Parliament's Constitution: Legislative Disruption of Implied Repeal

UK constitutional law establishes priority rules governing the relations among legal sources. According to the implied repeal rule, a later statute is preferred to and repeals an earlier statute where the two cannot stand together. There is a vast literature testing the rule's application in future-facing scenarios: whether Parliament in enacting legislation is capable of legally binding its successors. This article instead adopts a backward-facing perspective, focusing on past enactments. I examine Parliament's legislative power to disrupt how implied repeal applies to earlier, inconsistent statutes. This sheds light on Parliament's capacity to shape the constitution's architecture-here, by rearranging priority relations among existing statutes. I juxtapose the technique against the doctrine of constitutional statutes, and also address the implications for the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty. Nor is the technique simply of academic interest. A backward-facing reprioritising regime has already been established in the legislation governing UK withdrawal from the EU. Lastly, the argument may be generalised to encompass other legislatures that also enjoy powers to disrupt the implied repeal rule normally operating among past statutes.

Racial Equity and U.S. Law

History and experience teach us that our Constitution and laws can be instruments of racial discrimination and oppression as well as tools for advancing freedom and equality. The substance of our laws matters, and there is much to be learned from innovative policies and legal strategies around the country. In addition to laws promoting health equity and racial justice at the state, tribal, and local levels, a new federal Executive Order has the potential to drive major positive change if fully and properly implemented. Just as important, however, is linking legal advocacy with dynamic social movements, shrewd communication strategies, and courageous civic leadership that insists on transformative change. In this article, I briefly recount the turbulent relationship between law and equity in our nation; discuss the elements that can lead to major progress through law; and recommend specific steps that different actors can take to move an equity and opportunity agenda forward.

The characteristics of physical development of present-day students

The problem of preserving health of students is of great public importance. In assessing state of health and morphofunctional state of human body, the most important aspect is level of physical development. The purpose of the study is to investigate indices of physical development of students of medical university and to implement their comparative evaluation. The assessment was carried out concerning physical development of students of the Pacific State Medical University (238 girls and 57 boys) in 2020, including anthropometric measurements, calculation of BMI and Pignet index. The factor analysis was performed. It was established that anthropometric indices of male and female students had statistically significant differences. The BMI assessment of students demonstrated that overweight and obesity more often observed in boys, as underweight in girls (p=0,026). The analysis of strength index of students physique established that insufficient development of skeletal muscles, requiring correction, was detected in 58,4% of girls and 33,3% of boys. The factor analysis of complex of factors determined that most completely explained relationship between criteria for physical development of students (p<0,001).

Understanding Holism in the light of principle underlying practice of Unani Medicine

The holistic Unani medicine is fundamentally different from the reductionist conventional medicine. It asserts the self-integration amongst its basic disciplines, without considering them underlying principles of Unani system of medicine cannot be understood. The diagnosis, selection of drugs, and plan of treatment is also overlooked. Unani scholars attribute health to the functions or actions of the body in a normal way. The constitution is considered as the result of need based on the amalgamation of Arkan (primordial essence). Umoor Tabiya (basic principles) interact at many levels and manifest into Kaifiyyat (Mizaj), Akhlat (Humour), Arwaah (Pneuma), Quwa (faculties), and Tabiyat (Physis) which need to be understood properly for effective management and diagnosis of disease in Unani medicine as well as its treatment. Ilmul Asbab is applied in the prevention of disease as well as in disease causation. In Unani medicine, there should be conformity in between, Asbab (causes), Alamaat (symptoms), and therapeutics. Therefore; the treatment strategy needs the knowledge of Ilmul Asbab. This paper will examine the basic relationship amongst disciplines i.e. Basic principles, diagnosis, and principles of treatment. It will attempt to illustrate the need for awareness of the basic principles of health and disease for a physician for effective management of disease which is what Unani medicine claims to be holistic.

The United States Constitution and The Hypocrisy of the American Oath: January 6th Raid on The Capital

The purpose of this article is to discuss the hypocrisy of American ethics. This hypocrisy allows certain members of our society to breach their ethical duties and responsibilities without concern for the collective or regard for the oaths they pledge. This hypocrisy wields great power that continues to support the systemic discrimination that will be the downfall of this Country. By analyzing the January 6, 2021, raid on the Capital, we will examine how government officials and American citizens disregarded their oaths and committed unethical acts to overthrow the government. They used the American flag, that they pledge their lives in the name of Democracy, as a tool to incite violence and insurrection. Analysis of this incident clearly reflects that this selective application of ethical responsibility allows some government officials and members of society to commit violent acts against the government officials, institutions, and its citizenry, without the same criminal reprisal other Americans endure.

Constitutional Proportionality in the Post-Non-Classical Scientific Paradigm and Modern Practice

This article reveals the concept of proportionality in constitutional law based on the methodology of modern post-non-classical jurisprudence. Constitutional proportionality is considered in conjunction with constitutional identity and justice and is interpreted as a basis of legal co-evolution. It is noted that proportionality, imbued with moral content, presupposes finding a balance between universal principles and national values, collective and individual rights, and uniform constitutional standards and state sovereignty. With regard to constitutional law, the content of the proportionality principle is constitutional values in their practical implementation. At the same time, proportionality implies finding a balance between national and universal values as a condition for the harmonious development of the legal system. Universal values and foreign norms can gain the right to exist in the Russian legal system if they successfully pass the constitutional filter and will be recognized as not contradicting the Russian Constitution and its basic provisions. Therefore, it is necessary to develop an effective system for assessing foreign norms, decisions, and approaches, which will be based on the need to preserve national identity.

A Written Constitution: A Case Not Made

Whether the UK needs a written constitution is a staple of British constitutional debates. Over the years, the fault lines have shifted from whether to incorporate a Bill of Rights to much deeper disagreement with respect to the people and the central power of the state. In this article I neither endorse the conservative case against a written constitution nor argue for the existing constitution to be codified. Instead, I first assess the content of various proposals for a written constitution. I then problematise the process of constitution making by asking not whether the UK constitution should be codified, but by relating the constitution to the people as the authors and to the state as its object.

Parental Refusal of Treatment and Children's Rights in Nigeria

Love and nurture constitute the overarching motivation that propel parents in the preservation of their child's life when ill. Religious dogma, culture and tradition sometimes override this natural instinct making parents express love in ways contrary to law. This article examines parental consent practices over children. It focuses on parental withholding of consent to medical treatment on religious, spiritual, cultural/compassionate grounds, especially in cases of terminally ill children, children with congenital diseases and disabilities. It further explores the effects and implication of traditional African beliefs on parental consent. Nigeria's bifocal legal system implies varying levels of children's protection. These have implications for rights exercisable by parents/guardians. The autonomous rights of children above parents are discussed referring to specific cases. We conclude that children's rights to essential medical care can be usurped by parents' ethical/religious values, putting health care practitioners in a dilemma in emergency situations. We recommend legal enforcement of protective children's rights laws.

Universal access to essential medicines as part of the right to health: a cross-national comparison of national laws, medicines policies, and health system indicators

BACKGROUND

Access to essential medicines for the world's poor and vulnerable has made little progress since 2000, except for a few specific medicines such as antiretrovirals for HIV/AIDS. Human rights principles written into national law can create a supportive environment for universal access to medicines; however, systematic research and policy guidance on this topic is lacking.

OBJECTIVE

To examine how international human rights law and WHO's essential medicines policies are embedded in national law for medicines affordability and financing, and interpreted and implemented in practice to promote universal access to essential medicines.

METHODS

This thesis consists of (1) a cross-national content analysis of 192 national constitutions, 71 national medicines policies, and legislation for universal health coverage (UHC) from 16 mostly low- and middle-income countries; (2) a case study of medicines litigation in Uruguay, and (3) a follow-up report of eight right to health indicators for access to medicines from 195 countries.

RESULTS

Some, but not all, of the 12 principles from human rights law and WHO's policy are embedded in national UHC law and medicines policies (part 1). Even the most rights-compliant legislation for access to medicines is subject to the unique and inconsistent interpretation of domestic courts, which may be inconsistent with the right to health in international law (part 2). Many national health systems for which data were available still fail to meet the official targets for eight indicators of access to medicines (part 3).

CONCLUSIONS

International human rights law and WHO policy are embedded in national law for essential medicines and practically implemented in national health systems. Law makers can use these findings and the example texts in this thesis as a starting point for writing and monitoring governments' rights-based legal commitments for access to medicines. Future research should study the effect of national law on access to medicines and population health.

An Algorithmic Metaphysics of Self-Patterns

The paper draws on an algorithmic criterion to demonstrate that the self (as initially described in Shaun Gallagher’s a pattern theory of self) is a composite, scattered, and patterned object. It also addresses the question of extendedness of the self-pattern. Based on the criteria drawn from algorithmic complexity, I argue that although the self-pattern possesses a genuinely extended aspect (and in this sense, the self-pattern is minimally extended) the self-pattern and its environment do not constitute a genuine composite object.

Analysis of the bio-psychological characteristics of Sasang typology in Korean preschool children using the ponderal index and the temperament and character inventory

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to identify different physical and mental characteristics among three common Sasang types, Tae-eum, So-yang, and So-eum (except scarce type, Tae-Yang) in preschoolers, to improve constitutional diagnoses.

METHODS

Our study included 65 boys and 67 girls from six kindergartens in South Korea. The number of children who were categorized as Tae-Yang, Tae-Eum, So-Yang, and So-Eum types were 1, 56, 40, and 35, respectively. We measured height, weight, mid-parental height, predicted adult height, ponderal index (PI), and findings from the junior temperament and character inventory 3 to 6.

RESULTS

The Tae-eum type exhibited higher weight percentiles and PIs than the other types (p < 0.001), and the So-eum type displayed higher harm avoidance (HA) scores than the Tae-eum type (p = 0.033).

CONCLUSIONS

Children with high PIs and low HA scores have a higher probability of being classified as the Tae-eum type than as the So-eum type.

Picturing Organisms and Their Environments: Interaction, Transaction, and Constitution Loops

Changing conceptions of the relation between organisms and their environments make up a crucial chapter in the history of psychology. This may be approached by a comparative study of how schematic diagrams portray this relation. Diagrams drive the communication and the teaching of ideas, the sedimentation of epistemic norms and methods of analysis, and in some cases the articulation of novel concepts through pictographic variants. Through a sampling of schematic representations, I offer a concise comparison of how different authors, with different interests and motivations, have portrayed important aspects of the organism–environment relation. I compare example diagrams according to the features they underscore (or omit) and group them into classes that emphasize interaction, transaction, and constitution loops.

[Doctrine of psychopathies: the Kretschmer's constitutional-morphologic concept]

The morphological landmarks suggested by E. Kretschmer for delineation of three basic types of somatic constitutions: picnic, athletic and leptosome are analyzed, the critics of declared affinity of bodily structure to cycloid or schizoid type of psyche is also considered. The influence of the ideas of Italian anthropometric school on the Kretschmer's morphologic concept is marked. E. Kretschmer's negation of 'degeneration' theory that was the ground for the development of psychopathy doctrine is underlined. Due to that negation physical stigmata (dysplastic bodily structure), sexual anomalies and character disharmonies having been described according to 'degeneration' concept as general signs of predisposition to mental disorders were included according to the Kretschmer's concept into 'schizoid' group.

[Protocol of Miao medical LIU's infant tuina genre "Tui Wu Jing" in western Hunan province for prevention of asthma recurrence]

The Miao medical LIU's (LIU Kaiyun) infant tuina genre in western Hunan Province is one of the most famous infant tuina genres in China. Based on physiological and pathological characteristics of infants, generation-inhibition theory of five-elements and Miao medical's promotion-inhibition theory of five-meridians, the tuina protocol of "Tui Wu Jing" was flexibly adjusted; according to different constitution types, including lung-deficiency type, spleen-deficiency type, kidney-deficiency type, qi-deficiency type, yin-deficiency type, yang-deficiency type, phlegm-wet type, phlegm-heat type, different protocols were adopted to prevent or reduce the asthma recurrence and reach the aim of regulating constitution and disease prevention.

Obesity Prevention Laws and the Australian Constitution

The idea of using law and regulation to prevent obesity in Australia is complicated by federalism. This article analyses in detail the powers of Commonwealth and State governments to determine which level(s) of government would be able to pass laws of the types recommended by the National Preventative Health Taskforce, namely marketing regulation, labelling regulation, content regulation, fiscal measures, built environment regulation and school regulation. The article considers the types of law that the Commonwealth could pass under the trade and commerce, taxation, communications and corporations powers, along with the power to make tied grants to the States. It then considers how the States could pass such laws but avoid levying any duty of excise, restricting freedom of interstate trade and passing any law that would be inconsistent with a Commonwealth law.

The effect of moisture conditions on the constitution of two bioceramic-based root canal sealers

Background/purpose

Intraradicular moisture is not standardized and alters the sealing properties and adhesion of root sealers. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of different moisture on the constitution of bioceramic sealers.

Materials and methods

The sealers were evaluated before mixing, and after setting using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Energy Dispersive Analysis (EDX) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) techniques. Twenty four extracted teeth were prepared and assigned to four groups according to the moisture conditions: (1) dry: using ethanol as final irrigation, (2) normal: using paper points until the last one appeared dry, (3) moist: using a Luer adapter for 5 s followed by 1 paper point, and (4) wet: the canals remained totally flooded. The roots were filled with MTA Fillapex^® and Endosequence^® BC and kept in phosphate buffer solution at 37 °C for 10 days. Each root was sectioned transversally and longitudinally. The sealers harvested from longitudinal sections were analysed using XRD. Whilst the transverse sections were analysed using SEM/EDX.

Results

The XRD analysis showed MTA Fillapex composed of Bismuth trioxide, calcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate. The intensity of peaks in the wet condition was reduced. Endosequence BC contained mainly calcium silicate, calcium silicate hydrate, zirconia and calcium hydroxide. The wet condition showed a small increase in hydrated calcium silicate. The EDX analysis showed changes in the elemental concentrations with different moisture conditions. The surface morphology differed with different moisture conditions.

Conclusion

Tested sealers have different constitution that not affected by the degree of moisture. However, it changed their relative quantity.

Ten Fundamental Legal Terms and Concepts That Are Useful in Understanding Laboratory Animal Law Across Nations

Almost all researchers, veterinarians, technicians, and students who work with laboratory animals are familiar with the laws, regulations, and policies governing the use of animals in their jurisdictions. This knowledge can be learned in an academic setting, but is often gained by "on the job" training conducted by facilities and institutions where these professionals work. In addition, these laws and regulations exist along a continuum; some countries have detailed and expansive animal law regimes, while others have few, if any laws. Accordingly, those who carry out research involving animals know local laws and regulations, but might not be aware of the laws, regulations, and policies of other jurisdictions.As scientific research becomes increasingly globalized, there is a growing need to gain an understanding of the laws and regulations of other countries. This article seeks to help bridge this gap in knowledge by defining 10 fundamental legal terms and concepts that are important in understanding the similarities and differences among the legal traditions of different nations and international agreements that impact laboratory animal research. The article focuses on Western law terms and concepts, because many laboratory animal statutes that have been enacted in these countries and international treaties and protocols can be viewed through a Western legal lens.

Diagnosis and treatment principle in Sasang medicine: original symptom

The purpose of this review was to demonstrate the definition of the original symptom (OS) and how it works in medical procedures as to the Sasang medicine based on the Jema Lee's Donguisusebowon (Longevity and Life Preservation in Eastern Medicine). OS is defined as the sum of all clinical information featured by an individual's intrinsic characteristics as Sasangin and health state prior to onset. It is the key factor in the clinical application of Sasang medicine including the diagnosis of constitutional type and Sasang symptomatology because the imbalance of metabolic functions of each Sasangin originates from that. The working principles of the OS and Sasang symptomatology can be summarized as follows. First, clinical information regarding cold or heat intolerance determines the cold or heat pattern of Sasang symptomatology. Another is the present worsening of the severity of Sasang symptomatology by one level as compared with that in the past. Symptoms prior to the onset worsen to a higher level of severity after any disorder breaks out. Finally, the treatment strategy and progress of each Sasangin are determined following the characteristics of the OS. Theoretical and clinical studies should be conducted to show the specific criteria for the diagnosis of Sasang symptomatology in the future.

Characteristics of the anthropometric measures and biological age of girls of Yakut ethnicity depending on tanner's index

INTRODUCTION

severe climatic conditions of Yakutia influence the human morphofunctional status and it requires a comprehensive biomedical researches. The aim of this study was to examine the characteristics of the anthropometric measures and biological age of Yakut girls aged 16-20 depending on Tanner's index.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

the analysis of anthropometric examination of 1276 girls is presented. Anthropometric measurements were performed using the method of V.V. Bunak (1941). The absolute values of the main components of the body were estimated according to Matiegka's formula (1921). The body mass index (BMI) was used. The type of body build was determined by Tanner's index (1968). Biological age was estimated by the coefficient of aging rate (A.G. Gorelkin, B.B. Pinkhasov, 2010). Obtained material was processed by the method of variation statistics with the use of SPSS (version 17.0). We used the methods of parametric and nonparametric statistics.

RESULTS

the constitutional characteristics of girls have revealed the predominance of mesomorphic body type. Values of fat and bone body components had no significant difference depending on the body type by Tanner. Significant differences between the parameters of the pelvis and the amount of muscle body component were detected in the girls of gynemorphic and andromorphic body types.

CONCLUSIONS

we revealed ethno-territorial differences among girls, which are characterized by the predominance in Yakut girls of the mesomorphic type of constitution by Tanner's index. The study of the indicators of biological age has elucidated constitutional differences.

Characteristics of the anthropometric measures and biological age of girls of Yakut ethnicity depending on tanner's index

INTRODUCTION

severe climatic conditions of Yakutia influence the human morphofunctional status and it requires a comprehensive biomedical researches. The aim of this study was to examine the characteristics of the anthropometric measures and biological age of Yakut girls aged 16-20 depending on Tanner's index.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

the analysis of anthropometric examination of 1276 girls is presented. Anthropometric measurements were performed using the method of V.V. Bunak (1941). The absolute values of the main components of the body were estimated according to Matiegka's formula (1921). The body mass index (BMI) was used. The type of body build was determined by Tanner's index (1968). Biological age was estimated by the coefficient of aging rate (A.G. Gorelkin, B.B. Pinkhasov, 2010). Obtained material was processed by the method of variation statistics with the use of SPSS (version 17.0). We used the methods of parametric and nonparametric statistics.

RESULTS

the constitutional characteristics of girls have revealed the predominance of mesomorphic body type. Values of fat and bone body components had no significant difference depending on the body type by Tanner. Significant differences between the parameters of the pelvis and the amount of muscle body component were detected in the girls of gynemorphic and andromorphic body types.

CONCLUSIONS

we revealed ethno-territorial differences among girls, which are characterized by the predominance in Yakut girls of the mesomorphic type of constitution by Tanner's index. The study of the indicators of biological age has elucidated constitutional differences.

Empirical versus Etiological Approaches in Oriental Medical Research

Although Oriental medicine, by nature, may be considered an etiology-based approach to healing, its role in modern research is primarily empirical. The absolute dependence on symptomatic presentation to establish acupuncture point selection goes against the grain of traditional Oriental methods, which emphasize pulse, tongue, and other diagnostic tools to determine the overall biological and psychological conditions of the patient. Recently introduced diagnostic methods in Oriental medical research indicate a potential shift from empirically to etiologically centered designs. This article reviews current mainstream approaches to efficacy trial designs and proceeds with the analysis of newer research models, such as a constitutional approach spearheaded in Korea by the field of four-constitutional medicine.

Individual and team performance in team-handball: a review

Team handball is a complex sport game that is determined by the individual performance of each player as well as tactical components and interaction of the team. The aim of this review was to specify the elements of team-handball performance based on scientific studies and practical experience, and to convey perspectives for practical implication. Scientific studies were identified via data bases of PubMed, Web of Knowledge, SPORT Discus, Google Scholar, and Hercules. A total of 56 articles met the inclusion criteria. In addition, we supplemented the review with 13 additional articles, proceedings and book sections. It was found that the specific characteristics of team-handball with frequent intensity changes, team-handball techniques, hard body confrontations, mental skills and social factors specify the determinants of coordination, endurance, strength and cognition. Although we found comprehensive studies examining individual performance in team-handball players of different experience level, sex or age, there is a lack of studies, particularly for team-handball specific training, as well as cognition and social factors. Key PointsThe specific characteristics of team-handball with frequent intensity changes, specific skills, hard body confrontations, mental skills and social factors define the determinants of coordination, endurance, strength and cognition.To increase individual and team performance in team-handball specific training based on these determinants have been suggested.Although there are comprehensive studies examining individual performance in team-handball players of different experience level, sex, or age are published, there is a lack of training studies, particularly for team-handball specific techniques and endurance, as well as cognition and social factors.

Closing in on the constitution of consciousness

The science of consciousness is a nascent and thriving field of research that is founded on identifying the minimally sufficient neural correlates of consciousness. However, I have argued that it is the neural constitution of consciousness that science seeks to understand and that there are no evident strategies for distinguishing the correlates and constitution of (phenomenal) consciousness. Here I review this correlation/constitution distinction problem and challenge the existing foundations of consciousness science. I present the main analyses from a longer paper in press on this issue, focusing on recording, inhibition, stimulation, and combined inhibition/stimulation strategies, including proposal of the Jenga analogy to illustrate why identifying the minimally sufficient neural correlates of consciousness should not be considered the ultimate target of consciousness science. Thereafter I suggest that while combined inhibition and stimulation strategies might identify some constitutive neural activities—indeed minimally sufficient constitutive neural activities—such strategies fail to identify the whole neural constitution of consciousness and thus the correlation/constitution distinction problem is not fully solved. Various clarifications, potential objections and related scientific and philosophical issues are also discussed and I conclude by proposing new foundational claims for consciousness science.

Somatotype of top-level serbian rhythmic gymnasts

Body size and build influence performance in many sports, especially in those belonging to the group of female aesthetic sports (rhythmic gymnastics, artistic gymnastics, and figure skating). These sports pose high specific demands upon the functional, energy, motor and psychological capacities of athletes, but also upon the size, body build and composition of the performers, particularly of the top-level female athletes. The study of the top athletes (rhythmic gymnasts, in this case) may provide valuable information on the morphological requirements for achieving success in this sport. Therefore, the main objective of this research was to analyze the somatotype of 40 Serbian top-level rhythmic gymnasts, aged 13.04±2.79, and to form the five age group categories. The anthropometric variables included body height, body mass, the selected diameters, girths and skinfolds, and the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype. All of the anthropometric data were collected according to International Biological Programme, and then processed in the Somatotype 1.2. The applied analysis of variance indicated an increase in endomorphic component with age. The obtained results show that the balanced ectomorph is a dominant somatotype, being similar for all of the athletes that took part in the research (3.54-3.24-4.5). These results are in line with the ones obtained in previous studies.

How parts make up wholes

We propose a schema that characterizes how parts constitute wholes at diverse levels of organization, ranging from the atomic to the biological to the social. This schema of tags, organizers, attachers, and communicators provides a unified understanding of the structure, function, and dynamics of organization in physics, biology, and the cognitive and social sciences. We use this schema to identify and describe structures and processes at many levels of organization, and discuss its relevance for understanding the nature of constitution and emergence, especially the relation between individual humans and the social groups they constitute.

Correlation between the Constitution of Sasang and Sexual Difference in the Hypersensitive Reaction of Sweet Bee Venom

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to investigate the correlation between the constitution of Sasang and the bee venom hypersensitive reaction, as well as the hypersensitive reaction occurrence ratio between males and females, for patients treated with sweet bee venom (SBV) and who had undergone an examination of the constitution of the Sasang.

METHODS

All 81 patients enrolled in the study were treated with SBV and underwent an examination of the constitution of Sasang from January 2010 to July 2012. We divided them into two groups for the hypersensitive reaction and no response and compared the distributions of the Sasang-constitution types for the two groups as well as the hypersensitive reaction occurrence ratio between males and females.

RESULTS

No significant differences were found between the hypersensitive-reaction group and the no-response group (p= 0.390), but the hypersensitive-reaction occurrence ratio was statistically higher in females than in males (p= 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Hypersensitive reactions do not seem to be related to the Sasang-constitution types, but the possibility of hypersensitive reactions among females seems to be higher than it is among males.

Sasang constitution as a risk factor for diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional study

Sasang Constitutional Medicine, which is a branch of traditional Korean medicine, states that medications for diabetes should be individualized according to the patient's individual constitution. However, the effect of constitution on diabetes has not been evaluated to date. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine if constitution is an independent risk factor for diabetes by comparing the prevalence and odds ratios (ORs) of the disease according to constitution. The medical records of 1443 adults who had been examined and classified based on their constitution at Kyung Hee University Hospital in Seoul, Korea were reviewed. A chi-squared test and Fisher's exact test were used to compare the prevalence of diabetes according to constitution, and multiple logistic regression was used to calculate the ORs for diabetes. The prevalence of diabetes differed significantly according to constitution (χ² = 36.20, df = 2, P < 0.001). Specifically, the prevalence of the disease was higher in Tae-eumin (11.4%) individuals than in Soyangin (5.0%) or Soeumin (1.7%) individuals. In addition, multiple logistic regression revealed that Tae-eumin individuals had a greater risk for diabetes than Soeumin individuals. When compared to Soeumin individuals, the adjusted ORs were 2.01 (95% CI 0.77–5.26) for Soyangin individuals and 3.96 (95% CI 1.48–10.60) for Tae-eumin individuals. These results show that constitution has a significant and independent association with diabetes, which suggests that constitution is an independent risk factor for diabetes that should be considered when attempting to detect and prevent the disease.

Intersexuality in pigs: clinical, physiological and practical considerations

Veterinary surgeons and practical pig farmers need to be aware of a condition that can have important deleterious consequences in a breeding herd. The animals in question have sometimes been referred to as hermaphrodites but would more correctly be termed intersexes. Whilst there is a complete spectrum of phenotypic sexual development within a population of such animals, the most common form is that of a putative female with a prominent up-turned vulva. Reflection of the vulval lips reveals a much-enlarged clitoris. There may be scrotal development, in conjunction with an enlarged penile and preputial sheath. Coarse hair and incipient tusk development may further indicate differing degrees of masculinization. Surgical exploration of intersex animals confirms a complete spectrum of gonadal types, ranging from 2 ovaries with a proportion of testicular tissue in one of them (i.e., an ovotestis) to 2, much-enlarged testicular-like structures with no detectable ovarian tissue. The gonads usually remain within the abdomen, but those with testicular tissue may descend to an inguinal or even scrotal location. The genital tract invariably comprises a bicornuate uterus, a partially vestigial Fallopian tube, and some development of one or both Wolffian ducts adjoining an ovotestis or testicular-like structure to form a convoluted epididymis. Spermatozoa are never present, either in abdominal or scrotal testicular tissue, nor are there any germ cells within the seminiferous tubules, only Sertoli-like cells. Due to the spectrum of gonadal types, sexual behaviour ranges from male-type aggressivity on the one hand to regular oestrous cycles on the other, with periods of standing oestrus during which intromission may be achieved. In animals with functional ovarian tissue in both gonads, foetal development has been observed, at least until days 25-30 of gestation. Almost all intersex pigs possess XX sex chromosomes and usually 36 autosomes; only a very small proportion are chimaeras or mosaics. Chromosome banding techniques have failed to demonstrate a portion of the Y chromosome translocated onto an X chromosome nor has molecular probing revealed the presence of the sex determining gene Sry or other classical Y-related DNA sequences, except in one instance. Breeding records suggest that the intersex condition results most frequently from the influence of an autosomal recessive gene carried by certain boars. Identification of such boars is therefore essential, as the incidence of intersexuality in their offspring may reach 4-5% or more. In terms of the pig industry, economic losses may result from: 1. Lack of fertility in intersex animals. 2. Aggressive behaviour in groups of growing/fattening pigs. 3. Boar taint in the carcase of animals possessing ovotestis. 4. Propagation of the deleterious condition, either by mating or more widely by artificial insemination.