Arrest Web Entanglement: Female Domestic Violence Survivors' Experiences with Police Intervention and Coercively Controlling Male Partners

Although U.S.-based mandatory and preferred arrest laws and policies were created to promote domestic violence survivors' safety, at times they have contributed to the wrongful arrest of women defending themselves against their abusive partners. While these laws and policies are the subject of broad critique, less considered are domestic violence survivors' descriptions of the events that unfold after police officers respond to a domestic violence incident and before they make an arrest. This is an important area of inquiry as these events may highlight how the circumstances leading to wrongful arrest decisions are more complex than the laws and policies alone. Data from the present study came from the author's larger in-depth qualitative investigation of 33 cisgender women's descriptions of their legal and child protection systems involvement. The women were recruited from an antiviolence intervention agency receiving referrals from communities with mandatory and preferred laws and policies. The women had agency contact due to their use of force or alleged use of force. The respondents were diverse across race, age, class, ability, U.S. citizenship status, and sexual identity. The author analyzed the 33 women's 51 interview transcripts and extensive fieldnotes using rigorous iterative analysis and constructivist grounded theory. The analysis revealed that seven of the 33 women, all of whom identified domestic and sexual violence survivorship histories, described a patterned series of events that unfolded after the police arrived at the domestic violence incident and before the police made an arrest. In this study, the author details three of the seven women's stories to demonstrate how a series of events, including police prearrest questioning and their coercively controlling male partners' tactics, facilitated the women's entanglement in what the author refers to as an "arrest web." Their incremental disentanglement from the arrest's impact is also explored. Broad system-focused implications are discussed.

Can This Provider Be Trusted? A Review of the Role of Trustworthiness in the Provision of Community-Based Services for Intimate Partner Violence Survivors

While there is a growing literature on intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors and service providers, it is limited by its largely atheoretical and descriptive nature, and its emphasis on individual-level survivors' help-seeking. We seek to broaden our understanding by shifting the focus onto organizations and service systems and introducing the concept of these providers' trustworthiness toward survivors. Provider trustworthiness in delivering services includes benevolence (locally available and caring), fairness (accessible to all and non-discriminatory), and competence (acceptable and effective in meeting survivors' needs). Guided by this conceptualization, we conducted an integrative review drawing on four databases: PsycINFO, PubMed, Web of Science, and Westlaw. We identified studies for inclusion that were published between January 2005 and March 2022, and we examined the trustworthiness of community-based providers serving adult IPV survivors in the United States, including domestic violence services, health and mental health care, the legal system, and economic support services (N = 114). Major findings include (1) many survivors live in communities with no shelter beds, mental health care, or affordable housing; (2) many services are inaccessible because they lack, for example, bilingual staff, sliding fees, or telehealth options; (3) too many providers are harmful or discriminatory toward survivors, especially those who are, for example, sexual or gender minorities, immigrants or non-English-speaking, poor, or Native, Black, or Latinx; (4) many providers appear to be incompetent, lack evidence-based training, and are ineffective in meeting survivors' needs. We call on researchers, advocates, and providers to examine provider trustworthiness, and we offer an introduction to measuring it.

Involvement of Guns in Nonfatal Conflict Between Adult Children and Their Parents

The objectives of the present analyses are to examine the frequency, nature, and correlates of nonfatal gun use in incidents of conflict between adult children and their parents, to which police were summoned. A cross-sectional study design was used with all cases of domestic violence to which police were called between adult children and their parents, in Philadelphia, PA, in 2013 (N = 6,248). Data were drawn from forms required to be completed by police when responding to domestic violence calls for assistance. A series of multivariate logistic regression models were estimated. Of the 6,248 incidents, 5,486 involved no weapon, 522 involved a bodily weapon, 190 involved a non-gun external weapon, and 50 involved a gun. Guns were most often used to threaten victims (66%), with guns less often fired (6%) or used to pistol whip victims (4%). Compared to incidents involving a bodily weapon, when guns were involved, offenders were less likely to have pushed, grabbed, or punched the victim and victims were less likely to have visible injuries; however, offenders were more likely to have threatened victims and victims were more likely to be observed as frightened. Police officers intervened similarly to incidents involving guns vs. bodily weapons. This is the first study we are aware of to focus on nonfatal gun use between family members who are not intimate partners, with the results extending much of what is known regarding nonfatal gun use among intimate partners to nonfatal gun use among adult children and parents.

Supportive Interventions of Chinese Police in Domestic Violence: Do Officer Knowledge and Training Matter?

Policing domestic violence (DV) poses significant challenges in China due to cultural, legal, and organizational complexities. Policing DV in China favors mediation over assertive interventions, complicating law enforcement's role. While previous research has focused on coercive interventions by Chinese police, there is limited information on non-coercive, supportive approaches. This study investigates the relationship between police officers' knowledge and training regarding the Anti-DV law and their willingness to provide supportive services to DV victims in China. It also considers various individual and organizational factors. The data used in this study are derived from the Policing DV in China project, with a sample of 1,353 respondents who had experience dealing with DV cases within the past 3 years. The study focuses on three dependent variables representing supportive approaches to DV cases: Referral, Counseling, and Protection orders. Independent variables include officers' knowledge of the Anti-DV law and agency training. Control variables include the use of body-worn cameras (BWC) and attitudes toward Violence Tolerance, Male Dominance, and Gender Equality. Additionally, demographic variables, working environment, length of service, and police rank are considered. The analytical approach involves a three-step strategy, incorporating descriptive, bivariate analyses, and regression analyses. The results are interpreted using odds ratios and average marginal effects, and statistical software such as SPSS by IBM and R by Open-Source Model is utilized for data analysis. Key findings indicate that more than half of the officers referred intimate partner violence survivors to shelters and assisted victims in filing protection orders. Counseling practices varied across provinces and between male and female officers. Agency training and the use of BWC were positively associated with non-coercive and supportive approaches, while knowledge of the DV Act, male dominance score, and gender equality score did not predict the use of such approaches. Demographic characteristics, including police rank, length of service, and province of employment, influenced the utilization of non-coercive and supportive approaches. This study examines the challenges faced by Chinese police officers when responding to DV cases and their willingness to provide supportive interventions. The study highlights the complexities surrounding the initiation of protection orders due to officers' legal knowledge and discretion. The study emphasizes the importance of police support in addressing DV in China and the role of agency training in promoting non-coercive responses. It highlights regional variations in police support and underscores the need for addressing disparities in service provision across different provinces.

Outcomes of Hospitalized Injured Suspects Sustaining Gunshot Wounds From Law Enforcement Action

BACKGROUND

Although firearms are implicated in the majority of law enforcement intervention (LEI)-related deaths, scientific research is lacking. The present study sought to characterize clinical and financial outcomes between injured suspects and other gunshot wound (GSW) patients.

STUDY DESIGN

The 2016-2020 National Inpatient Sample was queried for patients ≥16 years old admitted following GSW. Patients were categorized as injured suspects (ISs) if they were injured in LEI and non-IS otherwise. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality with complications, hospitalization duration (LOS), and costs secondarily considered. Multivariable regression models were used to adjust for patient characteristics, injury burden using the Trauma Mortality Prediction Model (TMPM), and hospital factors.

RESULTS

Of 143,125 hospitalizations, 1575 (1.10%) were IS. Compared to non-IS, ISs were less frequently Black (24.4% vs 54.3%) but had a higher proportion of psychiatric conditions (19.4% vs 6.4%) (P < .05). Although having a similar requirement for major operations and TMPM score, ISs more frequently underwent thoracic (11.4% vs 4.1%) and gastrointestinal operations (33.0% vs 25.7%) (P < .05). After adjustment, IS was associated with similar odds of mortality but was associated with greater odds of cardiac complications, respiratory failure, and need for intensive care. While LOS was similar, IS was associated with greater costs (β: +$14,300, 95% CI: 6,200-22,400).

CONCLUSIONS

Suspects injured during law enforcement intervention have similar in-hospital mortality but greater complication rates and costs. Through the quantification of the clinical and financial burden of IS, our findings may help inform further policy discussions regarding use of potentially lethal force in law enforcement intervention.

Health Professionals: Identifying and Reporting Child Physical Abuse-a Scoping Review

Health professionals play a significant role in identifying and reporting child physical abuse (CPA). However, several studies have pointed out non-reporting behavior among these professionals, evidencing difficulties identifying and reporting suspected cases. This review aimed to explore the frequency and possible barriers in identifying and reporting CPA by health professionals worldwide and to identify associated factors. This scoping review was conducted in the Pubmed, Web Of Science, Scopus, and SciELO databases between July 2019 and December 2020. Analytical and qualitative observational epidemiological studies were selected and published in English, Portuguese, and Spanish, with data on the identification and/or reporting of CPA by health professionals. Twenty studies fulfilled the criteria of this review. The studies were conducted with dentists, nurses, pediatricians, and general practitioners. The frequency of identification of CPA ranged from 50% to 89%, while the frequency of reporting ranged from 8% to 47%. This review revealed that health professionals had a low frequency of reporting of CPA, especially for dentists. In addition, several associated factors and barriers in the identification and reporting of CPA were identified in the studies. These were discussed in five main themes: training and continuing education in CPA, impact on professional practice, experiences and perceptions about child protection services, the threshold for suspicion of the professional, and the professional category.

Public Stigmatization of Women Victims of Intimate Partner Violence by Professionals Working in the Judicial System and Law Enforcement Agencies in Spain

Recent international literature has demonstrated that the public stigma suffered by women victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) makes them less likely to disclose the abuse and to seek help and has a negative influence on third-party responses, with professionals working in the judicial system and law enforcement agencies being particularly susceptible to its impact. The absence of theories explaining how this stigma works and the legal and cultural differences that exist between countries prompted us to explore the process by which professionals working in law enforcement and the judicial system in Spain stigmatize this specific group of victims. Constructivist grounded theory was used to establish meanings and relationships between the components and processes involved in stigmatization, based on the data collected from individual, semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 11 professionals working in the aforementioned fields. In addition to the stigmatization that the interviewees claimed to have observed in coworkers, we also analyzed the conscious and/or unconscious stigmatization that they themselves exercised, which became evident during the course of the interview. The results confirmed the existence of stigma among professionals, with the said stigma often being unintentional and implicit in nature. The theoretical model that emerged from the data comprised four broad categories linked to the origin of the stigma, stigmatizing myths about victims and IPV, stigmatizing responses to victims who are seeking help, and the consequences of the stigma for the victims. In the study, we outline the associations observed between these factors and the subcategories included in each, and highlight the need to design training programs for professionals who are designed to fight against the stigma and which include self-analysis exercises as well as theoretical contents. We also discuss other implications of the results for both research and practice.

Lessons From Canadian Judgments: The Consideration of Culture in Intimate Partner Violence Legal Cases Involving Asian Canadians

Despite the pervasiveness of intimate partner violence (IPV) in Canada, research examining IPV in the context of Asian Canadians is scarce. Our study examined whether and how Canadian judges consider culture when determining a sentence in IPV cases involving an Asian offender and/or an Asian victim. We systematically searched for publicly published cases through CanLII. A total of 50 cases met the inclusion criteria. Cultural themes were identified using a direct content analysis approach to capture a priori themes in the literature, as well as identify any other factors considered. Our findings indicated culture was most often considered in only a superficial way (n = 31, 62.0%), where judges only made statements that simply identified the ethnicity of the offender and not how culture may have impacted the case. When examining cases where culture was meaningfully considered there were no prominent culture themes identified (all themes present in <14% of cases). We suggest this may not only reflect the heterogeneity of Asian Canadians, but could also reflect the lack of cultural consideration by the judges. Cultural factors were also rarely considered explicitly as an aggravating or mitigating factor in a case (n = 2; 4.0% and n = 7; 14.0% of the total sample, respectively). The findings reveal the current lack of meaningful consideration of culture in IPV legal cases involving Asian Canadians. We outline how this contrasts the increased attention to the meaningful consideration of culture in the Canadian legal arena and prompt all professionals involved in assessing and managing IPV risk to consider racial, ethnic, and cultural factors in these cases.

"He Will Not Leave Us Alone and I Need the Courts to Help": Defendants' Use of Nonphysical Violence in Domestic Violence Protective Order Cases

District court judges who make final determinations in domestic violence protective order (DVPO) cases in North Carolina indicate often using heuristics, such as the presence of visible injury, to guide their assessment of violence severity. This approach is concerning as it minimizes nonphysical intimate partner violence. We conducted a thematic analysis of DVPO plaintiff complaints to identify the types of nonphysical vioence described and its effects on plaintiff health outcomes. Most case files included descriptions of nonphysical violence and plaintiffs described fear as a significant mental health outcome. Findings highlight the potentially deleterious impact of nonphysical violence on the well-being of DVPO plaintiffs.

Informal Help-Seeking in Moments of Acute Danger: Intimate Partner Violence Survivors' Emergency Outreach Efforts and the Forces That Shape Them

Heightened attention to police brutality has created momentum for alternative, community-based responses to violence, including that inflicted by an intimate partner. But to build effective alternatives, we must know what survivors already do in moments of acute danger when they do not call the police. This study sought to explore these moments from an ecological perspective. Using a qualitative descriptive methodology, we conducted 25 interviews with a diverse sample of intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors. Each described the first, the worst, and the most recent IPV incident, whom they reached out to and why, the outcomes of their help-seeking, and the individual, interpersonal, and psychosocial influences on the process. Even in the face of severe violence, what participants most wanted was someone who would listen without judgment. Direct interpersonal factors that influenced their help-seeking included their partner's controlling behavior, as well as their network members' capacities, perspectives on IPV, and feelings about the survivor. Broader influential factors included the radiating effects of IPV and other forms of trauma in survivors' networks. Participants offered recommendations on how domestic violence (DV) programs could both strengthen survivors' networks and provide them with targeted community support in moments of grave danger. As we continue to develop community-based alternatives to police intervention, DV programs have a critical opportunity to build on survivors' own recommendations. This process must address the ongoing effects of trauma that hamper the ability of so many network members to support survivors in crisis.

Disarming Intimate Partner Violence Offenders: An In-Depth Descriptive Analysis of Federal and State Firearm Prohibitor Laws in the United States, 1991-2016

Intimate partner violence is a preventable public health problem affecting more than 12 million people in the United States annually. The immense burden of victimization is most often borne by women. Nearly one in two female homicide victims are killed by current or former partners (more than 50% of which involve firearms). Firearm-related morbidity and mortality are concentrated where firearm ownership is most prevalent and firearm laws are least restrictive, indicating the potential for law to serve as an intervention. Understanding intricacies within laws and how they vary is critical to studying their influence on health. This study is the first to use the scientific legal mapping technique of policy surveillance to create legal data by systematically collecting and coding laws that authorize or require courts to prohibit offenders subject to domestic violence restraining orders (DVROs) and temporary restraining orders (TROs) from purchasing and possessing firearms ("firearm prohibitor" laws). These data measure key provisions of federal and state laws from 1991 to 2016, including whether the law includes a firearm prohibition, who qualifies as an intimate partner, notice and hearing requirements, whether the prohibition occurs automatically or through judicial discretion, and if the law permits or requires the relinquishment or removal of firearms. The federal law, enacted in 1994 (and reauthorized in 2022), only protects qualifying victims that obtain final DVROs. States can mirror or go beyond federal measures. From 1991 to 2016, 38 states enacted a firearm prohibitor law through DVROs (37 states), TROs (20 states), or both (19 states). Today, survivors suffer from a sluggish and fragmented legal system leading to the unequal protection of victims based on where they happen to live. This research provides an in-depth descriptive analysis of this complex and nuanced legal system, recommendations to spur policy reform, and longitudinal data for future research.

Prosecutorial Decision Making in Domestic Violence Cases: Are Prosecutors Holding Offenders Accountable?

Domestic violence (DV) continues is an ongoing costly issue for the criminal justice system, Research indicates the prosecutor's filing decision is important to keeping DV victims safe, but there is little research examining prosecutorial filing decisions in DV cases. This study used focal concerns as a theoretical framework to explore which legal and extra-legal factors impact prosecutorial filing decisions in DV cases. The study utilized data collected from 731 misdemeanor and felony DV cases from an urban County in Florida between January 2017 - December 2018. Two binomial logistic regression models were used to predict the likelihood a DV case would be filed on any charge, filed on a DV specific charge or not filed. Results showed some support for focal concerns but findings suggest that factors impacting this decision vary based upon case severity (i.e. misdemeanor, felony). A weapon present decreased the filing likelihood for misdemeanor cases but victim requests not to prosecute and a public attorney decreased filing likelihood for felonies. The prosecutor's decision to file charges is a powerful tool to keep victims safe and should be based on legal facts and risk of future harm, but here these factors had little to no impact on this decision.

Legal System Disclosure Experiences of Young Adult Children Exposed to Domestic Violence

Children exposed to domestic violence (DV) disclose their experiences to a variety of people, including informal (e.g., peers), formal (e.g., doctors), and legal (e.g., police) support systems. Legal system disclosure is more common than formal system disclosure yet remains understudied leaving unanswered questions about the nature of those who choose to disclose and factors that influence their disclosure decision. Guided by communication privacy management theory and Johnson's typology of domestic violence (DV), this study addressed gaps in the CEDV literature through a theoretical thematic analysis of the DV exposure and legal system disclosure experiences of 25 young adults exposed to father-mother-perpetrated DV during their childhood. Findings from this study show that half of the participants had no legal system disclosure (n = 12; nondisclosers) and half had at least some legal system disclosure (n = 13; disclosers). Varying types of violence exposure and levels of exposure were factors that impacted youths' decisions to disclose to legal systems. Escalation of violence was a key factor that drove legal system disclosure, but other factors including how the young adults and their communities perceived their fathers, the match between the youth's goals for disclosure and the outcomes upon disclosing, along with family privacy norms and family boundaries were influential in guiding decision making over time. This study has implications for practitioners working with DV-exposed youth, as our findings unpack the conditions under which youth choose to (not) disclose, the factors influencing these decisions, and how the responses and reactions from legal support systems inform future disclosure decisions.

A Mixed-Method Approach to Understand Themes of Love in Victims' Dismissals of Civil Protection Orders

Domestic violence protective orders are the most widely used intimate partner violence-related legal intervention in the United States, yet many victims later ask to have these orders dismissed. This article uses a mixed-methods approach to examine the conditions that help explain why victims of intimate partner violence dismiss their protection orders. Quantitative findings from 841 civil protection order cases show that victims who need protection the most are the most likely to seek dismissals. Victims who experienced recent or physical abuse were significantly more likely to dismiss their protection orders. Qualitative findings from 200 dismissal requests reveal that victims reference common themes of loving the abuser, that the abuser is a good parent, that the abuser is seeking treatment, or that they desire to save the relationship. Victims draw from broad romantic rationalizations when describing their decision to drop a protection order from the court. Building upon insights from constructs of romantic love, this study highlights how the rationalizations victims invoke in their dismissal requests are also associated with their experiences of abuse. A mixed methodological approach reveals a significant contrast between the language in victims' petitions and their dismissal requests. Victims voiced fear and violence in their petitions for protection orders, then employed meanings of romantic love, reconciliation, and change when requesting that these temporary protection orders be dropped. This contrast reflects the cyclical nature of abuse and suggests that greater attention must be paid to ensuring court officials have a strong understanding of the complexities of victim attrition.

Stereotypes About Battered Women and Victim's Self-Defense: Legal Implications

Recent research on the practices of justice operators with women victims of intimate partner violence has evidenced the existence of gender stereotypes and gender-blind practices in the Spanish legal system (Albertín et al., 2020; García Jiménez et al., 2019, 2020), as well as the graves consequences that such practices imply for these women. In this context, the present study explored the existence of a battered woman stereotype and its variation when the victim defends herself from the abuser. An opportunity sample of 505 undergraduates of Law, Psychology and other studies from two Spanish universities assessed some personality characteristics of a woman after watching a 1-minute-long silent video. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three observation conditions ("control", "victim" or "self-defense victim"), which differed in the previous information given about the target woman. The Principal Components Analysis reduced the information from the questionnaire to three dimensions: "brittleness" (α = .91), "positive" (α = .786), and "hostile" (α = .809). The MANOVA confirmed the battered woman stereotype and its modification when the victim reacts against the abuser in self-defense: in this case the attribution of brittleness decreases and the attribution of hostility increases. The type of academic training showed significant effects on the stereotype, this being more negative among Law students than among Psychology ones. Law students perceive the target woman in the "victim" condition more hostile and manipulator. As for the "self-defense" condition, Law students attribute less brittleness to the victim, and perceive her more manipulator and dangerous. The effect of the observer's gender on the stereotype is consistent with the previous literature. Implications for professional training and judicial practices are discussed.

Perceptions of Stalking: Examining Perceivers' Country of Origin, Perpetrator-Target Prior Relationship, and the Mediating Effect of Victim Responsibility

Research in stalking perceptions has shown certain relational biases, in which people tend to view ex-partner stalkers to be less dangerous than stranger or acquaintance stalkers. These findings are in direct contrast to those of real-life cases whereby ex-partner stalkers pose a greater threat. In addition, although stalking is recognized as a global social problem, most studies have been based on samples drawn from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic countries. The current study examined whether the prior relationship between the stalking perpetrator and target influences people's perceptions of stalking and whether cross-national differences exist between participants based in Malaysia (where there is currently no law that criminalizes stalking) and England (where stalking has been outlawed since 1997). In a 3 × 2 between-subjects design, 294 Malaysian participants and 170 English participants were presented with a vignette describing a stalking scenario in which the perpetrator was depicted as a stranger, acquaintance, or ex-partner. Participants judged the extent to which the perpetrator's behavior constitutes stalking; necessitates police intervention; would cause the victim alarm or personal distress; would cause the victim to fear the use of violence; and can be attributed to encouragement on the part of the victim. Results showed that typical relational biases existed in both samples, but Malaysian participants were less likely than their English counterparts to label any harassing scenario as serious. Perceptions of victim responsibility were found to mediate the effect of prior relationship and nationality on participants' perceptions. The findings point to the urgency of better cross-cultural understanding of harassment behavior as well as legislations against stalking.

Barriers to Men's Help Seeking for Intimate Partner Violence

Evidence suggests that male victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) are less likely to seek help for their victimization than female victims. Studies exploring barriers to help seeking are relatively scarce in the United Kingdom (UK) and those that have been undertaken across Europe, United States, Canada, and Australia have tended to rely on small samples of help-seeking men who have self-identified as victims of IPV. With a view to include more male victim voices in the literature, an anonymous qualitative questionnaire was distributed via social media. In total, 147 men (85% from the UK) who self-identified as being subject to abuse from their female partners, completed the questionnaire. The data was subjected to a deductive thematic analysis and one superordinate and two overarching themes were identified. The superordinate theme was stigmatized gender and the two overarching themes (subthemes in parentheses) were barriers prohibiting help seeking (status and credibility, health and well-being) and responses to initial help seeking (discreditation, exclusion/isolation, and helpfulness). The findings are discussed in the context of Overstreet and Quinn's (2013) interpersonal violence and stigma model and findings from previous research. The conclusions and recommendations promote education and training and advocate a radical change to policy.

Examining the Relationship between the Lethality Assessment/Domestic Violence High-risk Team Monitoring (LAP/DVHRT) Program and Prosecution Outcomes

Lethality assessment (LAP) and team monitoring of high-risk offenders (DVHRT) are recent U.S. policy innovations designed to identify domestic violence offenders who are at high risk for perpetrating serious or lethal violence against their intimate partners. One goal of LAP/DVHRT is to increase offenders' accountability for domestic violence within the legal system. This study examines associations between LAP/DVHRT and prosecution and sentencing outcomes using data on domestic violence offenses (n = 88) involving 37 offenders monitored by a DVHRT and 51 nonmonitored comparison offenders who were identified as high risk on the LAP. We use logistic and OLS regression to estimate models of six prosecution and sentencing outcomes for the full sample and for a sample matched using the coarsened exact matching technique (n = 73). Multivariate results indicate that when the treatment and comparison samples are matched and control variables are included in regression models, the LAP/DVHRT program is not associated with prosecution or conviction rates, number of charges, or bail amount. DVHRT monitoring is positively associated with sentence length in multivariate analysis and in models using the matched sample. Findings suggest that the LAP/DVHRT program increases offender accountability in the form of incapacitation at the sentencing stages.

The Association of Federal and State-level Firearm Restriction Policies With Intimate Partner Homicide: A Re-analysis by Race of the Victim

Firearms present a significant risk of intimate partner homicide (IPH) among women in the United States, and Black women continue to be overrepresented among IPH fatalities. State-level firearm restrictions for individuals under domestic violence restraining orders (DVRO) and firearm restrictions for those convicted of violent misdemeanor crimes are associated with reductions in IPH. To receive these protections, individuals must engage with the civil or criminal justice system. While access to, and engagement with, these systems may differ between Black and White populations, research has yet to examine the impact of these firearm restriction laws on IPH by racial group.We conducted pooled, cross-sectional, time-series analyses to examine the association of selected firearm restriction laws on IPH by the race of the victims, from 1981 to 2013 for 45 states in the United States.State-level DVRO firearm restrictions were associated with reductions in IPH in the White population only. The inclusion of relinquishment provisions in state DVRO firearm laws is associated with an 11% reduction in IPH and a 16% reduction in firearm IPH for White, but not Black, victims. Similarly, laws prohibiting individuals convicted of violent misdemeanors from possessing firearms are associated with a 23% reduction in IPH and a 28% reduction in firearm IPH for White victims only. The federal DVRO firearm restriction law is associated with a 27% reduction in state-level IPH and a 28% reduction in firearm IPH for Black, but not White, victims.Firearm restriction laws may have a limited impact on IPH in Black populations. Future research should examine the factors behind the differential estimated impact of these laws by the race of the victims.

Firearm-related Abuse and Protective Order Requests Among Intimate Partner Violence Victims

Firearms play a critical role in the murder of intimate partner violence (IPV) victims and there is evidence that laws prohibiting protective order (PO) respondents from possessing a firearm reduce IPV fatalities. However, little research has compared specific abuse tactics involving firearms among victims who have and have not sought a PO against an abuser. This study investigates IPV victims' experiences with a range of firearm-related abuse tactics across victim race/ethnicity, in addition to the relationship between firearm IPV and PO requests, above and beyond IPV not involving firearms. Questionnaires were administered to 215 female victims recruited from six domestic violence shelters in Texas. Over one-half of victims who sought a PO were threatened to be shot by their abuser and victims who experienced high levels of firearm abuse incurred a 302% increase in the odds of requesting a PO. There were no significant differences between White, Black, and Hispanic victims regarding firearm IPV tactics. The results shed light on the magnitude of risk IPV victims can experience when seeking a PO against an abusive partner.

Factors Associated With Willingness To Report Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) to Police in South Korea

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious social problem in South Korea, but the IPV reporting rate to the police is not high enough. To reduce violence and further victimization, it is important for IPV (potential) victims to report to police. Thus, this study aimed to examine the factors associated with willingness to report IPV to police if they experience it using the 2013 Korean National Domestic Violence Survey data. A representative sample of 5,000 Korean participants, of whom 1,668 were males and 3,332 were females, were recruited using a stratified multistage sampling design. We found that the willingness to report IPV to the police was statistically significant when the participants were young, had strong knowledge of IPV-related laws, had lower levels of acceptance of violence, had lower levels of conservative gender role values, and when the seriousness of violence was higher for both male and female participants. However, having children and having experienced child abuse only affected women's willingness to report IPV to the police. Based on this study's findings, we then discussed policy implications to prevent further victimization, focusing on factors that are associated with willingness to report violence to the police.

Psychosocial Separation and Women's Disengagement From Prosecutions Against Abusive Intimate Partners in Spain

In order to end and "liberate" themselves from an abusive relationship, female survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) usually face a complex process. Although women may decide to seek help through the criminal justice system, some refuse to participate in legal proceedings against their abusers. While many studies have focused on exploring variables explaining disengagement from legal proceedings, the aim of this article is to study the impact of the process of liberation from an abusive relationship on the likelihood of disengagement (LoD) from legal proceedings. Liberation was measured through the psychosocial separation overall score and the LoD was predicted by a logistic regression model developed in a previous study in Spain. A sample of 80 women involved in legal proceedings for IPV against their ex-partners in Andalusia (Spain) participated in this study. Exploratory analyses were conducted using ANOVA and Chi-square; multiple linear regression analyses were used to study the relationship between psychosocial separation and LoD. Results showed that victims who had higher psychosocial separation from their abusers were less likely to disengage from legal proceedings against the abuser. We discuss the results in terms of practical implications like detection of women's need for specific psychological support to ease a comprehensive recovery. Training programs for legal professionals and judges in the judicial arena should use the results of this study to increase professionals' understanding of IPV and survivors' decision-making processes. This would lead to a decrease in survivors' secondary victimization, as well as decrease the frustration of legal professionals when victims disengage from legal proceedings.

Coordinated Community Responses to Domestic Violence: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Coordinated community responses (CCRs) are a commonly used intervention in the field of domestic violence (DV), yet research findings on CCRs to DV have been inconsistent. The aim of this study was to examine the current state of CCRs to DV, with a specific focus on those responses that involve law enforcement officers as key players. A systematic review of 31 databases resulted in 18 peer-reviewed manuscripts for inclusion in this study. Manuscripts were included if they were written in English and published in 1999 or later; focused specifically on DV and criminal justice and/or community responses; research outcomes were specific to cases, victims, or offenders; the intervention was clearly described and evaluated using an experimental or quasi-experimental design; and was implemented in the United States. Findings suggest that there is a great deal of variability across CCR studies involving law enforcement officers with regard to (a) whether studies used the term "coordinated community response" to describe the intervention being evaluated, (b) the types of cases included, (c) the nature of the CCR being evaluated, (d) the outcomes that were examined, and (e) how these outcomes were operationalized. These variations make it difficult for scholars to draw broader conclusions about the effectiveness of CCR interventions. Future research should include the identification of core outcomes that can be used across studies to allow for comparison studies and meta-analyses. There is also a need for studies to focus on identifying which components of CCR interventions are most critical to producing positive outcomes.

Defining Justice: Restorative and Retributive Justice Goals Among Intimate Partner Violence Survivors

Intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual violence (SV) are drivers of women's morbidity and mortality yet remain among the most underreported crimes in the United States. Understanding IPV/SV survivors' justice preferences and justice definitions can strengthen violence prevention and response systems. In-depth interviews were conducted with women who experienced past-year IPV (n = 26), to explore their justice preferences and recommendations. Primary themes included accountability, safety, and rehabilitation, with examples within and outside the current justice system, and across restorative and retributive justice frameworks. Women sought accountability through a variety of means. Retributive approaches like incarceration offered accountability as well as fleeting safety, but were critically limited in addressing the root causes of violence and, in some cases, were felt to exacerbate the problem. Women's expressed needs and preferences centered on restorative aspects of justice, including perpetrator's acknowledgment of harm, achieving physical safety and stability, and perpetrator rehabilitation through counseling. Paradoxically, women's safety-related justice goals both encouraged and discouraged their engagement in the formal justice system. The discordance between women's justice preferences and their perceptions and experiences within the current justice system illustrate complex and difficult trade-offs faced by survivors in achieving physical, social, and economic safety. Moreover, they likely contribute to the low levels of IPV/SV reporting to police. Women's goals were aligned with restorative justice principles, illustrating the value of this approach. In an era of unprecedented dialogue on justice reform, results provide direction for integrating restorative justice practices to strengthen the justice response to violence against women.

Severity of Victimization and Formal Help Seeking Among Men Who Experienced Intimate Partner Violence in Their Ongoing Relationships

This study examined the severity of intimate partner violence (IPV) experienced by men in their ongoing relationships and their help-seeking behavior with the criminal justice system and other professional agencies. This study also examined the extent to which socio-demographic variables predicted formal help seeking among male victims of IPV. Data were drawn from 2009 and 2014 cycles of the Canadian General Social Survey on Victimization with a nationally representative sample of 52,400 respondents. It is estimated that about 655,400 men in Canada reported having experienced physical and/or sexual victimization due to IPV in married/common-law relationships at the time of the surveys between 2004 and 2014. The latent class analysis generated four types of IPV victimization among men. Among male victims of physical and/or sexual IPV, about 64,000 men experienced the most severe type of IPV characterized by chronic and severe physical and psychological violence with a high probability of injuries and negative emotional effects of IPV. Although most of the male victims of IPV did not seek formal help (e.g., did not contact the police and IPV services), the severity of experienced violence was associated with the increased use of formal services. Some structural factors, such as being unemployed and residing with young children, were found to be substantial barriers to contacting formal agencies for help. Our findings highlight the need for the development of gender-inclusive and gender-sensitive public policy and intervention programs that help all victims of IPV regardless of victim gender.

Alcohol-Involved Family and Domestic Violence Reported to Police in Australia

Family and domestic violence (FDV) is a significant social issue that causes major harm across Australia. Alcohol has been identified as a contributing factor to FDV, and as such increased understanding of the role of alcohol in police-reported FDV incidents may provide the basis for developing specific clinical and forensic approaches. This study aims to identify the key correlates of alcohol-related FDV within police-reported FDV incidence. Data sourced from several states and territories across Australia were used to profile demographic and personal factors involved in police-reported FDV incidents, and to identify the types of incidents involving alcohol. For each state, three separate binary regressions were conducted for family violence, intimate partner violence, and FDV incidents in which alcohol was involved. Between 24% and 54% of FDV incidents reported to police were classified as alcohol-related. Although there appeared to be an association between relative socioeconomic disadvantage and an incident being alcohol-related, this association varied across states. Where victim and offender data were available, offenders were significantly more likely to be alcohol-affected than victims. Alcohol-related FDV incidents were also twice as likely to involve severe physical violence including injuries that were life threatening, as well as an increased likelihood of recidivism. This study demonstrates that alcohol plays a substantial role in police-reported FDV across Australia. It also demonstrates that other factors such as drug use, breach of orders, and repeat offending are associated with alcohol involvement across family violence and intimate partner violence.

Experiences of Abused Muslim Women With the Australian Criminal Justice System

The confidence of intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors/victims in the criminal justice system (CJS) is important to consider when exploring intervention and prevention strategies toward deterring IPV. Information on the experiences of IPV survivors/victims with the justice system is greatly lacking. This issue is even more so for IPV survivors/victims for minority communities such as Australian-Muslims. The lack of cultural and religious sensitivity that many immigrant women experience with the CJS deters them from accessing the CJS. In addition, the contrast between the mediation processes in courts and those of religious requirements may make the mediation processes ineffective if they do not include the perpetrators in the mediation process. Furthermore, for many migrant women, their lack of knowledge about their rights under the Australian legal system renders them powerless to undertake active action against IPV in their relationships. Due to the lack of research on Muslim women's experiences, it is difficult to ascertain how the justice system response can effectively address IPV issues for Australian Muslim women. It is therefore necessary to solicit Muslim women's views and explore past experiences with the justice system to inform future reforms that will better meet the justice response needs of Muslim women in Australia. This article explores Muslim women's positive and negative experiences with the justice system in response to their IPV victimization. It also investigates the constraints that have deterred Muslim women from seeking assistance from the Australian criminal justice system (ACJS), particularly in the reporting of intimate partner violence. The findings of this research give voice to Muslim women's past experiences with the CJS. It is expected that the findings will influence practical outcomes that can facilitate strategies by the CJS to promote inclusiveness among Muslim women to increase their confidence in the CJS.

"If It Hadn't Been Online I Don't Think I Would Have Applied": Applicant Experiences of an Online Family Violence Intervention Order Process

Domestic violence protection orders are civil court orders intended to protect victim/survivors from further violence by prohibiting alleged perpetrators from engaging in threatened or actual violence or harassment of victim/survivors and their children. However, their availability and ultimately their effectiveness is limited by complex procedural requirements and court accessibility barriers that victim/survivors can find intimidating, confusing, and unsafe, and that contribute to delays between lodgment of an application and the making of an intervention order by the court. This study examined the experiences of applicants who used either a conventional court process or an online application process that was trialed in three courts in Victoria, Australia. We examined court data on 791 applicants who sought an intervention order at the three courts during the study period, and interviewed 28 applicants including 12 who had applied online. We also examined the impact of the online process on court workloads and risk assessments, and conducted interviews and focus groups with magistrates and registry staff at each of the three trial locations. Compared with the court registry process, the online application was rated as simpler and easier to understand and less stressful. Online applicants also reported that the application process was more accessible and enhanced their sense of agency. The online application process also reduced the workload of court staff and resulted in faster case processing, with online applicants reaching the court hearing stage nearly 2 weeks earlier than paper-based applicants. However, we did not find that the online application process provided earlier or better risk identification.

Time and Alcohol Do Not Change Everything: How Intoxicated Witnesses Perceive Aggression in Intimate Partner Violence

Although alcohol-intoxicated witnesses to violent crimes are common, research on how alcohol affects witnesses' perception of aggression is sparse. In the present study, it was investigated whether different levels of intoxication altered how severe witnesses perceived aggression displayed by involved parties in an intimate partner violence (IPV) scenario to be. An experimental mixed-groups design 3 (sober vs. moderate vs. high breath alcohol concentration [BAC]) x 2 (immediate vs. one week delayed interview) was used. Socially drinking men and women (n = 137; 67 and 70, respectively) were randomized to an alcohol condition (0.8 g/kg adjusted to 0.75 g/kg for women, divided into two intoxication groups: moderate ≤0.08 and high ≥0.08) or a control condition (juice). They were also randomized into a direct interview condition or a delayed interview condition. In a laboratory setting, they consumed drinks and viewed an IPV scenario on film. During their interview, the participants rated how severe they perceived the involved parties' aggression to be. Inter alia, participants in the high BAC group perceived both parties' physically aggressive behavior as comparatively less severe than the sober and moderately intoxicated witnesses did. The high BAC group also perceived the IPV scenario as less unpleasant than the other two groups, and they maintained this perception over time and repeated interviews. A BAC level of ≥0.08 was required to significantly lower witnesses' perceived severity of physical aggression, possibly caused by alcohol's anxiety-dampening effect as well as its impairing effect on cognitive processing capacity over this level of intoxication. That alcohol intoxication at (or over) such a BAC level makes witnesses perceive physical aggression as less severe and less unpleasant, and also that such an altered perception holds over time and repeated interviews, is important for legal practitioners to be aware of when handling intoxicated witnesses to violence. Therefore, this issue warrants further investigation.

Characteristics and Factors Associated With Intimate Partner Violence-Related Homicide Post-Release From Jail or Prison

Intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization and perpetration are common experiences among incarcerated people. Despite knowledge regarding the challenges of re-integrating post-release from jail or prison, including an increased risk of homicide victimization, there is a dearth of research focused on IPV-related homicides post-release from a correctional facility. To address this gap, the current study used 2003-2015 data from the National Violent Death Reporting System from 27 states to examine the characteristics and circumstances surrounding IPV-related homicides soon after the homicide victim was released from jail or prison. Of the 126 post-release homicides, 13.5% were related to IPV. Post-release homicides involving either a female victim or perpetrator were more likely to be IPV-related. In the case of many of the IPV-related homicides, there was evidence of prior IPV as well as potential bystanders (including formal and informal supports) who were aware of the risk for IPV escalation and possible lethality. Compared with non-IPV post-release homicides, those related to IPV were more likely to occur in the victim's home, have been immediately preceded by a physical fight, and have occurred by means other than firearm. These findings highlight the importance of enhancing the capacity of correctional facilities and community-based services to assess for and respond to risk of IPV and IPV-related lethality for individuals leaving correctional institutions.

Criminal Orders of Protection for Domestic Violence: Associated Revictimization, Mental Health, and Well-being Among Victims

All states issue criminal protection orders (POs) with the intention of improving the lives of victims of domestic violence (DV); however, there is a dearth of research examining their impact. This study aims to examine the impact of criminal POs with different levels of restrictions on victims' revictimization, mental health, and well-being. A cross-sectional design was used to collect data regarding two time points during one interview among a sample of 298 victims in a criminal DV case. Across the three levels of PO restrictions (limited, residential stay-away, and full no-contact), participants reported significantly reduced physical, sexual, and psychological DV; unwanted pursuit behavior; post-traumatic stress and depression symptom severity; and perceived stress and fear of revictimization. The amount of change varied between groups for revictimization variables. Full no-contact restrictions were associated with the greatest decreases in revictimization. However, findings must be interpreted with caution given the heterogeneity in victims' experiences; some victims experienced an increase in revictimization and mental health problems and a decrease in well-being. Findings suggest that the court, through criminal POs, may be a system through which to reach victims who might not otherwise connect with services to promote safety and resilience.

Sentencing, Domestic Violence, and the Overrepresentation of Indigenous Australians: Does Court Location Matter?

The significant overrepresentation of Indigenous people in Australian prisons has been the subject of numerous studies. In this article, we build on recent research suggesting that sentencing in domestic violence cases might be an important contributor to this overrepresentation of Indigenous people. We broaden the existing research by examining differences for Indigenous and non-Indigenous defendants in domestic violence cases across a range of sentencing outcomes including imprisonment, probation, fines, and good behavior orders. We also consider whether the degree of geographic remoteness of the court influences these sentencing outcomes. To accomplish this, we use administrative court data from Queensland, Australia, and employ a multinomial hierarchical modeling strategy appropriate for nested court-level multilevel data. The findings further support recent Australian research suggesting that there are sentencing disparities for Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in relation to domestic violence, and in particular, that harsher sentences such as imprisonment are disproportionately reserved for Indigenous defendants. Our research demonstrates that these disparities in the likelihood of imprisonment occur irrespective of defendants' domestic violence protection order (DVO) breach histories and the location of the sentencing court. Based on the findings, we conclude with a discussion of possible ways forward. Although there is no question that Indigenous women should be safe and free from violence, supporting a harsher sentencing regime for those who breach DVOs is not effective. Instead, we argue that flexible strategies that work within and for Indigenous communities in Australia are required.

Can Justice System Interventions Prevent Intimate Partner Homicide? An Analysis of Rates of Help Seeking Prior to Fatality

When women are killed, they are more likely to be killed by an intimate partner than anyone else, and a substantial number of women who are killed by an intimate were abused by that intimate partner before their death. The proportion of men killed by an intimate partner is much lower and prior research indicates that male intimate partner homicide victims are likely to abuse their partners prior to their deaths. However, limited research has examined the criminal and civil justice help seeking of intimate partner homicide victims. This study examines administrative data from one large urban police jurisdiction to understand rates of help seeking by homicide victims in the 1 to 3 years prior to the homicide. Over 4 years (2010-2014), 197 women and 776 men were killed. The proportion of women killed by an intimate or ex-intimate partner was 39.6%, and the proportion of men killed by an intimate or ex-intimate partner was 3.9%. Police had been in contact with the victim of intimate partner femicides for a domestic violence complaint in 91% of cases in the 3 years prior to the femicide (44.9% resulted in arrest), with an average of 6.2 visits per contacted victim. Among male intimate partner homicide victims, 73.3% had been the complainant on a domestic violence case (38.1% resulted in arrest). Few (<10%) victims sought protection orders before the homicide. Over the 3 years prior to their deaths, 36.7% of male homicide victims and 9.0% of femicide victims had been the suspect in a domestic violence case. Results indicate high rates of engagement of police officers with intimate partner homicide victims before their deaths, and highlight the opportunity for homicide prevention through integration of risk assessment (to identify high-risk cases) and enhanced criminal justice and social service interventions in high-risk cases.

Risk and Protective Factors for Batterer Intervention Treatment Program Attrition: How Completers Are Distinct From Dropouts and No-Shows

The current study assessed attrition in batterer intervention treatment programs (BIPs). The influence of 25 risk and protective factors on treatment "no shows," "dropouts," and "completers" were examined for a large sample of male and female intimate partner violence offenders (n = 1,553). Multinomial regression analysis demonstrated that the relationship between risk/protective factors and treatment engagement was different across most factors: No shows were less likely to have a high school diploma/general educational development (GED), be employed, or to be on probation, and more likely to report a mental health problem, or have a history of drug crimes than completers (but not dropouts), while dropouts were more likely to have a history of general violence or property crimes than completers (but not no-shows). These distinctions can inform efforts to improve intake procedures and engagement strategies, and enhance recognition of "red flags" for early treatment disengagement.

A Nation-Wide Assessment of Empowerment Among States' Personal Protective Order Statutes

The Personal Protective Order (PPO) and the PPO process may provide an opportunity to shift power dynamics from the state/abuser to the victim-a process otherwise known as "victim empowerment." Using a previously established empowerment framework, the Empowerment Process Model, 2017 PPO statutes for all U.S. states and the District of Columbia (n = 51) were examined in regard to 23 statutory elements conceptualized to facilitate the process of victim empowerment for initmate partner violence (IPV) victims. Findings demonstrated that there is little consistency across PPO statutes in regard to empowerment facilitators (8.0-18.5, M = 13.5, SD = 2.3). Three elements were found to be consistently empowering by most states: the use of gender-neutral language, inclusion of same-sex couple violence, and adherence to full faith and credit provision of Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). Future research should examine which statutory elements are associated with the greatest increases in victim empowerment, and model PPO language should be developed. Furthermore, in general, PPO research findings must be discussed within the confines of state statutes and limited generalizability across states.

A Web of Disheartenment With Hope on the Horizon: Intimate Partner Violence in Rural and Northern Communities

Intimate partner violence (IPV) has become a worldwide epidemic, yet little is known about the experiences of women survivors living in rural and Northern Canadian communities. Existing statistics suggest that women living in rural areas of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and Northwest Territories (NWT) are at a significantly higher risk of experiencing IPV. To better understand the experiences of IPV in these regions, qualitative interviews were conducted with service providers, including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Victims Services, Shelter Services, counselors, and others (e.g., physicians). In total, 122 participants were interviewed. These interviews were analyzed using a grounded theory approach where the data/results were transformed into a pictorial matrix that documents the struggles that service providers endure. The matrix/results highlight how social issues, such as isolation and poverty, contribute to social oppressions, such as lack of resources, transportation, and/or services. As service providers struggle against these forces, they begin to develop feelings of disheartenment. Yet, they continue to fight because there are opposing forces, such as Emergency Intervention Orders, police transportation, and Victim Services, that demonstrate how societal response is improving the lives and increasing safety in rural and Northern communities. Ultimately, the results suggest that to reduce the incidences of IPV, we must go beyond the violent acts and deal with the social contexts in which IPV resides.

Factors Influencing Law Enforcement Responses to Child to Parent Violence

A domestic violence incident perpetrated by a child toward his or her parent presents a challenging dynamic for law enforcement officers responding to these calls for service. To date, law enforcement responses to child to parent violence (CPV) have only been studied dichotomously (i.e., decision to arrest), and as a result, the associated complexities are not well understood. Here, we add to the understanding of individual, situational, and contextual factors that influence law enforcement response to CPV by examining 1,113 calls for service in a Midwestern state. In assessing the relative influence of these factors on responses using a multinomial logistic regression with cluster robust standard errors, we find evidence that the gendered nature of CPV victim-offender dyads and the presence of victim injury influences police decision to arrest in lieu of an informal, de-escalation only response. We also find officers are less likely to refer youth to social welfare agencies or arrest a youth perpetrator when CPV occurs in neighborhoods with a high level of family disruption. In these instances, the officer works to deescalate the situation, but is significantly less likely to take further action or formally refer the family to social resources. Researchers must work to better understand CPV prevention and improve system responses and resources for affected families.

Safeguarding Children's Well-Being: Voices From Abused Mothers Navigating Their Relationships and the Civil Courts

Battered mothers often go to great lengths to protect their children from abuse. Most of these efforts play out in private settings such as the home. After their relationships end, women's actions shift to the public sphere for judgment by the courts. Abusers' strategies utilize the courts as another tool with which to call into question and challenge their former partners' parenting. Images of "good mothers" who behave passively are favored by officials who often have incomplete understandings of the dynamics of intimate partner violence and abuse. Existing studies about justice-involved mothers insufficiently portray women's experiences managing both continued abuse from past partners as well as discriminating treatment by the courts. Semistructured interviews with 25 women in the United States who have terminated their abusive relationships reveal strategies of negotiation and resistance used to protect their children both during and after their relationships; the women also recount instances of paternalism and naïveté present in civil and criminal courts. While their male abusers seemed to receive leniency from court officials, despite, in some cases, violating judges' direct orders, the women's efforts were sometimes interpreted as recalcitrance and disobedience when they challenged unfair labels, visitation, and custody decisions. This qualitative study contextualizes women's efforts and actions taken to safeguard their children during and after their relationships to highlight women's experiences the courts overlook and misconstrue as well as what happens when women engage with the courts. Policy suggestions include ways to prevent the continued victimization of battered women by the courts, to challenge the pejorative assessment of mother's protective behaviors, and to illuminate court officials' malfeasance and toleration of fathers' tactics.

Seeking Help From Police for Intimate Partner Violence: Applying a Relationship Phase Framework to the Exploration of Victims' Evolving Needs

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a pervasive social problem requiring multiple levels of intervention across sectors. Women experiencing IPV often seek assistance from police. Such help-seeking efforts are frequently perceived as problematic by both victims and police. A deeper understanding of victims' needs than is currently evident in the literature is needed to facilitate an appropriate, victim-centered police response across a diverse range of victim presentations. Applying a symbolic interactionist and feminist perspective and guided by a constructivist grounded theory approach, this qualitative study aimed to explore the application of Landenburger's model of entrapment in and recovery from violent relationships to understand victims' help-seeking needs when accessing police services. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 16 female victims residing in the culturally diverse Western metropolitan region of Melbourne, Australia. Fourteen victims participated in follow-up interviews. All victims primarily sought to stop the violence and hoped to find a powerful ally in police. Additional help-seeking needs were identified; subtle variations in victims' aspirations for safety, ego-support, and justice were found across the binding, enduring, disengaging, and recovery relationship phases. Victims progressed from focusing only on the immediate violent event during the binding phase to seeking to maintain long-term safety and exert their rights to protection and freedom from abuse in the recovery phase. While the operational response of police is dependent on level of violence and immediate concerns for victims' physical safety, victims' help-seeking aims are very much contingent upon their relationship phase and the associated strategies for managing the violence they use. In particular, this study provides insight into the needs of women in the enduring relationship phase, when factors such as diminished agency and low expectations of legal protection were found to constrain victims' help-seeking aspirations, sometimes eventuating in a cycle of chronic police intervention.

College Students' Beliefs About Domestic Violence: A Replication and Extension

In recent decades, significant effort and money have been spent to change social and legal responses to domestic violence and affect public perceptions. A small body of research has examined individuals' opinions about what behaviors are considered domestic violence. Using a sample of college students, the present study examined a modified version of a somewhat popular instrument used to measure beliefs about domestic violence, extending previous work done by Carlson and Worden. Results indicated beliefs about domestic violence are multidimensional, depending on the nature of the behavior and, in part, the gender of the perpetrator. Opinions about the lawfulness of these behaviors fit the same factor structure as beliefs about domestic violence. Demographic characteristics, current relationship status, secondhand experiences with domestic violence, and perceived prevalence of domestic violence in the community are generally not related to beliefs about domestic violence or the lawfulness of these behaviors. However, attributions of blame on the victim are negatively related to domestic violence beliefs and lawfulness. Moreover, lawfulness is a key covariate for domestic violence beliefs. In addition, results also indicate that the gender of the perpetrator is an important variable affecting student's beliefs about sexual assault behaviors. Results from this study support the prevailing ideas behind the Battered Women's Movement that enacting policies and educational programs deeming domestic violence socially, morally, and legally wrong could shift long-standing sociocultural beliefs about men's use of violence against women. Implications of this study for research and policy specific to college students are discussed.

Effect of race on suspect injuries during encounters with police

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the effects of race and ethnicity on suspect injuries during use of force encounters with police in Tucson, Arizona.

METHODS

Data on all use of force cases recorded by the Tucson Police Department from January 2018 to March 2020 were analysed. Logistic regression was used to estimate the effects of race and ethnicity on the likelihood of suspect injuries controlling for a variety of other factors.

RESULTS

Overall, 28.5% of people who had force used against them by Tucson police were injured. Multivariate analyses reveal that among those who had force used against them, African-American suspects were significantly less likely than white suspects to be injured. The risk of injury for other racial and ethnic groups is about the same as the risk for white suspects. Resisting arrest and seeking to escape from police custody do not increase the risk of injury among suspects, but assaulting officers or other individuals does increase the risk of injury. Certain types of force, such as canines, firearms and TASERs, are associated with significantly elevated risks of injury among suspects.

CONCLUSIONS

Numerous interest groups have raised concerns about the police use of force against minorities. Using publicly available data, this analysis examined the effects of race and ethnicity on risk of injury during the use of force encounters with police in Tucson. The findings reveal that minorities are not injured at elevated rates relative to whites. To the contrary, African-American suspects are less likely to be injured than white suspects are.

Is Readiness to Take Action Among Women in Violent Relationships a Catastrophic Phenomenon?

Taking action among women in violent relationships appears to involve sudden changes and reversals after periods of building stress, suggesting that decision making is a "catastrophic" phenomenon. This study sought to determine whether readiness-to-change is best modeled as a cusp catastrophic (CCM) phenomenon among women in violent relationships. A total of 143 women who experienced violence in the previous month completed baseline and end-of-study interviews assessing her hope, coping strategies, social network, and readiness-for-action (seeking help, taking legal action, and leaving) concerning the violence. Daily assessments of his violent behavior, forgiveness sought and given, and her perceived need-for-action were collected via telephone Interactive Voice Response for 8 weeks. Using regression analysis, the impact of factor-analyzed asymmetry (violence burden) and bifurcation (hope and cope, support, forgiveness, and number of children) variables on the outcomes (readiness-for-help, legal action, and leaving) was modeled, comparing the CCM against linear models to determine which model accounts for the most variance in each outcome. Cusp catastrophe models for all three actions accounted for more variance than either linear model comparison, but violence burden was only relevant to readiness-for-help and different bifurcation variables were at work for each action. While forgiveness was an important bifurcation factor in readiness-for-help and number of children served as the bifurcation factor for readiness-for-legal-action, readiness-to-leave was more complex with both number of children and hope-and-cope as bifurcation factors. Not only should we expect sudden changes in readiness but efforts to facilitate decision making should focus on addressing the bifurcation factors that may distort her interpretation of reality.

Predictors of Perceived Need for and Actual Action Taking Among Women in Violent Relationships

Decision-making of women in violent relationships is poorly understood. The study seeks to identify predictors of need-for-action and actions taken by women in violent relationships. The participants were 143 women who experienced violence in previous month from 6 primary care clinics. The methods involved multiple times series using daily assessments of household environment, marital relationship, concerns, violence, and need-for-action collected via telephone interactive voice response for 8 weeks. Outcomes include daily need-for-action and reports of actions taken. Same-day correlates and prior-day associations using vector autoregressions were sought, combined across subjects using meta-analytic techniques. Need for help depended on stalking, concern for child safety, forgiveness, and low perceived control; actually seeking help depended on sense of control with same-day stress and need for help. Need for legal action depended on concern for child safety and finances with desire to keep family together; actually taking legal action, correlated only with prior-day stalking and concerns about child safety but less about effects of violence on child. Need to leave depended on his violence, with concern about its effect on child, her forgiveness, and a low desire to keep family together, while actually leaving was primed by a day of his drinking, and triggered by same-day stress and need to leave, but lower levels of her drinking or his seeking forgiveness. Once gone, prior-day stalking and his alcohol use correlated with returning to the relationship. Taking action depends upon few prior- and same-day factors unique to each action.

Beyond Advocacy: Mapping the Contours of Victim Work

In contrast to works on victim advocacy in specific organizational contexts, this article introduces the term "victim work" to capture the vast array of victim-related roles and tasks that have proliferated in recent decades. Data are derived from in-depth interviews with 30 "victim workers" in public and private agencies in two Midwestern states. The interviews revealed diverse work experiences that spanned hotlines, crisis response, legal proceedings, and postconviction support. Three themes emerged that characterize "victim work": flexibility, emotions, and the challenge of "fit"-the multifaceted difficulties of interacting with victims and agents of the justice system. Based on the findings, we offer a revised model of criminal justice vis-à-vis victims and implications for practice and future research.

Removing Firearms From Those Prohibited From Possession by Domestic Violence Restraining Orders: A Survey and Analysis of State Laws

Under federal and many state laws, persons under domestic violence restraining orders (DVROs) are prohibited from possession of firearms. Using multiple sources and a Lexis Nexis search, we developed a list of state laws pertaining to the relinquishment or removal of firearms from persons prohibited from possession by DVROs. After downloading the text of each law, we conducted a legal analysis to enumerate provisions of the laws specifying implementation. We found 49 laws in 29 states and Washington, DC. The laws were conceptualized as instructions to the court, the respondent, and law enforcement. We detail the content of each state's law, including such elements as whether it applies to ex parte DVROs; whether certain criteria must be met, such as previous use of a firearm in domestic violence or lack of an employment exemption, before the law can be applied; and whether the application of the law is mandatory. We also detail instructions to the respondent regarding to whom firearms may be relinquished, whether the respondent must seek permission to transfer the firearm to a third party, and the time by which dispossession must occur. Finally, whether law enforcement bears the responsibility for removing the firearm or whether the law gives the court the authority to order a search and seizure for the firearms is discussed. The purpose of the research is to provide an overview of these state laws that can be used by key stakeholders in legislative, judicial, advocacy, or research roles. Implications are discussed.

An Assessment of the Prevalence, Perceived Significance, and Response to Dowry Solicitation and Domestic Violence in Bangladesh

The current study focuses on the prevalence of two pervasive gender-related crimes in Bangladesh: dowry solicitation and domestic violence. We assess victim perceptions of how these two crimes rank in significance compared with other types of crimes experienced and the actions victim households took in response. Our research builds on prior qualitative studies by making use of nation-wide household survey data, collected by the World Bank, to examine dowry and domestic violence in the context of all legal conflicts experienced by households in every administrative region of the country. The analyses show that both dowry solicitation and domestic violence rank in the top five most common crimes, including violent and non-violent crimes. Women report more experiences of dowry solicitation and domestic violence, with urban females most frequently disclosing both. Among the households that experienced multiple types of violent and non-violent crimes, 55.9% of dowry and 70.8% of domestic violence victims reported another crime ranked higher in significance. Of the households that considered these two crimes the most serious they experienced, 56.1% of dowry and 32.5% of domestic violence households took no action at all in response. Among the households that took action, most eschewed both police and state judicial institutions. Choosing to act alone or with the help of family members was the most frequent response. The findings illustrate the need for governance reforms in Bangladesh and may inform state and non-state improvement initiatives.

The Subjective Court Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence Victims: Does Motherhood Matter?

Many women with children experience intimate partner violence (IPV). These survivors are particularly important to assist, because countless have complex safety concerns related to their children. Mothers' concerns about their children have been shown to impact their decision making related to abuse, but researchers have not closely explored what happens during mothers' interactions with help sources. This study examined whether women with (n = 98) and without (n = 44) children differ in a) their court experiences through their perceptions of procedural and distributive justice, and b) the context of their lives surrounding the court experience. We also explored the relationship between contextual factors and procedural and distributive justice. Results indicate participants were relatively satisfied with their court experiences, despite experiencing reabuse, danger, and fear throughout court processes. Mothers reported significantly higher levels of distributive justice and contact with the abusive partner than non-mothers. However, mothers did not differ significantly from non-mothers with regard to procedural justice, fear, danger, reabuse or reliance on the abusive partner. Results of multiple regression analyses indicated the interaction between fear and motherhood significantly predicted participants' perceptions of distributive justice, as did the interaction between danger and motherhood. In these interactions, mothers' fear and perceptions of danger were not related to their perception of distributive justice. However, non-mothers who reported higher levels of fear and danger perceived less distributive justice. Results suggest mothers and non-mothers enter the system with similar life contexts, and that these contextual factors impact their perceptions of court outcomes differently.

Domestic Violence Protective Orders: A Qualitative Examination of Judges' Decision-Making Processes

Approximately one in three women in the United States experience intimate partner violence (IPV). IPV is associated with long-term negative health consequences; therefore, there is a need to examine potential prevention strategies. Evidence suggests that domestic violence protective orders (DVPOs), a legal intervention that prevents contact between two parties for up to 12 months, are an effective secondary prevention tool. However, because judges have relative autonomy in granting or denying DVPOs, research is needed to examine the processes they use to guide their decisions. The aim of the study was to investigate how District Court judges decide whether to issue a DVPO. Using in-depth interviews with 20 North Carolina District Court judges, the present study addressed three research questions: (a) what factors influence judges' decisions to grant or deny a DVPO, (b) what heuristics or cognitive shortcuts potentially guide their decisions, and (c) what judges worry about when making decisions. Three themes emerged from the data analyses: (a) violent incidents must reach a certain threshold, (b) the presence of children creates competing concerns, and (c) judges worry about the negative impact their decisions may have on the lives of those involved. Recommendations for improving the DVPO issuance process are also discussed.

Violence Against Women: Placing Evidence From a European Union-Wide Survey in a Policy Context

In the European Union, there continues to be a lack of comprehensive and comparable data on violence against women that can serve to inform policy. In response, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA), which undertakes primary data collection across all 28 EU Member States, published the first European Union-wide survey on violence against women in 2014, which interviewed 42,000 respondents. The findings, which show the extent of violence against women-ranging from intimate partner violence through to sexual harassment-can underpin a renewed policy response to violence at the level of the European Union, based on evidence. Having outlined the survey's approach to data collection, including the methodological challenges of undertaking quantitative survey research across 28 countries, the article briefly describes some of the survey's main findings and follows this by focusing on the realities of nonreporting to different services, which illustrates how the survey's data can be usefully employed to inform policy and practical responses to abuse. The article does not adopt a standard academic journal format for reporting and discussing the analysis of data, but instead focuses on the EU policy backdrop that serves to contextualize the survey and its findings, and which underpins other articles in this special issue that draw in detail on FRA's survey results with respect to specific manifestations of violence against women.

Gender Norms in Portuguese College Students' Judgments in Familial Homicides: Bad Men and Mad Women

The gender of the offender has been proved to be an important factor in judicial sentencing. In this study, we analyze the judgments of College students regarding perpetrators of familial homicides to evaluate the presence of these gender norms and biases in the larger society. The sample included 303 college students (54.8% female) enrolled in several social sciences and engineering courses. Participants were asked to read 12 vignettes based on real crimes taken from Portuguese newspapers. Half were related to infanticide, and half were related to intimate partner homicide. The sex of the offender was orthogonally manipulated to the type of crime. The results show that gender had an important impact on sentences, with males being more harshly penalized by reasons of perversity and women less penalized by reason of mental disorders. In addition, filicide was more heavily penalized than was intimate partner homicide. The results also revealed a tendency toward a retributive conception of punishment. We discuss how gender norms in justice seem to be embedded in society as well as the need for intervention against the punitive tendency of this population.