Kakehashi H, Ishikawa A, Asai R, Nitta A, Wada M, Nakano S, Kamata H, Nishiyama Y, Nagatani H, Imura H, Katagi M. Dehydration-fragmentation mechanism of cathinones and their metabolites in ESI-CID. J Mass Spectrom 2020; 55:e4538. [PMID: 32627947 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Various cathinone-derived designer drugs (CATs) have recently appeared on the drug market. This study examined the mechanism for the generation of dehydrated ions for CATs during electrospray ionization collision-induced dissociation (ESI-CID). The generation mechanism of dehydrated ions is dependent on the amine classification in the cathinone skeleton, which is used in the identification of CATs. The two hydrogen atoms eliminated during the dehydration of cathinone (primary amine) and methcathinone (secondary amine) were determined, and the reaction mechanism was elucidated through the deuterium labeling experiments. The hydrogen atom bonded to the amine nitrogen was eliminated with the proton added during ESI, in both of the tested compounds. This provided evidence that CATs with tertiary amine structures (such as dimethylcathinone and α-pyrrolidinophenones [α-PPs]) do not undergo dehydration. However, it was shown that the two major tertiary amine metabolites (1-OH and 2″-oxo) of CATs generate dehydrated ions in ESI-CID. The dehydration mechanisms of the metabolites of α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (α-PBP) belongs to α-PPs were also investigated. Stable-isotope labeling showed the dehydration of the 1-OH metabolite following a simple mechanism where the hydroxy group was eliminated together with the proton added during ESI. In contrast, the dehydration mechanism of the 2″-oxo metabolite involved hydrogen atoms in three or more locations along with the carbonyl group oxygen, indicating that dehydration occurred via multiple mechanisms likely including the rearrangement reaction of hydrogen atoms. These findings presented herein indicate that the dehydrated ions in ESI-CID can be used for the structural identification of CATs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuntaro Matsuta
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
- Division of Material Chemistry, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Noriaki Shima
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
| | - Hidenao Kakehashi
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
| | - Akari Ishikawa
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
| | - Ryutaro Asai
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
| | - Atsushi Nitta
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
| | - Misato Wada
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
| | - Shihoko Nakano
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
| | - Hiroe Kamata
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
| | - Yoshio Nishiyama
- Division of Material Chemistry, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hirohisa Nagatani
- Division of Material Chemistry, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hisanori Imura
- Division of Material Chemistry, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Munehiro Katagi
- Forensic Science Laboratory, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters, 1-3-18 Hommachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0053, Japan
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23
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Carroll FI, Lewin AH, Mascarella SW, Seltzman HH, Reddy PA. Designer drugs: a medicinal chemistry perspective (II). Ann N Y Acad Sci 2020; 1489:48-77. [PMID: 32396701 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
During 2012-2018, the clandestine manufacture of new psychoactive substances (NPS) designed to circumvent substance control regulations increased exponentially worldwide, with concomitant increase in fatalities. This review focuses on three compound classes identified as synthetic opioids, synthetic amphetamines, and synthetic cannabinoids and highlights the medicinal chemistry precedents utilized by clandestine laboratories to develop new NPS with increased brain penetration, longer duration of action, and greater potency. Chemical approaches to illicit drug abuse treatment options, particularly for opioid use disorder, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Ivy Carroll
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Anita H Lewin
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - S Wayne Mascarella
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Herbert H Seltzman
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - P Anantha Reddy
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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24
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Schreck B, Guerlais M, Laforgue E, Bichon C, Grall-Bronnec M, Victorri-Vigneau C. Cathinone Use Disorder in the Context of Slam Practice: New Pharmacological and Clinical Challenges. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:705. [PMID: 32792999 PMCID: PMC7387686 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND "Slam" has emerged since 2008 as a new international phenomenon among men who have sex with men (MSM); it consists of the intravenous injection of drugs before or during planned sexual activity. The practice of slam is associated with the use of psychostimulants, including synthetic cathinones. METHODS All spontaneous notifications (Nots) of slam practice reported between January 2012 and October 2019 at the Nantes addictovigilance center in France were collected and analyzed. The purpose of this work was to analyze cases of slam to characterize cathinone use disorder according to the diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) and to further our knowledge of slam practice based on data on drug use, risk taking and harmful consequences. RESULTS We collected 39 slam Nots. The severity of cathinone use disorder was mild, moderate and severe for 18%, 12%, and 58% of the patients, respectively. "Much time spent using cathinone" was the diagnostic criterion most often cited (82%). CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to evaluate the presence of a cathinone use disorder. Cathinone use disorder seems particularly important in this population of users, and negative consequences of slam practice appear quickly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Schreck
- Department of Addictology and Psychiatry, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.,French Institute of Health and Medical Research, Universités de Nantes et de Tours, INSERM UMR 1246 SPHERE, Nantes, France.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | | | - Edouard Laforgue
- Department of Addictology and Psychiatry, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.,French Institute of Health and Medical Research, Universités de Nantes et de Tours, INSERM UMR 1246 SPHERE, Nantes, France.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Célia Bichon
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Marie Grall-Bronnec
- Department of Addictology and Psychiatry, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.,French Institute of Health and Medical Research, Universités de Nantes et de Tours, INSERM UMR 1246 SPHERE, Nantes, France.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Caroline Victorri-Vigneau
- French Institute of Health and Medical Research, Universités de Nantes et de Tours, INSERM UMR 1246 SPHERE, Nantes, France.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
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25
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Shellman Francis V, Holness HK, Furton KG. The Ability of Narcotic Detection Canines to Detect Illegal Synthetic Cathinones (Bath Salts). Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:98. [PMID: 31024937 PMCID: PMC6465326 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Twelve certified narcotic detection canines were tested for their ability to detect confiscated illegal synthetic cathinones (bath salts). These canine teams were randomly assigned to two different groups and each group imprinted on one of two types of bath salts, ethylone and alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP), over the period of 1 month; while simultaneously documenting the imprinting procedure. The newly imprinted canines were validated by field testing and found to not only detect the imprinted bath salt to which they were trained, but they were able to detect other bath salts. The imprinting procedure and results are the first scientifically validated studies on the ability of canines to detect these harmful and illegal substances. Analytical headspace analysis using Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) on several ethylone and α-PVP samples revealed compounds common in both. These compounds can be used to create a safe and reliable synthetic cathinone mimic training aid for canine teams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanquilla Shellman Francis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, International Forensic Research Institute, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Howard K Holness
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, International Forensic Research Institute, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kenneth G Furton
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, International Forensic Research Institute, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
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26
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Ikeji C, Sittambalam CD, Camire LM, Weisman DS. Fatal intoxication with N-ethylpentylone: a case report. J Community Hosp Intern Med Perspect 2018; 8:307-310. [PMID: 30356999 PMCID: PMC6197033 DOI: 10.1080/20009666.2018.1510711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones represent the latest genre of new drugs of abuse, which are increasing in popularity in part because they are readily available and because they are not detected by routine drug testing. They provide a cheaper substitute to stimulants such as methamphetamine and cocaine and are sold on the internet and in retail establishments as ‘bath salts,’ ‘plant food,’ or ‘research chemicals.’ We report a case involving a 21-year-old male who suffered arrest-related death due to intoxication with N-ethylpentylone, a new cathinone derivative. He reportedly left his house to smoke marijuana and returned displaying extremely odd behavior. The patient was unresponsive upon presentation to the emergency room and was intubated after suffering cardiac arrest. Clinical laboratory values revealed elevated lactic acidosis, hyperkalemia, rhabdomyolysis, and renal injury. His condition continued to worsen despite medical management. Sudden cardiac arrest occurred again 72 hours into his hospital stay and the patient was pronounced dead. Post-mortem toxicology testing with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry determined the presence of N-ethylpentylone in the urine. This case report details the behavior effects, clinical presentation, and autopsy findings for N-ethylpentylone drug intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chisom Ikeji
- Department of Medicine, MedStar Union Memorial Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Medicine, MedStar Franklin Square Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Medicine, MedStar Good Samaritan Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Lyn M Camire
- Department of Medicine, MedStar Union Memorial Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David S Weisman
- Department of Medicine, MedStar Good Samaritan Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA
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27
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION The second largest group of new drugs monitored by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) is synthetic cathinones. Substances that are controlled by the law are immediately replaced by new uncontrolled derivatives that cause constant and dynamic changes on the drug market. Some of the most recent synthetic cathinones that have appeared on the "legal highs" market are 3,4-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (3,4-MDPHP) and α-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (α-PHP). CASE HISTORY A 21-year-old woman in the 36th week of pregnancy presented with psychomotor agitation. Fetal demise was demonstrated and a caesarean delivery performed. METHODS The analyses were carried out by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The analytes were isolated from the biological material by liquid-liquid extraction with n-butyl chloride. RESULTS 3,4-MDPHP and α-PHP were detected and quantified in both the fetus' and the mothers blood, as well as in the mothers urine samples. The determined concentrations of 3,4-MDPHP and α-PHP were, 76 ng/mL and 12 ng/mL in the fetal blood sample, 16 ng/mL and traces in the mothers blood, and 697 mg/mL and 136 ng/mL in the mothers urine, respectively. DISCUSSION The presented case demonstrates that 3,4-MDPHP and α-PHP transfers from maternal blood to fetal blood. Blood concentrations of these compounds were higher in the fetus than in the mother. Based on the known effects of these substances and the patient's presentation and clinical course, it would seem that these substances contributed to the fetal death. CONCLUSIONS The detected substances transfer from maternal to fetal circulation, and synthetic cathinone blood concentration can be higher in the fetus than in the mother. This along with the fact immature metabolic ability makes a fetus more vulnerable to cathinones intoxication than adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Adamowicz
- a Department of Forensic Toxicology , Institute of Forensic Research , Kraków , Poland
| | - Piotr Hydzik
- b Department of Clinical Toxicology , Jagiellonian University Medical College , Kraków , Poland
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28
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Webb NE, Wood DM, Greene SL, Hunter LJ, Archer JRH, Dines AM, Dargan PI. Change in the new psychoactive substances associated with Emergency Department acute toxicity presentations associated with the introduction of the UK 2016 Psychoactive Substances Act. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2018; 57:36-41. [PMID: 30067112 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2018.1494277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In May 2016, the Psychoactive Substances Act (PSA) came into effect in UK making it an offence to produce or supply new psychoactive substances (NPS). The aim of this study was to determine whether this was associated with a change in Emergency Department (ED) presentations with acute NPS toxicity. METHOD ED presentations to our inner-city hospital in London, UK, with acute NPS toxicity in the 12 months before and after the PSA introduction [June 2015-May 2016 (2015/2016) and June 2016-May 2017 (2016/2017)] were obtained from our database. The following data were extracted: (i) demographics; (ii) NPS(s) self-reported [categorized as synthetic cannabinoids (SC), cathinones, and "other NPS")]; and (iii) month of presentation. RESULTS There were 1884 presentations with recreational drug toxicity, 447 (23.7%) involved NPS. There was no difference in the overall proportion of presentations involving an NPS in 2015/2016 [n = 196 (22.3%)] and 2016/2017 [251 (24.9%); (p = .48)]. There were a mean ± SD of 16.3 ± 3.7 NPS-related presentations per month in 2015/2016 and 20.9 ± 9.2 in 2016/2017; there was no significant change in overall monthly NPS-related presentations between these periods (p = .15). However, mean ± SD monthly SC-related presentations increased from 2015/2016 (5.9 ± 2.5) to 2016/2017 (17 ± 9.8); p = .004. Mean monthly cathinone-related presentations decreased from 2015/2016 (8.8 ± 4.2) to 2016/2017 (3.8 ± 2.7); p = .001. There was no significant change in monthly mean "other NPS" presentations from 2015/2016 (1.8 ± 2.2) to 2016/2017 (0.5 ± 0.8); p = .062. Between 2015/2016 and 2016/2017, SCs as a proportion of NPS-related presentations increased (r = .90) whilst cathinones decreased (r = -0.82). CONCLUSION NPS present front-line health services with unique challenges, and the PSA 2016 represents a major legislative effort in UK to limit their availability and supply. The burden of NPS use on this inner-city ED remains large 12 months after this legislation has come into force, with evolving patterns of NPS use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas E Webb
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology , Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust , London , UK
| | - David M Wood
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology , Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust , London , UK.,b Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine , King's College London , London , UK
| | - Shaun L Greene
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology , Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust , London , UK.,c Department of Clinical Toxicology , Austin Health , Melbourne , Australia
| | - Laura J Hunter
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology , Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust , London , UK
| | - John R H Archer
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology , Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust , London , UK.,b Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine , King's College London , London , UK
| | - Alison M Dines
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology , Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust , London , UK
| | - Paul I Dargan
- a Department of Clinical Toxicology , Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust , London , UK.,b Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine , King's College London , London , UK
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29
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Larabi IA, Martin M, Etting I, Penot P, Fabresse N, Alvarez JC. Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) involving 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC), 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), and doxylamine highlighted by hair analysis. Drug Test Anal 2018; 10:1280-1284. [PMID: 29524346 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Recently, the emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) has led to their wide use among clubbers and men who have sex with men (MSM) for their stimulant effects. However, their use in drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) has rarely been described. Herein we report a case of a 44-year-old man who was assaulted after a party. Due to late reporting of the offense, only hair (black) was sampled 15 days later and a segmental analysis was achieved to look for most DFSA agents and NPS. Twenty mg of each segment (A: 0-1 cm, B: 1-3 cm, and C: 3-5 cm) were incubated in phosphate buffer pH 5.0. After alkaline liquid extraction and chromatographic separation on 1.9 μm Hypersil GOLD PFP column, compounds were detected by a TSQ Vantage mass spectrometer with electrospray ionization in positive mode with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) acquisition. 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC), methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and doxylamine were found in proximal segment at very low concentrations (3, 5, and 9 pg/mg, respectively) which is in agreement with a single exposure in the previous month corresponding to the alleged facts. These substances were not detected in segments B and C showing a lack of repetitive exposure before the alleged event. Thus, the results do not contradict the patient's claim of being assaulted. Doxylamine has already been encountered in such cases but no publications referring to 4-MEC or MDPV use have ever been documented. Our case reports the unusual administration of cathinones to achieve a sexual assault and stresses the interest of looking for designer drugs when dealing with DFSA cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Islam Amine Larabi
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, AP-HP, Raymond Poincaré University Hospital, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Garches, France
| | - Marie Martin
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, AP-HP, Raymond Poincaré University Hospital, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Garches, France
| | - Isabelle Etting
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, AP-HP, Raymond Poincaré University Hospital, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Garches, France
| | - Pauline Penot
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Department, Saint Louis Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Fabresse
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, AP-HP, Raymond Poincaré University Hospital, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Garches, France
| | - Jean Claude Alvarez
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, AP-HP, Raymond Poincaré University Hospital, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Garches, France
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30
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White CM. Mephedrone and 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV): Synthetic Cathinones With Serious Health Implications. J Clin Pharmacol 2017; 56:1319-1325. [PMID: 27029951 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This article presents information on the predominant synthetic cathinones used in the Western world, mephedrone and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Synthetic cathinones are commonly used drugs of abuse in the United States and Europe, with numerous cases of patient harm and death. Patients exhibit many neurological, cardiovascular, and muscular adverse events and frequently require therapy to control psychotic or agitated states and acute kidney injury resulting from myopathy or rhabdomyolysis. There are potential genetic polymorphisms and drug interactions that might accentuate risk, but there are no studies evaluating to what extent this occurs or if it is clinically relevant. Clinicians should be aware of the known pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and reports of effects to detect potential issues and treat patients presenting with these adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Michael White
- University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy & Hartford Hospital Department of Pharmacy, Storrs, CT, USA.
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Assi S, Gulyamova N, Ibrahim K, Kneller P, Osselton D. Profile, effects, and toxicity of novel psychoactive substances: A systematic review of quantitative studies. Hum Psychopharmacol 2017. [PMID: 28631432 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the profile, effects, and toxicity of novel psychoactive substances (NPS). METHODS A systematic literature review was conducted between May 2015 and February 2016 and included 19 databases. Search terms included "novel psychoactive substance(s)," "effect(s)," and "toxicity" and their synonyms. Studies included were those from any country, in any language, and between January 2007 and April 2015. Studies published before 2007 and those regarding the synthesis of NPS were excluded. Data were extracted by evaluating the titles, abstract, and full text, respectively. Consequently, the extraction yielded 20 studies. RESULTS Forty-three NPS derivatives of 8 main pharmacological classes were identified. NPS were mostly used among young adults and adults within the age range of 16-64 years old. Cathinones and synthetic cannabinoids were the most prevalent among the aforementioned classes. The main desired effects of NPS use were empathy and increased ability to socialise. Reported toxicity associated with the use of NPS included cardiovascular, neurological, and psychoactive adverse reactions. CONCLUSIONS Despite the unique subjective effects associated with the use of NPS, harmful effects could be severe and/or lethal. Therefore, there is a need to develop research in the area of NPS and promote awareness among healthcare professionals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sulaf Assi
- Department of Archaeology, Anthropology and Forensic Science, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - Nargilya Gulyamova
- Department of Archaeology, Anthropology and Forensic Science, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - Kinda Ibrahim
- NIHR CLAHRC Wessex, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Paul Kneller
- Department of Archaeology, Anthropology and Forensic Science, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - David Osselton
- Department of Archaeology, Anthropology and Forensic Science, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
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Guirguis A, Corkery JM, Stair JL, Kirton SB, Zloh M, Schifano F. Intended and unintended use of cathinone mixtures. Hum Psychopharmacol 2017; 32. [PMID: 28657191 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cathinones are one of the most popular categories of new psychoactive substances (NPS) consumed. Cathinones have different pharmacological activities and receptor selectivity for monoamine transporters based on their chemical structures. They are incorporated into NPS mixtures and used with other NPS or 'traditional' drugs. Cathinone use represents significant health risks to individuals and is a public health burden. METHODS Evidence of poly-NPS use with cathinones, seizure information, and literature analyses results on NPS mixtures was systematically gathered from online database sources, including Google Scholar, Scopus, Bluelight, and Drugs-Forum. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results highlight the prevalence of NPS with low purity, incorporation of cathinones into NPS mixtures since 2008, and multiple members of the cathinone family being present in individual UK-seized samples. Cathinones were identified as adulterants in NPS marketed as being pure NPS, drugs of abuse, branded products, herbal blends, and products labelled "not for human consumption." Toxicity resulting from cathinone mixtures is unpredictable because key attributes remain largely unknown. Symptoms of intoxication include neuro-psychological, psychiatric, and metabolic symptoms. Proposed treatment includes holistic approaches involving psychosocial, psychiatric and pharmacological interventions. CONCLUSION Raising awareness of NPS, education, and training of health care professionals are paramount in reducing harms related to cathinone use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amira Guirguis
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - John Martin Corkery
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Jacqueline Leslie Stair
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Stewart Brian Kirton
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Mire Zloh
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
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Grifell M, Ventura M, Carbón X, Quintana P, Galindo L, Palma Á, Fornis I, Gil C, Farre M, Torrens M. Patterns of use and toxicity of new para-halogenated substituted cathinones: 4-CMC (clephedrone), 4-CEC (4-chloroethcatinone) and 4-BMC (brephedrone). Hum Psychopharmacol 2017; 32. [PMID: 28657185 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This paper aims to present results of the analysis of clephedrone (4-CMC), 4-chloroethcathinone (4-CEC), and brephedrone (4-BMC) on recreational drug markets and a systematic review of all the available information concerning these substances. MATERIAL AND METHODS Samples collected by the drug checking service of the Spanish harm reduction NGO-Energy Control were analyzed and systematic research was conducted. Between June 2014 and October 2016, 1,471 samples with at least one NPS were analyzed, 397 of which contained cathinones. RESULTS Clephedrone was found in 29 samples, brephedrone in 8, and both were present in 2 samples. 4-Chloroethcathinone was detected in 5 samples. Eleven out of the 47 purchased samples (23.4%) were tested to contain the substance the user expected. Samples received were mainly sold as 3-MMC, MDMA, ketamine, and other cathinones. No literature on the effects or toxicity of these substances was found; the only information available was on internet fora. On many posts, users exhibit concerns about potential toxicity and side effects of using these substances. CONCLUSION Since the emergence of these substances could prove to be the next step to the cat-and-mouse game existing between drug producers and legislation, further clinical and epidemiological research should be carried out in order to build evidence to support policy for public health issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Grifell
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain.,Unitat de Recerca en Neurociencia Cognitiva, Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallés, Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xoán Carbón
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Quintana
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Liliana Galindo
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Álvaro Palma
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ivan Fornis
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Gil
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magi Farre
- Pharmacology, Consorci Mar Parc de salut de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Farmacologia Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona Ringgold Standard Institution, Bellaterra, Catalunya, Spain.,Servei de Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol Ringgold Standard Institution, Badalona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica, s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is to explore the users' perspectives regarding the effects and toxicity of cathinones. METHODS A systematic search of Internet discussion forums yielded 303 threads relevant to the research objectives. The threads were analysed by conventional content analysis where concepts were developed from codes and themes. RESULTS The study identified 3 main themes in relation to cathinone use, effects, and toxicity. The first theme considered the modalities of intake of cathinones in relation to the derivative taken (mainly mephedrone, 3-methylmethcathinone, and methylenedioxypyrovalerone), route of administration (eyeballing, insufflation, smoking, intravenous, oral, rectal, and sublingual), multidrug use, and purity of the cathinone derivative. The second theme characterised the main effects of cathinones, that is, increased energy, euphoria, and empathogenic. Toxic effects were reported regarding the nervous system (anxiety, hallucinations, nervousness, and paranoia), cardiovascular system (angina, myocardial infarction, and tachycardia), skin (discolouration, itching, and allergy), and renal system (difficulty in urination). Drug-drug interactions were also reported including multiple drug use between cathinones, stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens. CONCLUSIONS The Internet discussion forums provide useful sources of information regarding the effects and toxicity of cathinones, which can be taken into account when assessing the safety of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sulaf Assi
- Department of Archaeology, Anthropology and Forensic Science, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - Nargilya Gulyamova
- Department of Archaeology, Anthropology and Forensic Science, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - Paul Kneller
- Department of Archaeology, Anthropology and Forensic Science, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - David Osselton
- Department of Archaeology, Anthropology and Forensic Science, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
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Weinstein AM, Rosca P, Fattore L, London ED. Synthetic Cathinone and Cannabinoid Designer Drugs Pose a Major Risk for Public Health. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:156. [PMID: 28878698 PMCID: PMC5572353 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of an increasing worldwide use of designer drugs, recent use of compounds containing cathinones and synthetic cannabinoids is especially prevalent. Here, we reviewed current literature on the prevalence, epidemiology, bio-behavioral effects, and detection of these compounds. Gender differences and clinical effects will also be examined. Chronic use of synthetic cathinone compounds can have major effects on the central nervous system and can induce acute psychosis, hypomania, paranoid ideation, and delusions, similar to the effects of other better-known amphetamine-type stimulants. Synthetic cannabinoid products have effects that are somewhat similar to those of natural cannabis but more potent and long-lasting than THC. Some of these compounds are potent and dangerous, having been linked to psychosis, mania, and suicidal ideation. Novel compounds are developed rapidly and new screening techniques are needed to detect them as well as a rigorous regulation and legislation reinforcement to prevent their distribution and use. Given the rapid increase in the use of synthetic cathinones and cannabinoid designer drugs, their potential for dependence and abuse, and harmful medical and psychiatric effects, there is a need for research and education in the areas of prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aviv M Weinstein
- Department of Behavioral Science, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Paola Rosca
- Department for the Treatment of Substance Abuse, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Liana Fattore
- Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council of Italy, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Edythe D London
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Brain Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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36
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Štefková K, Židková M, Horsley RR, Pinterová N, Šíchová K, Uttl L, Balíková M, Danda H, Kuchař M, Páleníček T. Pharmacokinetic, Ambulatory, and Hyperthermic Effects of 3,4-Methylenedioxy- N-Methylcathinone (Methylone) in Rats. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:232. [PMID: 29204126 PMCID: PMC5698284 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Methylone (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone) is a synthetic cathinone analog of the recreational drug ecstasy. Although it is marketed to recreational users as relatively safe, fatalities due to hyperthermia, serotonin syndrome, and multi-organ system failure have been reported. Since psychopharmacological data remain scarce, we have focused our research on pharmacokinetics, and on a detailed evaluation of temporal effects of methylone and its metabolite nor-methylone on behavior and body temperature in rats. Methylone [5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg subcutaneously (s.c.)] and nor-methylone (10 mg/kg s.c.) were used in adolescent male Wistar rats across three behavioral/physiological procedures and in two temporal windows from administration (15 and 60 min) in order to test: locomotor effects in the open field, sensorimotor gating in the test of prepulse inhibition (PPI), and effects on rectal temperature in individually and group-housed rats. Serum and brain pharmacokinetics after 10 mg/kg s.c. over 8 h were analyzed using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Serum and brain levels of methylone and nor-methylone peaked at 30 min after administration, both drugs readily penetrated the brain with serum: brain ratio 1:7.97. Methylone dose-dependently increased overall locomotion. It also decrease the amount of time spent in the center of open field arena in dose 20 mg/kg and additionally this dose induced stereotyped circling around the arena walls. The maximum of effects corresponded to the peak of its brain concentrations. Nor-methylone had approximately the same behavioral potency. Methylone also has weak potency to disturb PPI. Behavioral testing was not performed with 40 mg/kg, because it was surprisingly lethal to some animals. Methylone 10 and 20 mg/kg s.c. induced hyperthermic reaction which was more pronounced in group-housed condition relative to individually housed rats. To conclude, methylone increased exploration and/or decreased anxiety in the open field arena and with nor-methylone had short duration of action with effects typical for mixed indirect dopamine-serotonin agonists such as 3,4-metyhlenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or amphetamine. Given the fact that the toxicity was even higher than the known for MDMA and that it can cause hyperthermia it possess a threat to users with the risk for serotonin syndrome especially when used in crowded conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristýna Štefková
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Monika Židková
- First Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Rachel R Horsley
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Nikola Pinterová
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Klára Šíchová
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Libor Uttl
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Marie Balíková
- First Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Hynek Danda
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Compounds, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Tomáš Páleníček
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
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Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent years, commercial bath salts products containing synthetic cathinone analogues have emerged as illicit drugs of abuse. These cathinones are structurally similar to the psychostimulants 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and methamphetamine (METH), and produce their effects via interactions with monoamine transporters, where smaller compounds (e.g., mephedrone) are amphetamine-like monoamine releasers, while the structurally larger compounds (e.g., naphyrone) are cocaine-like monoamine reuptake inhibitors. Individual cathinones also differ from one another with respect to selectivity among the three monoamine transporters. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF STUDY This study was designed to assess the cocaine-like interoceptive effects of synthetic cathinone analogues functioning as passive monoamine reuptake inhibitors (naphyrone) or as releasers (mephedrone) in mice in order to compare effectiveness (degree of substitution) and potency with positive control psychostimulants cocaine, METH, and MDMA. PROCEDURES In the present study, mice were trained to discriminate 10 mg/kg cocaine from saline, and substitutions with METH, MDMA, mephedrone, naphyrone, and morphine were performed. MAIN FINDINGS Mice reliably discriminated the cocaine training dose from saline, and METH, MDMA, mephedrone, and naphyrone all elicited full cocaine-like responding, while morphine did not. Potency differences were observed such that METH was most potent, while mephedrone, cocaine, MDMA, and naphyrone exhibited roughly equivalent potency. PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS These data confirm that interaction with DAT is an important component of cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects, and suggest that synthetic cathinones likely elicit psychostimulant-like abuse-related effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda M Gannon
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - William E Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
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Hoffman AF, Spivak CE, Lupica CR. Enhanced Dopamine Release by Dopamine Transport Inhibitors Described by a Restricted Diffusion Model and Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry. ACS Chem Neurosci 2016; 7:700-9. [PMID: 27018734 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.5b00277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) using carbon fiber electrodes is widely used to rapidly monitor changes in dopamine (DA) levels in vitro and in vivo. Current analytical approaches utilize parameters such as peak oxidation current amplitude and decay times to estimate release and uptake processes, respectively. However, peak amplitude changes are often observed with uptake inhibitors, thereby confounding the interpretation of these parameters. To overcome this limitation, we demonstrate that a simple five-parameter, two-compartment model mathematically describes DA signals as a balance of release (r/ke) and uptake (ku), summed with adsorption (kads and kdes) of DA to the carbon electrode surface. Using nonlinear regression, we demonstrate that our model precisely describes measured DA signals obtained in brain slice recordings. The parameters extracted from these curves were then validated using pharmacological manipulations that selectively alter vesicular release or DA transporter (DAT)-mediated uptake. Manipulation of DA release through altering the Ca(2+)/Mg(2+) ratio or adding tetrodotoxin reduced the release parameter with no effect on the uptake parameter. DAT inhibitors methylenedioxypyrovalerone, cocaine, and nomifensine significantly reduced uptake and increased vesicular DA release. In contrast, a low concentration of amphetamine reduced uptake but had no effect on DA release. Finally, the kappa opioid receptor agonist U50,488 significantly reduced vesicular DA release but had no effect on uptake. Together, these data demonstrate a novel analytical approach to distinguish the effects of manipulations on DA release or uptake that can be used to interpret FSCV data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander F. Hoffman
- Electrophysiology Research
Section, Cellular Neurobiology Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Charles E. Spivak
- Electrophysiology Research
Section, Cellular Neurobiology Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Carl R. Lupica
- Electrophysiology Research
Section, Cellular Neurobiology Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
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Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are designer drugs of the phenethylamine class, structurally and pharmacologically similar to amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cathinone and other related substances. New analogues, legal at least, until formally banned (a time consuming process), are introduced almost daily The United Nations estimates nearly 250 new drug analogues are produced per year. Various combinations of these drugs are sold under the name of “bath salts”. They can be ingested by any route and some appear capable of causing great harm, mostly behavioral. One drug in particular, MDVP, appears to frequently cause symptoms indistinguishable from the classic findings in Excited Delirium Syndrome (ExDS). Little is known about the pathology or clinical toxicology of these drugs but their molecular mechanism of action seems to be identical with that of cocaine. This mini-review examines what little is known on the subject and explains the suspected
mechanisms of excited delirium syndrome.
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40
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Power JD, Kavanagh P, McLaughlin G, O'Brien J, Talbot B, Barry M, Twamley B, Dowling G, Brandt SD. Identification and characterization of an imidazolium by-product formed during the synthesis of 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone). Drug Test Anal 2015; 7:894-902. [PMID: 25847393 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
4-Methylmethcathinone (2-methylamino-1-(4-methylphenyl)propan-1-one, mephedrone) is a psychoactive substance that has been associated with recreational use worldwide. Analytical data related to mephedrone are abundantly available but the characterization of by-products obtained during organic synthesis remains to be explored. This study presents the identification of a 1,2,3,5-tetramethyl-4-(4-methylphenyl)-1H-imidazol-3-ium salt (TMMPI), which was formed during the synthesis of mephedrone. When diethyl ether was added to the crude reaction product, solid material precipitated from the solution. Analytical characterization of TMMPI employed a range of analytical techniques including chromatographic analysis in combination with various mass spectrometric detection methods, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and crystal structure analysis. Additional confirmation was obtained from organic synthesis of the imidazolium by-product. When TMMPI was subjected to analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), isomerization and degradation into two distinct compounds were observed, which pointed towards thermal instability under GC conditions. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) based investigation into a micro-scale synthesis of mephedrone and three additional analogues revealed that the corresponding TMMPI analogue was formed. Interestingly, storage of mephedrone freebase in a number of organic solvents also gave rise to TMMPI and it appeared that its formation during storage was significantly reduced in the absence of air. The present study aimed to support clandestine forensic investigations by employing analytical strategies that are applicable to manufacturing sites. The imidazolium salts will most likely be found amongst the waste products of any clandestine lab site under investigation rather than with the desired product.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Power
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland.,Forensic Science Ireland, Garda HQ, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Pierce Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Gavin McLaughlin
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - John O'Brien
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Brian Talbot
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Michael Barry
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | | | - Geraldine Dowling
- State Laboratory, Backweston Campus, Stacummy Lane, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
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Gatch MB, Rutledge MA, Forster MJ. Discriminative and locomotor effects of five synthetic cathinones in rats and mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:1197-205. [PMID: 25281225 PMCID: PMC4361374 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3755-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Synthetic cathinones continue to be sold as "legal" alternatives to methamphetamine or cocaine. As these marginally legal compounds become controlled, suppliers move to other, unregulated compounds. OBJECTIVES The purpose of these experiments was to determine whether several temporarily controlled cathinone compounds, which are currently abused on the street, stimulate motor activity and have discriminative stimulus effects similar to cocaine and/or methamphetamine. METHODS Methcathinone, pentedrone, pentylone, 3-fluoromethcathinone (3-FMC), and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) were tested for locomotor stimulant effects in mice and subsequently for substitution in rats trained to discriminate cocaine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) or methamphetamine (1 mg/kg, i.p.) from saline. RESULTS Methcathinone, pentedrone, and pentylone produced locomotor stimulant effects which lasted up to 6 h. In addition, pentylone produced convulsions and lethality at 100 mg/kg. 4-MEC produced locomotor stimulant effects which lasted up to 2 h. Methcathinone, pentedrone, pentylone, 3-FMC, and 4-MEC each produced discriminative stimulus effects similar to those of cocaine and methamphetamine. CONCLUSIONS All of the tested compounds produce discriminative stimulus effects similar to either those of cocaine, methamphetamine, or both, which suggests that these compounds are likely to have similar abuse liability to cocaine and/or methamphetamine. Pentylone may be more dangerous on the street, as it produced adverse effects at doses that produced maximal stimulant-like effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Gatch
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA,
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42
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Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances include synthetic cannabinoids, cathinone derivatives, psychedelic phenethylamines, novel stimulants, synthetic opioids, tryptamine derivatives, phencyclidine-like dissociatives, piperazines, GABA-A/B receptor agonists, a range of prescribed medications, psychoactive plants/herbs, and a large series of performance and image enhancing drugs. Users are typically attracted by these substances due to their intense psychoactive effects and likely lack of detection in routine drug screenings. This paper aims at providing psychiatrists with updated knowledge of the clinical pharmacology and psychopathological consequences of the use of these substances. Indeed, these drugs act on a range of neurotransmitter pathways/receptors whose imbalance has been associated with psychopathological conditions, including dopamine, cannabinoid CB1, GABA-A/B, 5-HT2A, glutamate, and k opioid receptors. An overall approach in terms of clinical management is briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Schifano
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, UK
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43
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Green AR, King MV, Shortall SE, Fone KCF. The preclinical pharmacology of mephedrone; not just MDMA by another name. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:2251-68. [PMID: 24654568 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2013] [Revised: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The substituted β-keto amphetamine mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) was banned in the UK in April 2010 but continues to be used recreationally in the UK and elsewhere. Users have compared its psychoactive effects to those of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy'). This review critically examines the preclinical data on mephedrone that have appeared over the last 2-3 years and, where relevant, compares the pharmacological effects of mephedrone in experimental animals with those obtained following MDMA administration. Both mephedrone and MDMA enhance locomotor activity and change rectal temperature in rodents. However, both of these responses are of short duration following mephedrone compared with MDMA probably because mephedrone has a short plasma half-life and rapid metabolism. Mephedrone appears to have no pharmacologically active metabolites, unlike MDMA. There is also little evidence that mephedrone induces a neurotoxic decrease in monoamine concentration in rat or mouse brain, again in contrast to MDMA. Mephedrone and MDMA both induce release of dopamine and 5-HT in the brain as shown by in vivo and in vitro studies. The effect on 5-HT release in vivo is more marked with mephedrone even though both drugs have similar affinity for the dopamine and 5-HT transporters in vitro. The profile of action of mephedrone on monoamine receptors and transporters suggests it could have a high abuse liability and several studies have found that mephedrone supports self-administration at a higher rate than MDMA. Overall, current data suggest that mephedrone not only differs from MDMA in its pharmacological profile, behavioural and neurotoxic effects, but also differs from other cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Green
- School of Life Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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den Hollander B, Sundström M, Pelander A, Ojanperä I, Mervaala E, Korpi ER, Kankuri E. Keto amphetamine toxicity-focus on the redox reactivity of the cathinone designer drug mephedrone. Toxicol Sci 2014; 141:120-31. [PMID: 24913801 PMCID: PMC4833100 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfu108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The β-keto amphetamine (cathinone, β-KA) designer drugs such as mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone, 4-MMC) show a large degree of structural similarity to amphetamines like methamphetamine (METH). However, little is currently known about whether these substances also share the potential neurotoxic properties of their non-keto amphetamine counterparts, or what mechanisms could be involved. Here, we evaluate the cytotoxicity of β-KAs in SH-SY5Y cells using lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays, assess the redox potential of a range of β-KAs and non-keto amphetamines using the sensitive redox indicator 2-(4-Iodophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium (WST-1), and explore the effect of 4-MMC on the formation of protein adducts using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HR-TOFMS) and on the mitochondrial respiratory chain using high-resolution respirometry. We show that treatment with β-KAs increases LDH release. Further, we demonstrate that even under physiological pH, β-KAs are effective and selective-as compared with their non-keto analogues-reductants in the presence of electron acceptors. Increased pH (range 7.6-8.0) greatly enhanced the reactivity up to sixfold. We found no evidence of protein adduct formation, suggesting the reactivity is due to direct electron transfer by the β-KAs. Finally, we show that 4-MMC and METH produce dissimilar effects on the respiratory chain. Our results indicate that β-KAs such as 4-MMC possess cytotoxic properties in vitro. Furthermore, in the presence of an electron-accepting redox partner, the ketone moiety of β-KAs is vital for pH-dependent redox reactivity. Further work is needed to establish the importance of β-KA redox properties and its potential toxicological importance in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjørnar den Hollander
- Institute of Biomedicine, Pharmacology, Biomedicum Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mira Sundström
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Forensic Medicine, Kytösuontie 11, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anna Pelander
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Forensic Medicine, Kytösuontie 11, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ilkka Ojanperä
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Forensic Medicine, Kytösuontie 11, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eero Mervaala
- Institute of Biomedicine, Pharmacology, Biomedicum Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Esa Risto Korpi
- Institute of Biomedicine, Pharmacology, Biomedicum Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Esko Kankuri
- Institute of Biomedicine, Pharmacology, Biomedicum Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
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Abstract
Synthetic, or "designer" drugs, are created by manipulating the chemical structures of other psychoactive drugs so that the resulting product is structurally similar but not identical to illegal psychoactive drugs. Originally developed in the 1960s as a way to evade existing drug laws, the use of designer drugs has increased dramatically over the past few years. These drugs are deceptively packaged as "research chemicals," "incense," "bath salts," or "plant food," among other names, with labels that may contain warnings such as "not for human consumption" or "not for sale to minors." The clinical effects of most new designer drugs can be described as either hallucinogenic, stimulant, or opioid-like. They may also have a combination of these effects due to designer side-chain substitutions. The easy accessibility and rapid emergence of new designer drugs have created challenges for health care providers when treating patients presenting with acute toxicity from these substances, many of which can produce significant and/or life-threatening adverse effects. Moreover, the health care provider has no way to verify the contents and/or potency of the agent ingested because it can vary between packages and distributors. Therefore, a thorough knowledge of the available designer drugs, common signs and symptoms of toxicity associated with these agents, and potential effective treatment modalities are essential to appropriately manage these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E Musselman
- Emergency Medicine/Critical Care, North Kansas City Hospital, Kansas City, Missouri
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Abstract
Addictions to licit and illicit drugs are chronic relapsing brain disorders that affect circuits that regulate reward, motivation, memory, and decision-making. Drug-induced pathological changes in these brain regions are associated with characteristic enduring behaviors that continue despite adverse biopsychosocial consequences. Repeated exposure to these substances leads to egocentric behaviors that focus on obtaining the drug by any means and on taking the drug under adverse psychosocial and medical conditions. Addiction also includes craving for the substances and, in some cases, involvement in risky behaviors that can cause death. These patterns of behaviors are associated with specific cognitive disturbances and neuroimaging evidence for brain dysfunctions in a diverse population of drug addicts. Postmortem studies have also revealed significant biochemical and/or structural abnormalities in some addicted individuals. The present review provides a summary of the evidence that has accumulated over the past few years to implicate brain dysfunctions in the varied manifestations of drug addiction. We thus review data on cerebrovascular alterations, brain structural abnormalities, and postmortem studies of patients who abuse cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines, heroin, and "bath salts". We also discuss potential molecular, biochemical, and cellular bases for the varied clinical presentations of these patients. Elucidation of the biological bases of addiction will help to develop better therapeutic approaches to these patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Lud Cadet
- NIDA Intramural Research Program, Molecular Neuropsychiatry Research Branch, NIDA/NIH/DHHS, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA,
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Caudevilla-Gálligo F, Ventura M, Indave Ruiz BI, Fornís I. Presence and composition of cathinone derivatives in drug samples taken from a drug test service in Spain (2010-2012). Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:341-4. [PMID: 23881882 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2012] [Revised: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to describe the presence and composition of cathinone derivatives (CDs) in drug samples analyzed at a Drug Testing Service. MATERIAL AND METHODS Data provided by the Drug Testing Service at Energy Control (a Spanish organization working in risk reduction among recreational drug users) were obtained from samples delivered as, or containing CDs, between January 2010 and June 2012. Specimens were identified by combining thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography associated with mass spectrometry. RESULTS Two hundred and thirty-seven (3.8%) of the 6199 samples were delivered as, or contained CDs. 22 different CDs were detected, alone or in different combinations. Methylone (24.9%), mephedrone (24.5%), 4-methylethcathinone (9.28%), and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (6.8%) were the most common CDs. These substances were also found in 80 (1.3%) of 6042 samples delivered allegedly containing drugs different from CDs (such as 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA), amphetamines, ketamine…). CONCLUSIONS Cathinone derivatives were markedly present in the Spanish drug market during the studied period. There is no evidence to conclude that use of CDs will become widespread or relevant for public health, but the phenomenon must be followed, as the potential risks of these new drugs of abuse are substantial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Caudevilla-Gálligo
- Grupo de Intervención en Drogas de la Sociedad Española de Medicina Familiar y Comunitaria-SEMFYC, Madrid, Spain.
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48
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Abstract
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES Over the past decade, non-medical use of novel drugs has proliferated worldwide. In most cases these are synthetic drugs first synthesized in academic or pharmaceutical laboratories for research or drug development purposes, but also include naturally occurring substances that do not fit the typical pharmacological or behavioral profile of traditional illicit substances. Perhaps most unique to this generation of new drugs is that they are being sold over the counter and on the Internet as "legal highs" or substitutes for traditional illicit drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines, MDMA, and LSD. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of novel drugs in current use, including the epidemiology of use and toxicologic and pharmacological properties, and to offer some guidelines to clinicians who see patients experiencing adverse effects from these drugs. METHOD We review the known scientific literature on recently introduced synthetic drug types, synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones, and the hallucinogen Salvia divinorum. RESULTS These substances comprise part of a rapidly evolving and controversial drug market that has challenged definitions of what is legal and illegal, has benefitted from open commercial sales without regulatory oversight, and is noteworthy for the pace at which new substances are introduced. CONCLUSIONS This emerging trend in substance use presents significant and unique public health and criminal justice challenges. At this time, these substances are not detected in routine drug screens and substance-specific treatment for cases of use-related toxicity are not available. Clinicians are encouraged to learn characteristic signs associated with misuse of novel drugs to recognize cases in their practice, and are recommended to use a symptom-specific approach for treatment in each case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Vandrey
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Matthew W Johnson
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Patrick S Johnson
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Miral A Khalil
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Huang PK, Aarde SM, Angrish D, Houseknecht KL, Dickerson TJ, Taffe MA. Contrasting effects of d-methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone, and 4-methylmethcathinone on wheel activity in rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 126:168-75. [PMID: 22664136 PMCID: PMC3439532 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reports from U.S., U.K. and European drug policy entities, and ongoing media accounts, show increasing recreational use of 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC, mephedrone) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Severe sympathomimetic symptoms, hallucinations, psychoses, and even deaths have been reported, yet little scientific information is available on the effects of these compounds in laboratory models. Available studies on the neurochemistry of these drugs show that 4-MMC and MDPV enhance DA neurotransmission, while 4-MMC additionally enhances 5-HT neurotransmission--a pattern much like that reported for methamphetamine versus 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). As is the case for designer amphetamines, these neurochemical distinctions may predict differential potential for repetitive versus episodic abuse and distinct lasting toxicities. METHODS This study determined relative locomotor stimulant effects of 4-MMC (1-10 mg/kg, s.c.) and MDPV (0.5-5.6 mg/kg, s.c.), in comparison with d-methamphetamine (MA; 0.5-5.6 mg/kg, s.c.) and MDMA (1-7.5 mg/kg, s.c.) on a measure of locomotor activity--voluntary wheel running--in male Wistar rats (N=8). RESULTS Compared to counts of wheel rotations after saline, a biphasic change in the pattern of counts was observed after injections of MA and MDPV, with relatively higher counts following lower doses and lower counts following the highest dose. However, monophasic, dose-dependent reductions in counts were observed in response to injections of MDMA and 4-MMC. CONCLUSION Thus, voluntary wheel running yielded the same categorical distinctions for these drugs as did prior experiments testing the effects of these drugs on monoaminergic neurotransmission. These data indicate that MDPV produces prototypical locomotor stimulant effects whereas 4-MMC is more similar to the entactogen MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pai-Kai Huang
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
| | - Shawn M. Aarde
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
| | - Deepshikha Angrish
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
| | | | - Tobin J. Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
| | - Michael A. Taffe
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, University of New England
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