Can't Live With Them, Can't Live Without Them: The Ambivalent Effects of Existential Outgroup Threat on Helping Behavior

Social comparison theories suggest that ingroups are strengthened whenever important outgroups are weakened (e.g., by losing status or power). It follows that ingroups have little reason to help outgroups facing an existential threat. We challenge this notion by showing that ingroups can also be weakened when relevant comparison outgroups are weakened, which can motivate ingroups to strategically offer help to ensure the outgroups' survival as a highly relevant comparison target. In three preregistered studies, we showed that an existential threat to an outgroup with high (vs. low) identity relevance affected strategic outgroup helping via two opposing mechanisms. The potential demise of a highly relevant outgroup increased participants' perceptions of ingroup identity threat, which was positively related to helping. At the same time, the outgroup's misery evoked schadenfreude, which was negatively related to helping. Our research exemplifies a group's secret desire for strong outgroups by underlining their importance for identity formation.

Daily social comparisons among women in midlife with elevated risk for cardiovascular disease: A within-person test of the identification/contrast model

Women age 40-60 are disproportionately affected by health problems that increase their risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD; e.g. hypertension). Social comparisons (i.e. self-evaluations relative to others) are known to influence health in this and other groups, but their nature and consequences in daily life are poorly understood. We conducted an ecological momentary assessment study over 10 days (5x/day) with 75 women ages 40-60 who had ≥1 CVD risk conditions (MAge = 51.6 years, MBMI = 34.0 kg/m2). Using a mix of frequentist and Bayesian analytic approaches, we examined characteristics of women's naturally occurring comparisons and tested predictions from the Identification/Contrast Model within-person (e.g. identifying with an upward target results in positive affect, whereas contrasting results in negative affect). Comparisons occurred at 21% of moments, with considerable within-person variability in response. In line with predictions from the Identification/Contrast Model, women were more likely to experience positive affect after upward identification or downward contrast and more likely to experience negative affect after upward contrast or downward identification, though observed nuances warrant additional consideration. Overall, findings support the Identification/Contrast Model to describe women's comparison experiences as they occur in daily life. Future work should determine pathways between the immediate consequences of comparisons and longer-term health outcomes.

Development and validation of the Dermatology Social Comparison (DSC) Scale

BACKGROUND

Social comparison, the process of evaluating one's characteristics in relation to others, influences individuals' self-perception and behavior. However, instruments are scarce for assessing social comparison in the medical setting.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to develop and validate a new scale for assessing social comparison.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Seven statements were developed, encompassing the perceived normality of having rashes, the tendency to compare their situation with others, and the emotional response when seeing someone better or worse off than themselves. The instrument was piloted in 15 patients for readability and face validity, then prospectively validated using modern psychometric methods in 1,053 adult patients with eczema or psoriasis from three tertiary dermatological centers in Singapore.

RESULTS

Of 1,053 adult patients, 802 (76.2%) had eczema, and 251 (23.8%) had psoriasis. Exploratory factor analysis (using a 70% sample split) showed a single factor model comprising three questions (Eigenvalue: 1.4). Confirmatory factor analysis with the remaining 30% of the sample confirmed an excellent model fit. Cronbach's alpha was 0.7, and inter-item correlations ranged from 0.42 to 0.46. In the Rasch analysis, item fit statistics and item characteristic curves showed appropriate discrimination between response options, although reliability was suboptimal with a person separation reliability of 0.63.

CONCLUSIONS

Comprising 3 questions, the newly derived social comparison scale showed acceptable psychometrics as a measure of social comparison for clinical and research purposes in dermatology. Its brief nature likely results from its brevity and applicability to conditions beyond eczema and psoriasis, which warrants further investigation.

The contribution of sensory information asymmetry and bias of attribution to egocentric tendencies in effort comparison tasks

When comparing themselves with others, people often evaluate their own behaviors more favorably. This egocentric tendency is often categorized as a bias of attribution, with favorable self-evaluation resulting from differing explanations of one's own behavior and that of others. However, studies on information availability in social contexts offer an alternative explanation, ascribing egocentric biases to the inherent informational asymmetries between performing an action and merely observing it. Since biases of attribution and availability often co-exist and interact with each other, it is not known whether they are both necessary for the egocentric biases to emerge. In this study, we used a design that allowed us to directly compare the contribution of these two distinct sources of bias to judgements about the difficulty of an effortful task. Participants exhibited no attribution bias as judgements made for themselves did not differ from those made for others. Importantly, however, participants perceived the tasks they actively performed to be harder than the tasks they observed, and this bias was magnified as the overall task difficulty increased. These findings suggest that information asymmetries inherent to the difference between actively performing a task and observing it can drive egocentric biases in effort evaluations on their own and without a contribution from biases of attribution.

Competition influences outcome processing involving social comparison: An ERP study

In a complicated social context, outcome evaluation involves not only oneself but also others in relation to the self (i.e., social comparison). Previous event-related potential (ERP) studies have investigated the processing of social comparison-related outcomes when one's interests are independent of the interests of others (i.e., noncompetition circumstances). However, it is unclear how social comparison-related outcomes are processed in the brain when there are conflicts of interest between oneself and others (i.e., competition circumstances). To address this issue, participants in the current study were asked to perform an attentional task with several peers and were subsequently presented with self-related outcomes (i.e., the performance difference between the current trial and several preceding trials) and social comparison-related outcomes (i.e., the performance difference between oneself and their peer). Importantly, rewards and punishments were based on social comparison-related outcomes in the competition condition and on self-related outcomes in the noncompetition condition. ERP results revealed that in the competition condition, positive outcomes involving social comparison elicited a greater P300 response than negative outcomes, whereas this effect was not observed in the noncompetition condition. Additionally, there was generally a larger late positive potential (LPP) response to negative outcomes involving social comparison than to positive outcomes only when one obtained a self-related positive outcome in the competition condition. These findings suggest that competition might strengthen outcome processing involving social comparison at late time ranges relying on self-related outcomes to some extent.

Social Media and Self-Concept Among Postsecondary Students: A Scoping Review

The vast majority of college-aged students use social networking sites (SNS) to foster connectedness and enable networking. In addition, SNS allow individuals to control their online self-presentation. This may lead to incongruence between students' actual selves and their curated online selves, thereby damaging one's self-perception by increasing social comparison orientation. The goal of this article was to investigate the relationship between SNS use and self-concept that has not yet been explored in depth among the postsecondary population. Utilizing Arksey and O'Malley's methodological framework, a scoping review of the published literature was conducted. A total of 41 articles were included in the review. Three overarching themes were extracted from the findings. The first theme found that consistent exposure to the thin ideal and fitspiration posts across various SNS were linked to increased body dissatisfaction. The second theme found that engaging in online academic or ability-based comparisons resulted in a worsened mental state among postsecondary students. The third theme found that one's SNS followers or the number of "likes" received have mixed effects on student self-concept. Through gaining an improved understanding of the SNS stressors that contribute to students' mental health from this review, postsecondary institutions can implement more targeted interventions to bolster student wellbeing.

Introjected regulation and academic burnout: A moderated mediation model of social comparison and distress overtolerance

The primary purpose of this study is to examine the mediation effect of Contrastive Upward Comparison (CUC) on the relationship between introjected regulation and exhaustion (i.e., introjected regulation-CUC-exhaustion). It is also aimed to examine the moderation effect of distress overtolerance on this mediated relationship. In order to resolve the uncertainty about the causality of cross-sectional studies, this study worked on the relationship among the variables by setting an alternative model (i.e., CUC-introjected regulation - exhaustion). The participants were 167 (females, 70.7%) undergraduate and graduate students in South Korea. The results of this study indicated that introjected regulation showed indirect and significant effect on exhaustion via CUC. However, in the alternative model, the indirect effect of introjected regulation in the relationship between CUC and exhaustion was not significant. Furthermore, high distress overtolerance buffered the relationship between introjected regulation and CUC, while it strengthened the association of CUC and exhaustion. Lastly, the results of moderated mediation suggested that students with higher distress overtolerance, experienced more CUC, and emotional exhaustion. The implications and limitations were also discussed.

Subjective economic inequality is associated with lower well-being through more upward comparison and lower trust

Individuals often misconstrue the actual degree of economic inequality, which might account for the ambiguity in the literature about the role that inequality plays in well-being. Instead of focusing on objective inequality, we propose a subjective inequality approach by investigating the long-term association between subjective economic inequality and well-being (N = 613). We found that subjective inequality predicted lower life satisfaction and higher depression one year later, which were accounted for by more upward socioeconomic comparison and lower trust. Furthermore, the negative association between subjective inequality and well-being remained constant, regardless of individuals' objective socioeconomic status (SES), subjective SES, and mindset of SES. The long-term association between subjective inequality and well-being remained robust after controlling for prior levels of well-being and multiple covariates. Our findings revealed that subjective inequality is detrimental to well-being and opens a new window into psychological research on economic inequality.

Empathic forecasting of the big-fish-little-pond effect

The big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE) is the tendency for students to evaluate themselves more favourably when they have high rank in a low rank school than low rank in a high rank school. Research has documented the BFLPE on experienced emotions. We conducted three studies that examined forecasts of how the BFLPE influences other people's emotions (i.e. empathic forecasts). In Study 1, participants received performance feedback about themselves or another person and reported their own affect or anticipated the other person's affect. Results extended the BFLPE to empathic forecasting. Moreover, forecasters anticipated that the BFLPE had a stronger influence on negative emotion than it actually did. Study 2 tested whether neglect of group rank underlies the BFLPE in empathic forecasting. Empathic forecasts were strongly influenced by another person's rank in their group, but only weakly influenced by group rank. Study 3 tested whether extremity of group ranks exacerbates the BFLPE in empathic forecasting. Empathic forecasts were especially favourable (unfavourable) when a target had very high (low) rank in a very low (high) rank group. These data support the BFLPE in empathic forecasting, but also illustrate ways in which it is both similar to and different from actual experience of the effect.

Social-Judgment Comparisons in Daily Life

Comparison processes are critical to social judgments, yet little is known about how individuals compare people other than themselves in daily life (social-judgment comparisons). The present research employed a 7-day experience-sampling design (Nparticipants = 93; Nsurveys = 3,960) with end-of-week and 6-month follow-ups, to examine how individuals make social-judgment comparisons in daily life as well as the cumulative impact of these comparisons over time. Participants compared close (vs. distant) contacts more frequently and made more downward than upward comparisons. Furthermore, downward, relative to upward, comparisons predicted more positive perceptions of the contact, greater closeness to the contact, and greater relationship satisfaction. More frequent downward comparisons involving a particular contact also predicted greater closeness 1 week and 6 months later. When participants made upward comparisons, they were motivated to protect close, but not distant, contacts by downplaying domain importance, and engaging in this protective strategy predicted greater closeness to the contact 1 week later.

Examining social anxiety and dual aspects of social comparison orientation: the moderating role of self-evaluation of social skills

Introduction

Social comparison orientation comprises ability comparison, which entails superior and inferior ratings; and opinion comparison, which does not include such ratings. Previous research on negative emotions and the social rank theory of social anxiety indicates that social anxiety is positively associated with ability comparison. This is particularly true of individuals with a stronger sense of inferiority (e.g., lower self-evaluation of their social skills). Nevertheless, the relationship between the two aspects of social comparison orientation and social anxiety remains unclear.

Methods

Two hundred thirty-eight individuals (Mage = 40.53 ± 9.78 years, 50.4% men) participated in an online cross-sectional survey questionnaire.

Results

Social anxiety was positively correlated with ability comparison but not opinion comparison. The relationship between social anxiety in situations observed by others and ability comparison was stronger for individuals with lower (vs. higher) self-rated social skills.

Discussion

This study showed that the two types of social comparison are differentially related to social anxiety. The findings support the social rank theory of social anxiety, which states that social comparisons involving superior and inferior ratings lead to social anxiety owing to the perception of one's inferiority. Making such social comparisons can result in heightened social anxiety, particularly for individuals with low self-evaluations of social skills. The results indicate the importance of these social comparisons in the emergence and persistence of social anxiety. Furthermore, the potential of interventions based on mindfulness, compassion, social media, and video feedback in mitigating the negative effects of such social comparisons is discussed.

Identification with and Social Comparison to Teen Mothers on Teen Mom Over Time

This study replicates from a cross-sectional study about how young Latina teen viewers identify with and socially compare to teen mothers on MTV's Teen Mom over time. Identification and social comparison effects on attitudes toward teen pregnancy were assessed among the same group of Latina teen viewers at two different time points approximately one year apart. Results determined that upward social comparison and identification were associated with positive attitudes toward teen pregnancy in eighth grade, whereas downward social comparison was associated with negative attitudes toward teen pregnancy in ninth grade. Implications for teen mom reality programming audiences are discussed.

Validation of the online version of the sharenting evaluation scale (SES) in Iranian parents: Psychometric properties and concurrent validity

INTRODUCTION

This study examines the psychometric properties of the online version of the sharenting evaluation scale (SES) with a sample of Iranian parents.

METHODS

A sample population of 240 parents (25% fathers and 75% mothers) with an average age of 39.63 (standard deviation = 10.41) were selected by convenience sampling method and completed the Persian version of the SES online.

RESULTS

Findings showed that concurrent validity of the SES with social comparison and social well being was within the acceptable range. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the SES was 0.92, and for the subscales of self-control, social behavior, and implications were, respectively, 0.84, 0.71, and 0.70, which indicated good internal consistency between the items. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the Persian version of this scale same as the English version. The Persian version of the SES demonstrated psychometric properties of validity and reliability within the acceptable range (α = .70 and .84). In the present study, the results of convergent validity showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between sharing and constructs, such as social comparison, self-control, implications, and social behaviors, but no significant relationship was found between social well being and sharing.

CONCLUSIONS

Persian version of the SES is a suitable scale to measure the degree to which parents share their children's sensitive content on the Internet and social media.

Health and Psychological Concerns of Communities Affected by Per- and Poly-Fluoroalkyl Substances: The Case of Residents Living in the Orange Area of the Veneto Region

Residents of an extensive area of the Veneto Region (Italy) face one of the largest technological disasters due to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). On the basis of a risk gradient of contamination, the affected territories were divided into 4 areas: Red (of maximum exposure, where a human biomonitoring programme (HBM) was activated), Orange, Yellow, and Green. This article presents a case study of residents who live in the Orange Area, the second area in terms of contamination, excluded from the HBM. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 residents engaged in promoting a legal procedure to exercise their right to know. Grounded theory and a thematic analysis method were used. Overall, the findings revealed that experiencing contamination causes a negative psychosocial impact on the residents' lives; difficulty accessing information; living with uncertainty, caused by the lack of institutional and health support and medical consultation; a sense of abandonment; difficulty managing preventive and protective actions; and the deterioration of relationships, on the basis of the social comparison with residents of the Red Area, to whom HBM was granted and where the concept of health ostracism has emerged. This study demonstrated that biomonitoring may help reduce discomfort in the case of contamination by informing people of their chemical exposure.

Social Comparison and Body Image in Teenage Users of the TikTok App

BACKGROUND AND AIM

The TikTok app is one of the video-based social media platforms that is currently trending and commonly used by teenagers. The data about teenage users of the TikTok app are limited. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of TikTok app use among teenagers in Saudi Arabia and to investigate the association between TikTok app use and the social comparison and the body image of the study population. Further, to explore the potential associations between the social comparison and the body image of the TikTok app users and their different characteristics.

METHODS

This cross-sectional survey study was conducted all over Saudi Arabia. The study included male and female teenagers, aged 12-19 years. The researchers used a structured, self-administered questionnaire to collect data, and it was disseminated using different social media platforms. The social comparison was measured using the questionnaire of the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure, and the body image was measured using the Measurement of the Body Image Scale. The data were analyzed using the SPSS software version 26 (Chicago, IL: SSPS Inc.). Continuous variables were compared using the Student's t-test, Mann-Whitney U test, or Kruskal-Wallis tests, whereas categorical variables were compared using the Chi-square or Fisher's exact tests as appropriate. Spearman's rank correlation was applied to investigate the association between body image and social comparison scores among TikTok app users and non-users.

RESULTS

This study included 384 Saudi teenagers. Females (n=260) outnumbered males (n=124) (67.7% and 32.3%, respectively), and the mean of their age was 16.3±2.0 years. The researchers found a high prevalence (343/384, 89.3%) of TikTok app use among the studied teenagers. There was a significantly high median of the social comparison score among the TikTok app users (33.0, IQR: 28.0-38.0) compared to the non-users (28.0, IQR: 26.0-34.0), p=0.005. TikTok app users also showed a significantly lower median body image score (64.0, IQR: 54.0-72.0) in comparison to the non-users (67.0, IQR: 58.0-73.0), p=0.037. The correlation between social comparison and body image among teenagers using TikTok showed a negative relationship, but it was not significant (p=0.110). However, a significant negative weak relationship was found between body image and comparison of abilities (rs coefficient=-0.113, p=0.037).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of the current study indicate a high prevalence of TikTok use among teenagers in Saudi Arabia. The use of TikTok was associated with a high social comparison and a negative body image, with more than half of the users expressing a negative body image. Comparison of abilities was associated with an increased level of body dissatisfaction. These findings emphasize the need for the development and implementation of public health policies and awareness programs to promote body acceptance, especially for young people across the country. Future studies should focus on the long-term impact of TikTok use on psychological health.

Cognitive factors underlying the impact of postmigration stressors on subjective well-being: Well-being comparisons and self-efficacy

BACKGROUND

Migration and the resulting challenges in the host country can have a profound impact on the mental health of refugees and intensify preoccupation with one's own well-being. Yet, cognitive factors underlying the adverse impact of postmigration stressors are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed at exploring the frequency and nature of well-being comparisons in the context of flight and migration using the Comparison Standards Scale for Well-being (CSS-W), which assesses well-being related social, temporal, counterfactual, criteria-based and dimensional aversive and appetitive comparisons. We further aimed at examining the mediating role of well-being comparisons and general self-efficacy in the relationship between postmigration stressors and psychological well-being.

METHODS

We conducted a survey with 1070 Arabic speaking forcibly displaced people in Germany assessing well-being comparisons, general self-efficacy, postmigration stressors, subjective well-being and social media engagement.

RESULTS

Factor analysis of the CSS-W yielded a theoretically grounded two-factor structure proposing an aversive (mostly upward) and an appetitive (mostly downward) comparison factor. Aversive and appetitive comparisons were reported by more than 99% of participants, with temporal comparisons being reported by 98.7% of participants. Postmigration stressors were significantly related to subjective well-being and aversive well-being comparisons and general self-efficacy partially mediated this relationship. Appetitive well-being comparisons, however, were not significantly related to neither postmigration stressors nor general self-efficacy.

CONCLUSION

Aversive well-being comparisons and general self-efficacy seem to play a significant role in the adverse effects of postmigration stressors on subjective well-being. Longitudinal research is needed to examine the directional dynamics between general self-efficacy, well-being comparisons and postmigration stressors.

The interplay of self-acceptance, social comparison and attributional style in adolescent mental health: cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is a pivotal stage vulnerable to mental health problems such as anxiety and depression. Although self-acceptance and social comparison are known to affect adolescent mental health, their interactive and moderating roles are not fully understood.

AIMS

To explore the role of self-acceptance, social comparison and attributional style in predicting these mental health outcomes among adolescents in clinical settings.

METHOD

A cross-sectional study was conducted on a sample of 242 adolescents. Participants completed measures assessing self-acceptance, social comparison, attributional style and mental health outcomes (depression and anxiety). Mediation models and multi-group analysis were used to examine the relationships among these variables.

RESULTS

Our findings demonstrated a significant relationship between self-acceptance, social comparison, depression and anxiety (rs = 0.32-0.88). Specifically, lower self-acceptance and higher social comparison were associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety. Additionally, individuals with external attributional tendencies reported higher depression (Cohen's d = 0.61) and anxiety (d = 0.58) compared with those with internal tendencies. Mediation modelling showed that social comparison is a mediator between self-acceptance and depression (effect size -0.04, 95% CI -0.08 to -0.01) and anxiety (effect size -0.06, 95% CI -0.10 to -0.02). Crucially, multi-group analysis showed that the impact of social comparison on mental health outcomes varied significantly based on attributional style.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscore the importance of considering self-acceptance, social comparison and attributional style in understanding and addressing mental health challenges during adolescence. This could inform the development of targeted interventions to promote mental health and well-being among adolescents. However, further research is needed to confirm these findings in diverse populations and to explore the underlying mechanisms in greater detail.

Comparison Is the Thief of Joy? Introducing the Attitudes Towards Social Comparison Inventory

Social comparison has a significant impact on individuals' motivation, affect, and behavior. However, we lack a scale that captures individual differences in attitudes toward social comparison. To address this gap, we developed the Attitudes Toward Social Comparison Inventory (ASCI) drawing on existing scales that tap into metacognitive beliefs about worrying, self-motives, beliefs about emotions, and the general comparative-processing model. We examined the psychometric properties of the ASCI in a longitudinal study (N = 1,084), and a second (N = 550) and third cross-sectional study (N = 306). Through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, we identified a 12-item two-factor solution capturing positive and negative attitudes toward social comparison. The ASCI demonstrated measurement invariance across gender and time. The two factors were differentially and longitudinally associated with relevant constructs, including social comparison, metacognitive beliefs about worrying, depression, self-concept clarity, envy, and self-esteem. The ASCI facilitates comprehensive investigations of social comparison processes.

#Blessed: the moderating effect of dispositional gratitude on the relationship between social comparison and envy on Instagram

Introduction

The role of dispositional gratitude as a positive psychological resource and prosocial personality trait in real life interactions militates in favor of its introduction to the research field of social media.

Methods

Based on a literature review of the previously studied relationship of dispositional gratitude with social comparison and envy in offline settings, a twofold moderation model was proposed and quantitatively tested in a cross-sectional sample of N = 268 Instagram users aged between 18 and 40 years. Additionally, the dual conceptualization of benign and malicious envy was scrutinized by validating its respective connections with affective outcomes and inspiration on Instagram.

Results and discussion

Dispositional gratitude serves as a protective factor when using Instagram by significantly mitigating the relationship of social comparison and malicious as well as general envy on Instagram. Furthermore, the results support the more nuanced understanding of envy as a dual construct in the face of social media use.

A Sense of Scarcity Enhances the Above-Average Effect in Social Comparison

Scarcity refers to a state in which an individual's resources do not satisfy his/her needs. A sense of scarcity evokes negative emotions. A fundamental strategy for coping with this negative threat is for people to emphasize the desirability of their personal traits. In this study, a 2 (sense of scarcity: high or low) × 2 (valence: positive or negative) mixed-design experiment was conducted to examine whether and how a sense of scarcity affected one's self-evaluation. Participants were assigned randomly to a high- or low-scarcity group. The chances of assistance rendered to an individual during a word puzzle task were manipulated to induce a high or low sense of scarcity. Then, participants were asked to make positive and negative trait judgments of themselves compared with their average peers. The results showed that people judged their personalities to be more desirable (i.e., more positive and less negative traits) than their average peers, manifesting the above-average effect. More importantly, people with a high sense of scarcity manifested a greater above-average effect than those with a low sense of scarcity. This study suggests that people could highlight their positive aspects to cope with predicaments in social life.

#influenced! The impact of social media influencing on self-esteem and the role of social comparison and resilience

Social media influencers (SMIs) are online personas that acquire significant audiences on social networking sites (SNS) and have become a prevalent part of social media. Previous research indicates potentially detrimental effects of social media use on mental well-being, however, little is known about whether, how, and for whom online comparisons with SMIs lead to adverse psychological effects. In this study, we investigate the impact of positivity-biased images of female SMIs on the state self-esteem of female participants while considering social comparison processes as mediating and individual resilience as moderating factors. Regression analyses showed that acute exposure to positivity-biased SMI images led to upward social comparisons, which in turn predicted lower state self-esteem. Thus, results revealed a significant mediating effect of social comparisons on the association between image type and state self-esteem. However, when observing the direct effect of image type on state self-esteem, we found that the exposure to positivity-biased SMI images unexpectedly led to higher overall levels of state self-esteem relative to the control group. In light of contemporary social comparison literature, subsequent post-hoc analyses suggest that exposure to SMI images in this study may have prompted both contrastive and assimilative upwards comparisons, leading to varying consequences for distinct self-esteem dimensions, ultimately manifesting in the observed suppression effect. Resilience was not found to moderate the proposed associations. Thus, the findings of this study offer new insights into the impact of SMIs on individuals' self-evaluations online, challenging previous assumptions, and suggest a need for further examination.

Whether and how will using social media induce social anxiety? The correlational and causal evidence from Chinese society

Background

Prior literature has well established the relationship between social media use and social anxiety, but little attention has been paid to the underlying mechanisms. Additionally, the causal evidence concerning the effect of social media use on social anxiety is scarce.

Objective

Given that, two studies were conducted to examine the effect of social media use on social anxiety and the underlying mechanisms.

Methods and results

In Study 1, with 470 undergraduates as participants, we applied the questionnaire survey to investigate the relationship between social media use and social anxiety. The results showed that higher social media use intensity was significantly related to higher social anxiety, and social media use was related to social anxiety via two possible mediation paths: (1) social media use → upward social comparison → social anxiety, (2) and social media use → upward social comparison → self-esteem → social anxiety. In Study 2, with 180 undergraduates as participants, we conducted a lab experiment, in which participants were assigned to the experimental (exposed to the content that undergraduates frequently access on social media) or control (exposed to landscape documentaries) condition, and then measured their upward social comparison, self-esteem and social anxiety. The results showed that participants in the experimental condition reported higher social anxiety than those in the control condition, demonstrating the causality between social media exposure and social anxiety. The subsequent mediation analysis basically replicated the findings of Study 1. That is, upward social comparison played the mediating role between social media exposure and social anxiety, and upward social comparison and self-esteem played the chain-mediating role between them.

Conclusion

The current research firstly demonstrated the causality between social media use and social anxiety in Chinese society, and also revealed the mediating mechanisms between them, which would deepen our understanding of how social media use will increase social anxiety.

Psychometric evaluation and validation of Urdu Social Rank Scale for women with infertility in Pakistan

Background

Infertility negatively affects nearly all aspects of women's life and is a source of demotion in the rank/status of women that they have achieved after marriage. This social rank/status demotion due to infertility may result in depression and several other psychopathologies. No extant instrument is available to measure the phenomenon of social rank in women with infertility in Pakistan.

Objective

The aim of the current study was to evaluate the psychometric properties and validate the Social Rank Scale for women experiencing infertility in Pakistan.

Methodology

This study was conducted in four phases. The data were collected from women with primary infertility who visited hospitals all over Pakistan from 2016 to 2018. Social Rank Scale for Women with Infertility (SRS-WI) comprising of two scales, the Social Comparison Scale for Women with Infertility (SCS-WI) and the Submissive Behavior Scale for Women with Infertility (SBS-WI), was developed.

Results

The factor structure of 37 items of SCS-WI and of 21 items of SBS-WI was determined through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on a sample of 215 women with primary infertility with an age range of 20-45 years (Mage = 31.03; SD = 6.18). Principal component analysis with varimax rotation method yielded a three-factor solution for SCS-WI, and 32 items were retained for SCS-WI that accounted for 62.38% variance. For SBS-WI, a uni-factor solution was obtained, and 20 items were retained for SBS-WI, which collectively accounted for 42.01% variance. The factor structure for both scales was confirmed via confirmatory factor analysis among a sample of 210 participants with good model fit indices.

Conclusion

The study provides acceptable psychometric properties of the SRS-WI in Pakistan. Testing of psychometric properties in different groups of samples would justify the generalized use of the instrument.

Outcome Evaluation in Social Comparison: When You Deviate from Others

Individuals often measure their performance through social comparison. With the increase in the deviation degree between the self and others, the outcome evaluation of individuals' abilities in the social comparison context is still unknown. In the current study, we used a two self-outcomes × three others' outcomes within-participant design to investigate the effect of the deviation degree of the self versus others in the social comparison context. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were measured while participants performed a three-person dot estimation task with two other people. When participants received positive results, the amplitudes of feedback-related negativity (FRN) and P300 showed a significant gradient change in the degree of deviation between the self and others (even win vs. better win vs. best win conditions). However, we did not find a similar progressive effect when participants received negative results (even loss vs. worse loss vs. worst loss conditions). These findings suggest that the deviation degree affects the primary and later processing stages of social comparison outcomes only when individuals received positive outcomes, which may reflect how people develop an empathic response to others. In contrast, people tended to avoid deeper social comparison that threatened their self-esteem when they received negative outcomes.

Network Ties, Upward Status Heterophily, and Unanticipated Health Consequences

Using cross-national data containing information on the status rank of network alters, this study investigates the potential negative effects of "upward status heterophily," ties to and perceived interaction with higher status others. According to our main finding, upward status heterophily is associated with poor physical health and lower subjective well-being. We also find that this focal relationship varies across individual and contextual moderators. For subjective well-being only, it is weaker among people who are better educated, have larger nonkin network, and possess greater self-efficacy. Moreover, there is a significant cross-level interaction: For both health outcomes, the relationship is more pronounced in subnational regions that are economically more unequal. Our findings shed light on the mechanisms of the "dark side of social capital" by operationalizing perceived status differential as a proxy for upward social comparison and showing its deleterious consequences in the East Asian context.

Social facilitation effects in online coaction: the moderating role of social comparison direction

Online and face-to-face coactions are widely used work organization modes. This study aims to investigate the effect of social comparison direction on task performance when people coact online. A total of 40 individuals were recruited to participate in a 2 (coaction type: online and face to face) × 3 (social comparison direction: upward, downward and no comparison) × 2 (phase: pre-comparison and post-comparison) within-subject experiment. The participants performed visual search tasks while their response time and search accuracy rates were measured. Results showed that the participants were reported to perform faster when they coacted online than face to face. The upward comparison led to a stronger social facilitation effect than the downward and no comparison directions, either in online or face-to-face coaction. These findings provide practical implications in the design of coaction modes for groups and teams working remotely.

Effects of Social Media Social Comparisons and Identity Processes on Body Image Satisfaction in Late Adolescence

One of the important developmental tasks in adolescence and emerging adulthood is the questioning of identity issues, with body image being a prominent concern. In the age of modern technology, many processes of social comparison take place on social media, which serve as an ideal platform for comparison with others. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of identity dimensions, social media use, and social media social comparison, on different domains of body image satisfaction (i.e., appearance, weight, and attribution). An online survey was conducted with 354 young people in Croatia (Mean age = 18.49, SD = 1.44; Women/girls = 78.9%). The results revealed that each of the body image domains had a different pattern of association with identity dimensions and social media social comparison. The contribution of identity dimensions was more important for evaluation attributed to others about one's body appearance, whereas social media use and social comparison were more crucial for thoughts and feelings about appearance and weight satisfaction. Higher identity commitment and exploration were related to more positive thoughts about how others evaluate one's appearance, regardless of social comparison. On the other hand, social media use and social media social comparison were associated with lower satisfaction with appearance and weight.

Intervening on Social Comparisons on Social Media: Electronic Daily Diary Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Literature has underscored the dark aspects of social media use, including associations with depressive symptoms, feelings of social isolation, and diminished self-esteem. Social comparison, the process of evaluating oneself relative to another person, is thought to contribute to these negative experiences such that people with a stronger tendency to compare themselves with others are particularly susceptible to the detrimental effects of social media. Social media as a form of social connection and communication is nevertheless an inevitable-and arguably integral-part of life, particularly for young adults. Therefore, there is a need to investigate strategies that could alter the manner in which people interact with social media to minimize its detrimental effects and maximize the feelings of affiliation and connection.

OBJECTIVE

This pilot study examined the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of a brief web-based intervention designed to alter engagement with social media and promote psychological well-being by encouraging social savoring as an alternative to social comparison. Social savoring was operationalized as experiencing joyful emotions related to the happiness of someone else's experiences (ie, feeling happy for someone else).

METHODS

Following an intensive longitudinal design, 55 college students (mean age 19.29, SD 0.93 years; n=43, 78% women and n=23, 42% White) completed baseline measures (individual differences, psychological well-being, connectedness, and social media use) and then 14 days of daily surveys on their social media activity and well-being. On day 8, the group that was randomized to receive the intervention watched a video instructing them on the skill of social savoring and was asked to practice this skill during days 8 to 14.

RESULTS

Overall, participants reported positive perceptions of the intervention. Participants who watched the intervention video reported significantly higher performance self-esteem (P=.02) at posttest than those in the control condition, after controlling for baseline levels. Participants also reported significantly higher state self-esteem (P=.01) on days in which they engaged in more social savoring while using social media, and the use of social savoring increased significantly (P=.01) over time, suggesting that participants found it helpful. Participants in both conditions reported significantly lower levels of social comparison (control: P=.01; intervention: P=.002) and higher levels of connectedness (control: P<.001; intervention: P=.001) at posttest than at baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

Initial evidence from this pilot study suggests that a web-based social savoring intervention may help minimize the potentially harmful consequences of social media use, at least in some domains. Future work is needed to examine the effectiveness and acceptance of this intervention in different age groups and in clinical samples that are in part characterized by higher levels of comparison with others (eg, people with eating disorders).

Social comparisons between group members during behavioural weight loss treatment: comparison direction, scale, and associations with weight loss maintenance

OBJECTIVE

To examine distinct types of social comparisons (i.e. self-evaluations relative to others) in behavioural weight loss groups and their relations with weight loss maintenance.

DESIGN

Participants (N = 127, MBMI = 35.66 kg/m2) reported on their comparisons at mid-treatment (6 months), including identification of their primary individual comparison target (group member) and perceptions of their own treatment adherence versus that of their group and identified target.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Weight was assessed at baseline, mid-treatment, end-of-treatment (12 months), and 18- and 24-month follow-ups.

RESULTS

Comparisons with individual targets perceived as more successful with weight loss were most frequent (i.e. upward comparisons), though comparisons differed based on group versus individual targets and specific treatment behaviours (e.g. self-monitoring). Comparisons did not align with participants' own treatment progress, suggesting that comparisons reflect more than just their objective weight loss relative to others. Relations between participants' initial weight loss and maintenance was moderated by the type of individual target identified at mid-treatment (p = 0.02, sr = 0.27).

CONCLUSIONS

Social comparisons in group-based weight loss treatment are multifaceted and predict long-term weight loss maintenance. Additional work is needed to determine how best to harness comparison processes to promote success in behavioural weight loss treatment.

Social Comparison and Female Adolescents' Selfie Behaviors: Body Surveillance as the Mediator and Self-Esteem as the Moderator

The current study aimed to examine whether body surveillance mediated the relation between social comparison and selfie behaviors, and whether this mediating process was moderated by self-esteem. A sample of 339 female adolescents were recruited to participate in the present study and completed self-report measures of selfie behaviors, upward and downward appearance comparisons with peers, self-objectification and self-esteem. Results indicated that body surveillance mediated the association between upward physical appearance comparison and selfie behaviors. In addition, self-esteem moderated the relation between body surveillance and selfie behaviors. These findings add to the extant literature by suggesting that selfies may be some new ways of body surveillance and physical appearance comparison, which have some theoretical and practical implications.

Social comparisons on social media: online appearance-related activity and body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls

INTRODUCTION

Adolescents' engagement with online social networking platforms is advancing at an exponential rate and research is needed to investigate any impact on young users' mental health. This study examined appearance-related activity (e.g. looking at photos of friends) on social media and body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls.

METHODS

Self-report measures of online appearance-related activity, social comparisons to female target groups, internalization of the thin ideal, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem were administered to 210 girls (mean age = 15.16 years).

RESULTS

Body dissatisfaction was significantly related to (i) time spent engaged in social comparisons and (ii) upward social comparisons with various female targets while online. Evaluating oneself less favorably than the target group of close friends was most strongly associated with poorer body image appraisals. Serial multiple mediation analysis revealed that even after controlling for age and self-esteem, time spent engaged in social comparisons significantly mediated the relationship between online appearance-related activity and body dissatisfaction. This association was then further partially mediated by internalization of the thin ideal, which significantly mediated the relationship between time engaged in social comparisons and body dissatisfaction.

DISCUSSION

Results are discussed in terms of online social media platforms representing an additional appearance culture environment for adolescent girls. The effects of this on the mental health of vulnerable users and how future research should investigate protective factors that may buffer young girls from the adverse effects of social media are considered.

Selection of and Response to Physical Activity-Based Social Comparisons in a Digital Environment: Series of Daily Assessment Studies

BACKGROUND

Innovative approaches are needed to understand barriers to and facilitators of physical activity among insufficiently active adults. Although social comparison processes (ie, self-evaluations relative to others) are often used to motivate physical activity in digital environments, user preferences and responses to comparison information are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

We used an iterative approach to better understand users' selection of comparison targets, how they interacted with their selected targets, and how they responded to these targets.

METHODS

Across 3 studies, different samples of insufficiently active college students used the Fitbit system (Fitbit LLC) to track their steps per day as well as a separate, adaptive web platform each day for 7 to 9 days (N=112). The adaptive platform was designed with different layouts for each study; each allowed participants to select their preferred comparison target from various sets of options, view the desired amount of information about their selected target, and rate their physical activity motivation before and after viewing information about their selected target. Targets were presented as achieving physical activity at various levels below and above their own, which were accessed via the Fitbit system each day. We examined the types of comparison target selections, time spent viewing and number of elements viewed for each type of target, and day-level associations between comparison selections and physical activity outcomes (motivation and behavior).

RESULTS

Study 1 (n=5) demonstrated that the new web platform could be used as intended and that participants' interactions with the platform (ie, the type of target selected, the time spent viewing the selected target's profile, and the number of profile elements viewed) varied across the days. Studies 2 (n=53) and 3 (n=54) replicated these findings; in both studies, age was positively associated with time spent viewing the selected target's profile and the number of profile elements viewed. Across all studies, upward targets (who had more steps per day than the participant) were selected more often than downward targets (who had fewer steps per day than the participant), although only a subset of either type of target selection was associated with benefits for physical activity motivation or behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

Capturing physical activity-based social comparison preferences is feasible in an adaptive digital environment, and day-to-day differences in preferences for social comparison targets are associated with day-to-day changes in physical activity motivation and behavior. Findings show that participants only sometimes focus on the comparison opportunities that support their physical activity motivation or behavior, which helps explain previous, equivocal findings regarding the benefits of physical activity-based comparisons. Additional investigation of day-level determinants of comparison selections and responses is needed to fully understand how best to harness comparison processes in digital tools to promote physical activity.

Making "Joy Pie" to Stay Joyful: Self-Care Interventions Alleviate College Students' Mental Health Challenges

As more college students are facing mental health challenges, it is imperative to explore innovative ways of improving their mental health, including developing self-care interventions that help mitigate their stressors. Based on the Response Styles Theory and self-care conceptions, this study creates the "Joy Pie" project that consists of five self-care strategies, aiming to regulate negative emotions and increase self-care efficacy. Using an experimental design and two-wave data collected from a representative sample of Beijing college students (n₁ = 316, n₂ = 127), this study assesses the effects of the five proposed interventions on the students' self-care efficacy and mental health management. The results show that self-care efficacy helped improve mental health through emotion regulation, which is mediated by age, gender, and family income. The promising results support the effectiveness of the "Joy Pie" interventions in strengthening self-care efficacy and improving mental health. This study offers insights into building back better mental health security among college students at this critical time when the world is recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Perceived similarity determines social comparison effects of more and less physically active others

This research tested whether the effects of physical activity (PA) comparisons depend on the perceived similarity to comparison standards. In 3 experimental studies, participants compared themselves to a more or a less physically active person. Results showed that perceived similarity determined comparison outcomes: Participants' PA self-evaluation and self-efficacy were higher when focusing on similarities with more (vs less) (Study 1) and dissimilarities with less (vs more) active others (Study 1 and 2). Considering the opposite of the impression that less active others are similar and more active others are dissimilar increased participants' PA self-evaluation, self-efficacy, and intention (Study 3).

The regional big-fish-little-pond effect: Evidence from national and subnational comparisons

According to the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE), students evaluate themselves more favourably when they have a high rank in a low-rank school than a low rank in a high-rank school. We examined whether the BFLPE impacts self-evaluations in regional settings, where the reference group is one's nation or subnation. In Study 1, participants told that they ranked above average in a below-average nation evaluated themselves more favourably than participants told that they ranked below average in an above-average nation. Study 2 demonstrated that this regional BFLPE occurs both when the reference group is one's nation (USA) and one's subnation (e.g. California, Florida). Finally, Study 3 found that the BFLPE occurs and is similar in size when the reference group is one's nation versus one's school. In sum, these experiments provide novel support for the BFLPE in regional contexts and suggest that social comparisons that involve regional groups substantially impact self-evaluations.

Psychometric Examination of the Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM) among Spanish Adolescents and Young Adults

The Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM) has been frequently used within the context of research on eating disorders (ED). Although both long (BEECOM-L) and short (BEECOM-S) versions of the instrument exist, their psychometric properties have not yet been concurrently investigated across different populations in terms of age and gender. The present study aimed to compare the psychometric properties of both the BEECOM-L and the BEECOM-S among Spanish male and female non-clinical adolescents and young adults. Data from 4 samples including 1213 middle school and college students enrolled in 10 education centers from southern Spain (age ranging from 12 to 35 years, M_age = 17.796, SD_age = 4.796, 53% females) were analyzed using factorial, correlation, and regression analysis techniques. Results provided evidence that support the reliability, measurement invariance according to age and gender, and convergent/incremental validity for the scores from both the BEECOM-L and BEECOM-S. Concerning factorial validity, marginally acceptable and adequate goodness-of-fit indices were obtained for the BEECOM-L and BEECOM-S, respectively. The BEECOM-S proves to be a psychometrically sound instrument with potential value for assessing social comparisons focused on body, eating, and exercise in non-clinical adolescents and young adults from Spain.

The effect of chronic regulatory focus and social comparison on undergraduates' intertemporal choices under gain-loss frame

Intertemporal choice refers to decisions involving tradeoffs among costs and benefits occurred at different times. To investigate whether college students' intertemporal decision making under the gain and loss frames is affected by their chronic regulatory focus. Currently, experiment 1 investigated the influence of college students' chronic regulatory focus on intertemporal decision making under the gain and loss frames, and experiment 2 further explored the moderating effect of social comparison (i.e., upward or downward social comparison) during this process. The results showed that intertemporal choices of participants with promotive focus was no significant difference between the gain frame and loss frame, while college students with preventive focus chose later and larger rewards more in loss frame than in gain frame. Social comparison moderated the effects of the chronic regulatory focus on college students' intertemporal choice in gain and loss frames. The upward comparison enhanced the influence of regulatory focus on intertemporal choice in the gain and loss frames, while the downward comparison weakened it.

"You get what you need when you need it": A mixed methods examination of the feasibility and acceptability of a tailored digital tool to promote physical activity among women in midlife

During midlife (ages 40-60), women experience myriad changes that elevate their risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD), including decreased physical activity (PA). Women cite lack of social support for PA and lack of active peers who can serve as role models as key barriers. Digital tools such as web applications can provide exposure to these social inputs; they are also accessible in daily life and require modest time investment. However, as few tools have been designed to meet the unique needs of women in midlife with CVD risk, our research team previously built a web application that is tailored for this population. In the present study, we used a convergent mixed methods design to develop a deep understanding of the feasibility, usability, and acceptability of this web application in a sample of identified end users. Participants (N = 27, MAge = 53 years, MBMI = 32.6 kg/m2) used the web application at the start of each day for 7 days and completed a 1-hour qualitative interview at the end of this test period. Integration of findings from two-level multilevel models (quantitative) and thematic analysis (qualitative) indicated support for the feasibility, usability, and acceptability of the new web application among women in midlife with CVD risk conditions and identified critical opportunities for improving the user experience. Findings also speak to the utility of options for content selection that can meet women's needs in daily life and highlight women's desire for PA resources that prioritize their perspectives.

Female Users' TikTok Use and Body Image: Active Versus Passive Use and Social Comparison Processes

This study examined two ways of using the TikTok application (active vs. passive use), and their association with female users' self-esteem pertaining to appearance and weight. By adopting a cross-sectional online survey design, this study recruited 7,750 adult female TikTok users from China (Douyin), and acquired self-reported data on 2 ways of using TikTok, state-level social comparison, appearance-esteem, weight-esteem, body mass index, and age. The results indicated that passive and active TikTok uses were negatively and positively associated with participants' appearance- and weight-esteem, respectively. A mediation analysis revealed that the participants' state-level social comparison while using TikTok mediated the association between two ways of TikTok use, and their effects on appearance- and weight-esteem. These results help us understand the complicated impact of TikTok use on body image, and design campaigns for promoting body acceptance.

Problematic Use of Social Networks during the First Lockdown: User Profiles and the Protective Effect of Resilience and Optimism

During the first lockdown, there was an increase in time spent using Social Networking Sites (SNS), which should be studied, as well as problematic SNS use. The present study has three objectives: to evaluate (i) the differences across gender and age and SNS type in increased SNS use, (ii) problematic SNS use during lockdowns, and (iii) the protective role of resilience and optimism on problematic SNS use. A total of 1003 participants (75.5% women) over 18 years old participated (M = 42.33; SD = 14.32 years). The use of SNS before and during lockdown, anxiety, depression, life satisfaction and problematic SNS use were evaluated. A repeated measures ANOVA and four regression analyses were calculated for the first objective regarding increased SNS use. Another linear regression analysis was calculated for the second objective regarding problematic SNS use. A correlational analysis has been performed to assess the protective roles of resilience and optimism. Differences in the increased use of SNS were found between the two time points and between the different types of SNS. Higher use of Instagram and YouTube was related to younger age. Being female was associated with higher Instagram use. Significant problematic use was found to be associated with younger age but was not dependent on gender. Higher levels of resilience and optimism were related to a lower level of problematic SNS use. SNS use during lockdown needs to be studied in order to understand factors that may protect against undesirable psychological consequences and support prevention programs.

Country/Region Level Pandemic Severity Moderates the Relationships among Risk Experience, Perceived Life Satisfaction, and Psychological Distress in COVID-19

Scholars and communications practitioners worldwide have sought novel resilience models amid heightened rates of psychological distress caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. We examined perceived life satisfaction as a determinant of resilience. Additionally, we investigated the assumption that perceived pandemic severity at the country/region level moderates structural relationships within our risk-resilience model. Analyzing more than 34,000 valid samples from 15 countries/regions, we found that (1) perceived life satisfaction alleviated psychological distress across all 15 countries/regions; and (2) country/region-level pandemic severity moderated the relationships among COVID-19 symptom experience, perceived life satisfaction, and psychological distress. The effects of COVID-19 symptom experience and perceived life satisfaction on psychological distress were conditional. We discuss possible mechanisms behind our findings and provide practical implications for mitigating psychological distress during public health crises.

Enriching sociocultural perspectives on the effects of idealized body norms: Integrating shame, positive body image, and self-compassion

Body image is an integral aspect of the psychology of the self. Idealized body images are ubiquitous in both traditional media forms (e.g., magazines, television) and social media (e.g., Facebook, Instagram). The classic sociocultural model of body image (i.e., the Tripartite Influence Model) emphasizes pathways between idealized body norms, appearance comparisons, internalization of body ideals, and body dissatisfaction and its outcomes. We summarize the model and identify some issues to be addressed in future work, particularly in light of the immense popularity of social media. We review three topics that are not included in the sociocultural model but that provide a more complete picture of the influence of societal body norms on body image: (1) body shame, (2) positive body image, and (3) self-compassion. Research on the nature, assessment, and relevance of these constructs is reviewed in detail. In terms of clinical applications of these areas of research for individuals at risk of body dissatisfaction, we suggest assessing for and targeting body shame, cultivating facets of positive body image, and teaching strategies for developing self-compassion.

Social comparison, parasocial relationships, and attachment style: how and when do celebrities improve self-liking?

The recent exponential increase in information available online has not only increased access to information about celebrities, but also decreased the degree to which that information is unambiguously positive. In the current work, we examined how positive celebrities (i.e. celebrities who are primarily admired) versus more ambiguous celebrities (i.e. celebrities about whom people have mixed feelings) differentially affect feelings about the self. Across three studies, we found that high attachment anxiety was associated with assimilating positive celebrities to feel better about the self, whereas attachment avoidance was associated with contrasting ambivalent celebrities to feel better to feel better about the self. Implications for parasocial relationships, social comparison, and attachment are discussed.

The Effects of Academic Stress and Upward Comparison on Depression in Nursing Students during COVID-19

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has created a global long-term education crisis, which has negatively affected the psychological well-being of nursing students. This study aims to determine the effect of academic stress and upward comparison on depression among nursing students during the COVID-19 pandemic. A convenience sample of 271 junior and senior nursing students from four universities in South Korea was selected. The SPSS/WIN 28.0 program was employed for the data analysis, and multiple regression analysis was performed to confirm the effect of academic stress and stress from upward comparison on depression. The study results show that the regression model was significant (F = 7.60, p < 0.001). Moreover, age over 25 (β = 0.15, p = 0.006), academic stress (β = 0.31, p < 0.001), and upward comparison (β = 0.18, p = 0.002) explained 19.0% of depression among the participants. Developing and testing the effect of programs that address academic stress and upward comparison may be necessary to control depression in nursing students. Furthermore, in response to COVID-19, efforts must be made to include these interventions in the curriculum for nursing students on a consistent basis.

Burnout, Social Comparison Orientation and the Responses to Social Comparison among Teachers in The Netherlands

(1) Background: Teaching is a profession in which burnout constitutes a prevalent issue and provides ample opportunity to compare oneself with one's colleagues, i.e., social comparison. The purpose of this research in the Netherlands was to examine responses to social comparison, in relation to burnout, and to individual differences in social comparison orientation (SCO). (2) Methods: Study 1 employed a retrospective measure to assess responses to social comparison. In Study 2, teachers were confronted with a scenario describing either a well or a poorly functioning colleague. (3) Results: Burnout was associated with more negative responses to well and to poorly functioning colleagues, with a less positive response to well-functioning colleagues. This last effect was fully due to the degree to which one identified or contrasted oneself with this colleague. Especially among high-SCO individuals, identification with a well-functioning colleague was accompanied by a positive affect. High-burnout individuals reported more identification with poorly functioning colleagues, and more contrast and less identification with well-functioning colleagues. Responses to well-functioning colleagues were more strongly related to burnout among those high in SCO. (4) Conclusions: An especially negative affect after comparison with well-functioning colleagues is typical for individuals high in burnout, particularly among individuals with a dispositional tendency to compare themselves with others.

Focus on Self-Presentation on Social Media across Sociodemographic Variables, Lifestyles, and Personalities: A Cross-Sectional Study

Upward social comparison and aspects of self-presentation on social media such as feedback-seeking and strategic self-presentation may represent risk factors for experiencing negative mental health effects of social media use. The aim of this exploratory study was to assess how adolescents differ in upward social comparison and aspects of self-presentation on social media and whether these differences are linked to sociodemographic variables, lifestyle, or personality. The study was based on cross-sectional data from the "LifeOnSoMe" study performed in Bergen, Norway, including 2023 senior high school pupils (response rate 54%, mean age 17.4, 44% boys). Nine potentially relevant items were assessed using factor analysis, and latent class analysis was used to identify latent classes with distinct patterns of responses across seven retained items. The retained items converged into one factor, called "focus on self-presentation". We identified three groups of adolescents with a low, intermediate, and high focus on self-presentation. Associations between identified latent classes and covariates were assessed using regression analyses. Being a girl, higher extraversion, lower emotional stability, more frequent alcohol consumption, and having tried tobacco were associated with membership in the high-focus group. These results suggest some characteristics that are associated with a higher focus on self-presentation and that could inform targeted interventions.

Hurting all the way: The emotional antecedent and consequence of social rejection

Social rejection is cold and hurtful, but how and why it is formed remains under-investigated. Our study offers one possible explanation from the rejector's perspective by developing a moderated mediation model on the emotional antecedent and consequence of social rejection. Specifically, envious individuals use social rejection to complement their inferiority, further triggering their negative affect. Drawing on social comparison theory, we conducted an experience sampling methodology (ESM) investigation of 55 frontline workers through a 10-workday-survey (Level 1 n = 515). As predicted, daily envy is positively associated with daily social rejection. Daily social rejection is positively related to daily negative affect. Furthermore, daily social rejection mediates the relationship between daily envy and daily negative affect. These effects are more robust for females than males, including the impact of envy on social rejection and the impact of envy on negative affect via social rejection. We suggest the recipient and the rejector make psychological and behavioral adjustments accordingly. We also recommend that future research extend our current study methodologically and theoretically.

Self-Oriented Body Comparison and Self-Compassion: Interactive Models of Disordered Eating Behaviors Among Postpartum Women

Evidence suggests self-oriented body comparison (comparison of one's postpartum body shape and weight to one's prepregnant body shape and weight) is a critical factor associated with increased levels of disordered eating during the postpartum period. However, some postpartum women adopt a self-compassionate and acceptance-based perspective toward their body shape and weight changes. It is unclear whether self-compassion may buffer the associations between self-comparisons and disordered eating behaviors among postpartum women, which is the aim of the current study. A total of 306 postpartum women who gave birth in the past year completed an online survey asking about self-compassion, social comparison, broad eating pathology, dietary restraint, and binge eating. Results indicated that self-compassion appeared to buffer the associations between self-comparison and broad eating pathology and binge eating among postpartum women, such that for women with above-average levels of self-compassion, the associations between self-comparison and disordered eating was weaker than for women with average or below-average levels of self-compassion. Findings suggest self-compassion could be a potential target for intervention programs.

Moderating Effects of Striving to Avoid Inferiority on Income and Mental Health

Many people experience feelings of inferiority in their life. The concept of striving to avoid inferiority is a belief associated with the unwanted fear of being overlooked, missing out on opportunities for advancement, and active rejection. This study examined the effect of striving to avoid inferiority on mental health and well-being. We hypothesized that striving to avoid inferiority would modify the relationship among socioeconomic status, mental health, and well-being, therefore examined the effect of striving to avoid inferiority on the relationship between annual income, mental health, and well-being. The participants were 491 adults (241 men and 250 women). The results indicated that insecure striving (IS) in competition with others positively correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress, whereas secure non-striving (SNS) in acceptance of inferiority positively correlated with the satisfaction with life and negatively correlated with depression. The effect of striving to avoid inferiority on the relationship among annual income, mental health, and well-being indicated that SNS affected the relationships between annual income and well-being, annual income and depression, income and anxiety, and the interaction between IS and SNS. Moreover, the relationship between income and stress was influenced by SNS and the interaction between IS and SNS. These results indicated that SNS or the interaction between IS and SNS were the only variables regulating the relationship among annual income, mental health, and well-being. These findings suggested that accepting feelings of inferiority or striving to avoid inferiority influences the mental health and well-being of people.