Expression of S100A2 and S100P in human eccrine sweat glands and their application in differentiating secretory coil-like from duct-like structures in the 3D reconstituted eccrine sweat spheroids

Secretory coils and ducts are two components of eccrine sweat glands with different structures and functions. In our previous study, we combined keratins and α-SMA to distinguish between secretory coils and ducts. However, the key deficiency of the method was that none of the antibodies used was specific for ducts. In this study, we first examined the co-localization of K5/K7, α-SMA/K14, K7/S100P and α-SMA/S100A2 by double-immunofluorescence staining to confirm the localization of S100P and S100A2 in native human eccrine sweat glands, and second we identified secretory coil-like and duct-like structures in the 3D reconstituted eccrine sweat gland spheroids by double-immunofluorescence staining for K7/S100P and α-SMA/S100A2. In native human eccrine sweat glands, S100A2 immunoreactivity was confined to the outer layer and S100P to the inner layer of the duct. In 12-week Matrigel plugs containing eccrine sweat gland cells, double-immunofluorescence staining for K7/S100P and α-SMA/S100A2 could easily distinguish duct-like structures from secretory coil-like structures. We conclude that S100A2 and S100P can be used as specific duct markers in eccrine sweat glands, and combined use of S100P or S100A2 with keratins enables easy to distinction between secretory coils and ducts.

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis diagnosed via skin biopsy

We aim to report that skin biopsy, a non-invasive test by neurological standards, may lead to a diagnosis. A 4-year-old male presented with a 2-year history of epilepsy and progressive developmental regression. The patient had a mildly elevated ammonia level; however, evaluation for the accumulation of excess serum amino acids and evaluation of urine for organic acids was negative. MRI revealed cerebral atrophy, and an electroencephalogram demonstrated multifocal sharp and slow waves. Due to the progressive degenerative neurologic presentation, a neurologic storage disease was favored. An axillary skin biopsy was performed, revealing eosinophilic intra-cytoplasmic inclusions within the eccrine glands. A periodic acid-Schiff stain also highlighted these inclusions. Electron microscopic studies demonstrated characteristic multiple membrane-bound inclusions within the eccrine epithelial cells, containing curvilinear inclusion material characteristic of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. The clinical, histological, electron microscopic and enzymatic studies were diagnostic of late-infantile onset neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.

Ultracytochemical Demonstration of Glycoproteins in the Eccrine Glands of the Digital Pads of the North American Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

In the eccrine glands of the digital pads of the North American raccoon (Procyon lotor), ultrastructural localization of glycoproteins with various saccharide residues was studied using preferably lectin cytochemical methods. Secretory granules observed in the dark cells exhibited glycoproteins with different terminal sugars (alpha-D-mannose, beta-D-galactose, beta-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and sialic acid). The cytoplasm of the clear cells contained numerous glycogen particles. Several sugars were also detectable in the surface coat of the plasma membrane of the secretory cells. The results obtained could be helpful in understanding secretion production and cell related secretion functions of the eccrine glands of the raccoon digital foot pads.

Ultrastructure of the apical glandular region of the scolex of Proteocephalus torulosus (Cestoda: Proteocephalidae)

In the apical glandular region of the adult Proteocephalus torulosus (Batsch, 1786), two types of eccrine gland cells are present. The first type of unicellular gland produces large electron-dense granules of various sizes. The second type contains small electron-dense granules. Most cells form glands with large granules; glands with small granules are infrequent. The secretion of both types of gland cells is concentrated in the apical parts of the cyton and in the ducts opening to the exterior. On the scolex of P. torulosus, there are regional structural differences of the microthrix border. The apical glandular region bears filamentous microtriches only. On the remaining frontal part, surrounding the glandular region, there are blade-like and filamentous microtriches. The lateral parts of the scolex and suckers bear blade-like microtriches. Possible functions of both types of gland cells and different parts of the scolex microthrix border are discussed. The unique structure of the frontal part of the scolex of P. torulosus and its differences from Proteocephalus macrocephalus, P. longicollis and P. percae correlate well with the putative basal phylogenetic position of P. torulosus among European species of Proteocephalus.

Cutaneous eccrine glands of the foot pads of the small Madagascan tenrec ( Echinops telfairi, Insectivora, Tenrecidae): skin glands in a primitive mammal

In order to find correlations between skin gland morphology and specific ethological features, the cutaneous glands of the foot pads of the primitive mammal the Madagascan tenrec, Echinops telfairi, were studied by histological and various histochemical methods as well as by electron microscopy. In the foot pads specific eccrine skin glands occurred consisting of coiled ducts and tubular secretory portions, the lumina of which were considerably wider than in primate sweat glands. The secretory tubules were composed of branched myoepithelial cells and glandular cells. The latter contained abundant mitochondria, large amounts of glycogen particles and few secretory granules as well as individual heterolysosomes and myelin bodies. The lateral cell membrane was marked by extensive interdigitations. The apical membranes of all glandular cells contained proteoglycans with sulfated and carboxylated groups containing N-acetyl-glucosamine, N-acetyl-galactosamine, galactose and mannose. The expression pattern of cytokeratins of the glandular epithelium was variable and showed similarities to that of the human eccrine glands. Tubulin, vinculin and actin were expressed in the glandular epithelium. The secretory cells showed positive reactions with antibodies against antimicrobial peptides and IgA. A positive reaction was observed with antibodies against the androgen receptor. The PCNA and TUNEL reactions indicated that the tubular skin glands of Echinops are made up of a slowly renewing tissue. We conclude that the glands fulfill several functions: production of a fluid-rich secretory product, which may prevent slipping of the foot pads on the substrate during running or climbing, secretion of antimicrobial peptides and proteins, and playing a role in thermoregulation.

PACAP activated adenylate cyclase in human sweat glands. An ultracytochemical study

The ultracytochemical localization of adenylate cyclase (AC) was studied after stimulation with pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide (PACAP) in human sweat glands. PACAP stimulated AC in both eccrine and apocrine glands. In the secretory cells, enzymatic activity was associated with membranes involved in the secretory mechanism. In both glands, the cells of the excretory duct and myoepithelial cells presented AC activity. These localizations of enzymatic activity suggest a role for PACAP in regulating glandular secretion.

Structure and function of human sweat glands studied with histochemistry and cytochemistry

The basic structure and the physiological function of human sweat glands were reviewed. Histochemical and cytochemical techniques greatly contributed the elucidation of the ionic mechanism of sweat secretion. X-ray microanalysis using freeze-dried cryosections clarified the level of Na, K, and Cl in each secretory cell of the human sweat gland. Enzyme cytochemistry, immunohistochemistry and autoradiography elucidated the localization of Na,K-ATPase. These data supported the idea that human eccrine sweat is produced by the model of N-K-2Cl cotransport. Cationic colloidal gold localizes anionic sites on histological sections. Human eccrine and apocrine sweat glands showed completely different localization and enzyme sensitivity of anionic sites studied with cationic gold. Human sweat glands have many immunohistochemical markers. Some of them are specific to apocrine sweat glands, although many of them stain both eccrine and apocrine sweat glands. Histochemical techniques, especially immunohistochemistry using a confocal laser scanning microscope and in situ hybridization, will further clarify the relationship of the structure and function in human sweat glands.

Cutaneous eccrine glands of the foot pads of the rock hyrax (Procavia capensis, Hyracoidea, Mammalia)

In order to find correlations between skin gland morphology and specific ethological features, the cutaneous glands of the foot pads of Procavia capensis were studied by histological and various histochemical methods and by electron microscopy. In the foot pads, abundant specific eccrine skin glands occur, which consist of coiled tubular secretory portions and coiled ducts. The wall of the secretory part is composed of cuboidal glandular cells and myoepithelial cells. Among the glandular cells two types occur: clear and dark cells. Clear cells have numerous mitochondria and form a basal labyrinth, indicating fluid transport. Dark cells, which stain strongly with periodic acid-Schiff, contain a highly developed perinuclear Golgi apparatus, large amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum and many secretory granules indicating production of glycoproteins. Cytokeratin (CK) 19 was found in secretory compartments and ducts, CK14 only in duct cells. Single cells of the secretory coils and ducts may be stained with antibodies against antimicrobial peptides. Some glandular cells contain proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive nuclei especially in the ducts indicating an increased cell proliferation. Terminal transferase (TdT)-mediated d-UTP nick-end labeling-positive nuclei can be detected predominantly in the secretory coils and rarely in the transitional portions between ducts and end pieces. We suppose that proliferating cells migrate from the ducts to the secretory coils. The secretory product of the eccrine cutaneous glands seems to improve the traction between the foot pads of these animals and the steep and smooth rock formations among which they live.

[Primary signet ring cell carcinoma of the eccrine sweat gland in the eyelid. Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study of a case]

We report a case of a 45-year-old woman who exhibited a primitive eccrine sweat gland carcinoma of the eyelid. Histological study showed cellular proliferation with an Indian file pattern and some signet ring cells with sialomucin secretion. Immunohistochemical study demonstrated these cells to be positive with the anticytokeratin, anti-EMA, anti-HMFG, antiestrogen receptor and antiprogesterone receptor antibodies. Ultrastructural study showed intracytoplasmic vacuoles with numerous microvilli at the apical side. Differential diagnosis with a metastasis from a mammary adenocarcinoma is difficult and a complete staging is necessary to confirm the primitive origin of the tumor. The behavior of this tumor is marked by locoregional recurrence.

Ultrastructure of the hyperhidrotic eccrine sweat gland

BACKGROUND

Hyperhidrosis is the secretion of inappropriately large amounts of sweat by eccrine glands; it can be very debilitating. Little is known of the causes of primary hyperhidrosis.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether the glands exhibit any structural abnormality in primary hyperhidrosis.

METHODS

Skin biopsies were obtained from the axilla (n = 6) or neck (n = 2) of individuals aged 26-62 years with primary hyperhidrosis and from five age- and sex-matched normal individuals, with informed consent and ethical committee approval. Samples were prepared by standard methods for light and electron microscopic examination.

RESULTS

All characteristics observed in the hyperhidrotic specimens were consistent with the changes seen in normal glands following strong activation: degranulation of the granular (dark) cells, dilatation of the basolateral infoldings and the canaliculi of the non-granular (clear) cells, contraction of the myoepithelial cells and thickening of the basal lamina, and presence of cellular debris including lipid droplets in the gland lumen. Pathological changes were not observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The present finding of the absence of structural defects in the glands indicates that future studies should concentrate on the investigation of neurohumoral or secretory cell metabolic abnormalities.

Dystrophic scrotal calcinosis originating from benign eccrine epithelial cysts

Scrotal calcinosis has been classified as a form of idiopathic calcinosis cutis. However, the pathogenesis of the calcified nodules has not been fully elucidated: it is still unclear whether the condition is truly idiopathic, or the result of breakdown of calcified epithelial cysts. We describe a 29-year-old Japanese patient with scrotal calcinosis originating from epithelial cysts. Light microscopy revealed a large epithelial cyst containing von Kossa-positive material and several small dilated ductal structures beside the cyst. The epithelia of the cyst and ductal structures were connected, showing similar eccrine duct differentiation on immunohistochemical staining and electron microscopy. In the cyst lumen, calcium was present as needle-shaped crystals. The pathogenetic mechanism of calcium deposition seemed to be due to excessive production and discharge of matrical debris and sulphated mucopolysaccharides, which derived from luminal cells, and their accumulation in the lumina.

Ultrastructure studies of Proteocephalus longicollis (Cestoda, Proteocephalidea): transmission electron microscopy of scolex glands

The ultrastructure of two types of secretory glands in the scolex of preadults of Proteocephalus longicollis is described for the first time in the present report. The gland cells contain extensive cisternae of granular endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complexes, which participate in the production of secretory globules. Type I scolex glands produce electron-dense globules of various size. The secretory globules enter the secretory canal, openings of which were not observed in the preadults. The secretory product of type I was found at the inner sucker surface and in the tegument of the sucker edges. In addition, electron-dense globules in adult worms are secreted via an eccrine mechanism. Type II scolex glands are characterized by secretory globules of lower electron density and occur mainly in preadults. The electron-lucent, membrane-bound secretory globules are transported via microtubule-lined ducts opening to the exterior at the tegumental surface. Secretory globules of type II are released by an eccrine process.

The ultrastructural characteristics of eccrine sweat glands in a Fabry disease patient with hypohidrosis

As an investigation of the pathogenetic mechanism of diminished sweating in Fabry disease, an electron microscopy ultrastructural study was conducted on specimens of eccrine sweat glands from a typical patient with Fabry disease who had hypohidrosis, a low skin moisture content, and diminished thermoregulation ability. Numerous characteristic cytoplasmic inclusions were observed in the eccrine sweat glands, the lamellar pattern of which was considerably variable in various types of gland cells. Large vacuolar inclusions predominated in clear cells of secretory coil; lesser vacuoles were also seen in the coiled duct, and the basal cells of the straight duct toward the coiled duct displayed mulberry-like figures. There were some clear cells showing cell damage and necrosis in the secretory coil. Lamellated inclusions were noted in the unmyelinated axons innervating the eccrine sweat glands. The small blood vessels around the eccrine glands were narrowed by swollen endothelial cells with heavy inclusions. These intracytoplasmic deposits may be responsible for the decreased sweating ability in Fabry disease. The factors related to hypohidrosis are also discussed.

Denervation of eccrine glands in patients with familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy type I

OBJECTIVE

To study the alterations in the structure and innervation of eccrine glands in familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP) type I with Val 30 Met transthyretin mutation.

BACKGROUND

Anhidrosis of the distal lower limbs is a prominent feature of FAP type I.

METHODS

Qualitative and morphometric study of amyloid deposition, eccrine glands, and their innervation in nine patients with FAP type I (duration of sensory symptoms, 8.4 +/- 3.9 years [mean +/- SD]; range, 3 to 15 years) and seven control subjects.

RESULTS

On light microscopy, the endoneurium of cutaneous nerve fascicles had no definite amyloid deposition. Amyloid deposition was observed around eccrine glands in seven of nine patients. On electron microscopy, no focal destruction and degeneration of eccrine glands or ducts and of Schwann cell processes with or without nerve terminals or unmyelinated axons were observed in relation to adjacent amyloid deposition. Secretory vacuoles and granules of dark cells were markedly decreased in some secretory coils. Nerve terminals and unmyelinated axons of eccrine glands were considerably fewer in patients than in control subjects, and denervation was prominent in all patients. A few nerve terminals and unmyelinated axons of eccrine glands were present in patients who had experienced sensory symptoms for 3, 5, and 6 years, but were absent in patients with sensory symptoms for more than 7 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Eccrine glands are markedly to totally denervated in patients with FAP type I and chronic sensory symptoms. The extent of denervation indicates the severity of autonomic denervation and therefore may suggest the timing of liver transplantation.

Familial eccrine syringofibroadenomatosis with associated ophthalmologic abnormalities

Eccrine syringofibroadenoma (ESFA) is a rare benign adnexal tumor, generally with sporadic occurrence and not linked to other diseases. Only one familial occurrence of ESFA has been reported. We describe the familial occurrence of multiple ESFAs in a father and his two sons, all of whom also had similar eyelid abnormalities and progressive corneal scarring. This description of hereditary ESFA is the first to link ESFA with periocular and ocular abnormalities.

Papillary eccrine adenoma: an ultrastructural and immunohistochemical study

A 45-year-old African American man presented with a small, solitary, nonulcerated cutaneous lesion of the right thigh of many years duration, which was excised. Light microscopically, the lesion consisted of an oval, well-circumscribed, intradermal proliferation of tubules, which were often dilated and lined by a double layer of tumor cells with conspicuous intraluminal papillations. Ultrastructurally, there was evidence of both intradermal eccrine duct and eccrine secretory coil differentiation. Although the majority of tumor cells resembled cells of the intradermal eccrine duct, occasional myoepithelial tumor cells and rare tumor cells having secretory granules and resembling dark mucous cells were indicative of eccrine secretory coil differentiation. The positive immunohistochemical staining for S-100 protein, CEA, EMA, and vimentin supported these ultrastructural findings.

Papular clear cell hyperplasia of the eccrine duct in a diabetic

We report a patient with a widespread papular disorder characterized by extensive clear cell hyperplasia of the secretory portion of the eccrine units. A 46-year-old woman had a long history of diffuse papules which gave the skin a 'goose-flesh' appearance. She had severe diabetes. Histological examination of a papule showed marked clear cell hyperplasia that involved the secretory duct of all eccrine units present in the specimen sparing the secretory coil. The clear cells were periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) positive and Alcian blue negative. Ultrastructural study confirmed that the clear cells contained abundant intracytoplasmatic glycogen. We suggest that the diabetic condition may be important in promoting the accumulation of glycogen in the eccrine ducts. Our patient represents a peculiar disorder of the eccrine units that, on the basis of clinicopathological features, we have termed papular clear cell hyperplasia of the eccrine duct.

Expression of gastrin-releasing peptide receptor in human skin

Bombesin-related peptides are expressed in the skin of batrachians and mammals. As gastrin-releasing peptide belongs to this family, we searched for the presence and distribution of gastrin-releasing peptide receptors (GRPr) in the skin of healthy human adults by immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry and electron microscopy. The results indicated that GRPr are expressed on nerves and vessels in the dermis, on eccrine sweat glands, sebaceous glands and erector pili muscle. Within epidermis, staining was localized only on basal and suprabasal layer cells, or in the whole epidermis, according to the samples studied. Interestingly, suprabasal epidermal dendritic cells occasionally showed a strong labelling. Some of these epidermal dendritic cells were identified as Langerhans' cells by immunoelectron microscopy studies. Flow cytometry analysis of crude epidermal cell suspensions resulted in the expression of GRPr on about 43% of the cells. Therefore, we investigated whether human GRPr could modulate Langerhans' cells antigen-presenting functions. For this purpose, we added increasing concentrations of GRP (10(-12) to 10(-5) M) to mixed epidermal cell lymphocyte reactions. Allogeneic T-cell proliferation was not significantly modified when added to GRP-pretreated epidermal cells. In conclusion, we demonstrated the presence of GRPr in human skin, suggesting that GRP may modulate epidermal cell functions but does not modify antigenic presentation.

Eccrine syringofibroadenoma (Mascaro). An ultrastructural and immunohistochemical study

Eccrine syringofibroadenoma is a rare benign skin tumor, which usually develops on the extremities of elderly persons. We performed immunohistochemical and ultrastructural studies of a typical case of eccrine syringofibroadenoma that developed on the left heel of a 58-year-old man. The tumor consisted of anastomosing thin epithelial strands connected to the epidermis. There were many ductal or cystic structures, and their luminal cells were strongly positive to antibodies against carcinoembryonic antigen and epithelial membrane antigen. Filagrin and involucrin immunoreactivities were also detected in some cells surrounding the ducts. Keratins K1 and K10, co-expressed in the peripheral cells of normal acrosyringia, were colocalized in small cell clusters. Ultrastructurally, intracellular duct formation characteristic of developing acrosyringia was observed. Tumor cells containing globular keratohyaline granules with various electron densities were seen around some ductal structures. In these areas, keratinization took place without lamellar granule formation or prominent cornified cell envelope assembly. These results suggest acrosyringial differentiation of this tumor.

Ultrastructural localization of alkaline phosphatase activity in human eccrine and apocrine sweat glands

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is a membrane-bound enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of inorganic and organic monophosphate esters at alkaline pH. Although the functions of ALP are poorly understood, it is believed to be involved in membrane transport. Because little is known about the functions and distribution of ALP in the sweat glands, we studied the localization of ALP in human sweat glands with light and electron microscopic enzyme cytochemistry. In eccrine sweat glands, ALP was restricted to the cell membranes of intercellular canaliculi. Luminal cell membranes of secretory cells that are in continuity with intercellular canaliculi did not show ALP activity. These results suggest that ALP participates in the production of primary sweat at intercellular canaliculi. In apocrine sweat glands, basal cell membranes of secretory cells and myoepithelial cell membranes that were in apposition with each other showed ALP activity, where as no activity was seen in eccrine sweat glands. These differences in the distribution of ALP in myoepithelial cells between eccrine and apocrine sweat glands might be related to the functional differences of these sweat glands. ALP histochemistry could help to diagnose and to determine the direction of differentiation in sweat gland tumors.

Electron microscopic finding of eccrine sweat gland epithelial cells in a patient with Krabbe disease

A 13 month old boy was found to have severely reduced beta-galactocerebrosidase activity suggesting infantile Krabbe disease. Clinically, the patient showed a progressive neurological deterioration with white-matter disease on radiological study. Axillary skin biopsy was performed to support the diagnosis. On electron microscopy, needle-like inclusions, which are the typical finding seen in the cytoplasm of astrocytes and Schwann cells in the classic infantile form, were present in eccrine sweat gland epithelial cells. This method is useful for diagnosis when nerve biopsy and biochemical analysis are not readily available.

Application of chromosome 16 markers in the differential diagnosis of neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis

Accurate diagnosis of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) is important for a correct prognosis of the disease and for genetic counseling. Up to now, no direct diagnostic test has been available for NCL. The clinical diagnosis is made on the basis of symptoms, neurophysiological, neuroradiological, and specific lipopigment pattern data. Recent advances in the genetics of NCL have enabled us to use polymorphic DNA markers linked to the CLN1 and CLN3 loci as a tool in the differential diagnosis of NCL. We have applied genetic analysis with polymorphic DNA markers flanking the CLN3 gene on chromosome 16 to two consanguineous families in which NCL occurs. In the first family, which is of Turkish extraction, two patients suffering from a protracted form of juvenile NCL previously had been diagnosed with juvenile NCL. Haplotypes from this family indicate that the patients and their healthy sibling are haplo-identical, suggesting that this protracted form of juvenile NCL is not linked to the CLN3 locus. In the second family, which is of Moroccan origin, one patient suffers from the early juvenile variant of NCL (Lake-Cavanagh). In this family, the patient and one of the healthy siblings have identical haplotypes, excluding linkage of early juvenile NCL to the CLN3 locus on 16p12.1-11.2. Therefore, these cases from different populations demonstrate that haplotype analysis can be used as an additional method to exclude the diagnosis of juvenile NCL.

Histopathologic and ultrastructural studies of angiokeratoma corporis diffusum in Kanzaki disease

A novel metabolic disease, angiokeratoma corporis diffusum (Kanzaki), was the subject of an extensive histopathologic and ultrastructural study. Findings included dilated lymph and blood vessels in the upper dermis with an orthokeratortic, thickened, horny layer in well developed angiokeratoma. In the early papules, a few sporadic dyskeratotic keratinocytes were present in the epidermis with or without a thickened horny layer. Vesicular clear vacuolation was clearly observed in the cytoplasm of the secretory portion of the eccrine sweat glands, but none was observed in the vascular endothelial cells with hematoxylin-eosin staining. Using electron microscopy, lysosomal vacuolation was observed in many cell types, including eccrine sweat gland cells, vascular endothelial cells, dermal fibroblasts, dermal neural cells, lymphocytes of peripheral blood in the skin, and glomerular endothelial cells, but none was noted in the epithelial cells of the kidney. Widely dilated vacuoles were found to contain only a small amount of fuzzy filamentous material in the vascular endothelial cells, filamentous or electron-dense granular substances in fibroblasts, and electron-dense, lamellated or homogeneous structures in eccrine sweat gland cells and in neural cells. Ultracytochemical examination revealed glycoconjugates in dilated lysosomes. Characteristics of Kanzaki Disease were shown to differ from those of Fabry disease or any other lysosomal storage disease.

Hidroacanthoma simplex: an ultrastructural and immunohistochemical study

A representative case of hidroacanthoma simplex was studied with routine light microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy. Staining with the periodic acid-Schiff reagent and immunostaining with anti-keratin antibodies were useful in demarcating the tumor cells from adjacent normal epithelium. However, antibodies to carcinoembryonic antigen and epithelial membrane antigen did not help us to segregate or identify the neoplastic cells. Electron microscopy revealed tumor cells markedly different in appearance from luminal cells of the acrosyringium. Hidroacanthoma simplex does not appear to be derived from luminal cells of the acrosyringium. We propose criteria for the histologic diagnosis of this benign neoplasm.

Electron microscopic observation of the transitional portion in the human eccrine sweat gland

The transitional portion in human eccrine sweat glands was observed by transmission electron microscope (TEM). The transitional portion, consisting of columnar epithelial cells (columnar cells) and basal cells, formed a very short segment about 25 to 50 microns in length. The portion was abruptly connected to the secretory segment, and shifted to the excretory duct without marked ultrastructural changes. The columnar cells were morphologically characterized by small apical vesicles as reported in previous reports. Considering the frequency of the mitosis of the columnar cells, the transitional portion seemed to be one of the areas of cell proliferation in the gland. Basal cells were sparse in the region connecting the secretory segment, but dense near the duct. Basal cells in the secretory segment side of the transitional portion, containing thin microfilament-bundles in the infranuclear cytoplasm, were considered to be immature myoepithelial cells. On its ductal side, however, the basal cells showed morphological profiles similar to ductal peripheral cells. These findings suggest that the differentiation of myoepithelial cells occurs in the transitional portion of eccrine sweat glands.

Interleukin-1 alpha in human sweat is functionally active and derived from the eccrine sweat gland

We wished to establish the presence of interleukin-1 (IL-1) in human sweat (5) and clarify its origin and mechanism of secretion. IL-1 alpha concentration ([IL-1 alpha]) in clean sweat from the back increased with the sweat rate, plateauing at the maximal sweat rate ([IL-1 alpha]max). The mean [IL-1 alpha]max was 545 pg/ml (n = 17) for men and 1,324 pg/ml for women in back sweat. The mean [IL-1 alpha]max for axillary sweat in men was 1,568 (n = 6). Palmar sweat was 9.2 ng/ml (n = 5) for IL-1 alpha and 7.9 ng/ml for IL-1 beta. [IL-1 alpha]max decreased to one-third that of the first sweat test, when second sauna sweat tests were conducted after 2 h of continuous sweating on the same day. Western blot analysis of the purified sweat IL-1 alpha fraction revealed bands at 17, 29, and 33 kDa. Immunoreactive IL-1 alpha was localized mainly in the secretory coil lumen, intercellular canaliculi, cytoplasm, mitochondria, and near plasma membranes. Polymerase chain reaction revealed the presence of IL-1 alpha mRNA in the sweat gland and in cultured human eccrine secretory coil cells. Both sweat IL-1 alpha and human recombinant IL-1 alpha at 500 pg/ml strongly stimulated interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 production in cultured fibroblasts. We conclude that the IL-1 alpha-like immunoreactive substance in sweat is IL-1 alpha itself, is derived from the sweat gland, and is biologically active at concentrations normally present in fresh sweat.

Localized argyria with chrysiasis caused by implanted acupuncture needles. Distribution and chemical forms of silver and gold in cutaneous tissue by electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis

A case of localized argyria with chrysiasis caused by implanted acupuncture needles in a 41-year-old Japanese woman was studied by electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis. Large amounts of silver granules with selenium and sulfur were detected around eccrine secretory cells in much greater amounts than around ductal cells. Many granules were also observed along the outer edge of the basement membrane but never within cells or intercellular spaces. The granules were also present around blood vessels, lymphatics and nerve fibers, and in elastic fibers. Small numbers of gold fragments were also seen, mostly within macrophages. These results suggest that silver deposits extracellularly as selenide and sulfide, whereas free gold is found intracellularly.

Late infantile ceroid-lipofuscinoses. An ultrastructural study

The aim of the present study is to investigate further the ultrastructural skin patterns in five cases of late infantile ceroid-lipofuscinosis: two of these were classic forms, the others were variants. Ultrastructural examinations of skin biopsies revealed the presence of characteristic cytosomes; typical lipofuscin, consisting of osmiophilic granular materials, curvilinear bodies, and fingerprint bodies. Different ultrastructural profiles were found simultaneously in each case, without a significant prevalence of any specific one, and were often associated with lipid droplets. These inclusions were found in several epidermal and dermal cells. A different degree of involvement of the myelinated sheaths in the five cases was observed. This difference could be genetically determined or perhaps related to different stages of the disease. The findings demonstrate the involvement of clinically unaffected skin and confirm the relevance of electron microscopic studies in diagnosing these disorders. In fact, recognition of typical ultrastructural changes is a valuable diagnostic tool that can be used in supplementing clinical and electrophysiological examinations, especially when the metabolic error is unknown and no diagnostic biochemical assay is available.

Electron microscopic studies of harlequin fetuses

Four cases of harlequin fetus of various estimated gestational ages (16, 20, 21, 24 weeks) were examined by light and electron microscopy. When the epidermis was keratinized the following features were commonly found: hyperkeratosis with or without granular cells; dilated hair follicles with plugged keratin; a large number of dense or particle-cored granules in the upper malpighian layer; absence of cementsomes (lamellar bodies); large vacuoles with peripherally located laminations; large mitochondria with vesicular or membranous cristae; and early formation of the marginal band in keratinocytes and abnormal formation of the same in luminal cells of the acrosyringium. A 16-week specimen had no sign of keratinization, which made it difficult to detect these abnormalities; however, it did have large mitochondria in the keratinocytes. The mucous membrane of the lip was thickened but not keratinized.

Krabbe globoid cell leukodystrophy. Electron microscopy shows characteristic inclusions in eccrine sweat glands

Evidence for storage in eccrine sweat glands from skin biopsies of 7 patients with Krabbe globoid cell leukodystrophy is demonstrated. Clear cells showed characteristic free or intravacuolar inclusions containing needle-like and splinter-shaped structures with sometimes clearly outlined paracrystalline-like geometric configurations. These inclusions were very similar to those observed in the characteristic globoid cells found in the central nervous system and in Schwann cells of cutaneous, conjunctival and peripheral nerves. This finding suggests that the storage is not restricted to the nervous system. The diagnostic value of skin biopsy in Krabbe globoid cell leukodystrophy is emphasized.

Fabry's disease without angiokeratomas showing unusual eccrine gland vacuolation

An unusual case of Anderson-Fabry's disease with renal damage and bilateral corneal deposits but without angiokeratomas is presented. Diagnosis was made by renal biopsy. Typical foamy transformation of endothelium, mesangium, tubular epithelial cells, vascular smooth muscle, and fibroblasts of kidney biopsy and similar changes of myoepithelial, perineural, and endothelial cells on the skin biopsy were observed. At electron microscopy, 'fingerprint-like' myelin figures were seen. The epithelial cells of eccrine sweat glands showed striking vacuolation but myelin figures were not seen. We suggest that electron microscopic study of skin biopsies is indicated in the evaluation of patients clinically suspected of having Fabry's disease.

Immunoelectron microscopic localization of epidermal growth factor in the eccrine and apocrine sweat glands

We studied the localization of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) in eccrine and apocrine sweat glands with light microscopic and electron microscopic immunohistochemistry. Anti-human EGF (anti-hEGF) polyclonal antiserum and anti-hEGF monoclonal antibody (MAb) were used for the study. Light microscopic immunohistochemistry with monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies showed that hEGF-like immunoreactivity was strongly positive in the myoepithelial cells and weakly positive in the secretory cells of eccrine sweat glands. In apocrine sweat glands, it was strongly positive in the secretory cells as well as in the myoepithelial cells. Immunoelectron microscopy with polyclonal antibody showed that hEGF-like immunoreactivity was present in secretory granules of apocrine secretory cells. These granules had mitochondrion-like internal structure. No reactivity was observed on the eccrine secretory cells by immunoelectron microscopy. Neither dark cell granules nor mitochondria in eccrine secretory cells were labeled with anti-hEGF antibody. In both eccrine and apocrine sweat glands, hEGF-like immunoreactivity was diffusely present in the cytoplasm of myoepithelial cells. However, nuclei and mitochondria of myoepithelial cells were devoid of immunoreactivity for hEGF. Our observations indicate that apocrine sweat glands may secrete more hEGF in the sweat than eccrine sweat glands.

[Electron microscopic study of the human adult intraepidermal eccrine sweat duct--the formation of the intracytoplasmic cavity]

The human adult intraepidermal eccrine sweat duct (IESD) were studied by the transmission electron microscope. The formation of the intracytoplasmic cavities was demonstrated in the luminal cell of the adult IESD, and the relation between the intracytoplasmic cavities and the IESD formation was as follows. On the eccrine sweat duct ridge, these intracytoplasmic cavities enlarged, broke through the cell membrane and coalesced into the intercellular lumen. Furthermore, several intercellular lumina were merged into the intraepidermal ductal lumen. In the lower to upper squamous layers, small intracytoplasmic cavities were formed around the intraepidermal duct and were fused into the duct. Simultaneously, the contents of the intracytoplasmic cavities were discharged into the ductal lumen. Intracytoplasmic cavities in these layers were ordinarily formed and concerned in not only the reconstruction of the duct but also the secretory function. The intracytoplasmic cavities were surrounded with the same microvilli as lined the intraepidermal ductal lumen. Many clear vesicles (about 0.1 microns in diameter) were observed near the intracytoplasmic cavities, but multivesicular dense bodies (MDB) were not seen near the cavities. These vesicles were considered to participate in the formation of the intracytoplasmic cavities.

Ultrastructural localization of lectin-binding sites in normal human eccrine and apocrine glands

The distribution of carbohydrate residues in eccrine and apocrine glands of normal human skin was studied using a post-embedding technique with Lowicryl K4M. Thin sections were incubated with Ulex europaeus agglutinin I (UEA I), wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), peanut agglutinin (PNA), concanavalin A (Con A), soybean agglutinin (SBA), and dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA). All lectins except for PNA showed labeling of the plasma membranes of dark cells, clear cells, and apocrine cells. The granules of the eccrine gland were labeled with all lectins except for DBA. The mitochondrial granules of the apocrine gland were not labeled with any lectin, whereas the lysosomal granules showed a positive reaction with all lectins except for PNA. After incubation with PNA, in eccrine glands the granules were the only structure labeled, whereas in apocrine glands the luminal side of the plasma membrane and cytoplasmic vesicles beneath it were the only structures labeled.

Ultrastructural immunocytochemical studies of blood group substances in human eccrine glands

We investigated the ultrastructure of blood group antigens A, B, and H in human eccrine glands by means of the immunogold labeling technique. Blood group antigens A, B, and H were found in the Golgi apparatus, secretory granules, and over the apical and basolateral cell membranes of dark cells of eccrine glands depending on the blood group phenotype of the donors. Both A and B antigens were found in the dark cells of AB donors. The labeling pattern of the Golgi stacks seemed to have a polarity whereby the anti-blood group A antibody labeled all the stacks, whereas anti-blood groups B and H bound to the trans side of the Golgi complex. These observations suggest that the blood group substances are secreted into the lumen after being processed through the Golgi apparatus and the immature and mature granules in the dark cells of human eccrine glands.

Porokeratosis plantaris discreta. A misnomer

Eighteen specimens from six patients with so-called porokeratosis plantaris discreta were studied with light and electron microscopy. The diagnosis was based on the classic descriptions by Taub and Steinberg. This study does not corroborate their findings. Based on this study and a review of recent literature, the use of the diagnostic term porokeratosis plantaris discreta should be discontinued.

Ultrastructural localization of keratin and alpha-L-fucose in human eccrine sweat glands

Human eccrine sweat glands were embedded in Lowicryl K4M. Cytokeratin proteins and blood group H antigen were localized by applying a postembedding immunogold method using a monoclonal antikeratin antibody and the lectin Ulex europaeus I. The antikeratin antibody labeled intermediate filaments in the secretory coil and dermal duct. Within dark secretory cells bundles of filaments criss-crossing the cell were labeled. Within the luminal cells of the dermal duct filaments arranged parallel to the cell surface and lying in the apex of the cell were labeled, too. The association of keratin filaments with desmosomes was visualized demonstrating their subcellular connection with other cell organelles. The desmosomes themselves remained unlabeled. The lectin Ulex europaeus I is a blood group H specific lectin and binds to alpha-L-fucosyl-containing glycoproteins. Dark cells of the secretory coil reacted with the lectin. Here the secretory granules, the lateral cell membranes, and the microvilli membranes were labeled. The endoplasmatic reticulum, the Golgi complex, and transport vesicles were not labeled, although the glycoprotein synthesis is considered to be located in the Golgi complex. Thus, either the number of alpha-L-fucose molecules in the Golgi is too low to be detected by the technique employed or the determinant of blood group H antigen is released after the secretory granules and transport vesicles leave the Golgi complex.

Porokeratotic eccrine ostial and dermal duct nevus. Report of a case of adult onset

We describe the case of a 38-year-old woman with adult-onset porokeratotic eccrine ostial and dermal duct nevus. The patient had a 9-year history of multiple keratotic papules and comedo-like pits on the medial border of the left foot. Light- and electron microscopic studies showed multiple cornoid lamella-like parakeratotic columns, which invariably were associated with hyperplastic eccrine ostia and distal sweat ducts. It is concluded that this entity, the first reported case of adult-onset porokeratotic eccrine ostial and dermal duct nevus, is a variant of the congenital form described previously by Abell and Read and by Aloi and Pippione.

The cytochemistry of glycoconjugates in the planum nasolabial gland of the goat as studied by electron microscopic methods

In the planum nasolabial glands of the goat, glycoconjugates of glandular and duct cells have been studied by means of a series of electron microscopic cytochemical methods. In the glandular cells glycoconjugates with vicinal diol groupings were present in secretory granules, certain elements of the Golgi complex, lysosome-like dense bodies, the surface coat of the plasma membrane, the majority of intracellular cytomembranes, glycogen particles and the basal lamina. In duct cells, glycoconjugates with the same properties were localized in similar ultrastructures, except for secretory granules, which were not detected in these cells. By lectin cytochemistry, glycoconjugates in glandular cell secretory granules contained a variety of saccharide residues such as alpha-D-mannose, alpha-D-glucose, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and alpha-L-fucose. The cytochemical properties of the secretory glycoconjugates are discussed in relation to the physiological functions performed by the planum nasolabial glands in the goat.

Ultrastructural localization of ouabain-sensitive, K-dependent p-nitrophenyl phosphatase activity in monkey eccrine sweat gland

We studied the electron microscopic localization of ouabain-sensitive, potassium-dependent p-nitrophenyl phosphatase (K-pNPPase) activity of the Na K-ATPase complex in Rhesus monkey eccrine sweat gland by use of the one-step lead citrate method of Mayahara et al. (Histochemistry 1980; 67:125). Reaction product was observed predominantly in the cytoplasmic side of the basolateral membranes of clear (secretory) cells, especially in the interdigitating membrane folds in the basal labryinth, and were completely abolished by 10 mM ouabain or by removal of K+. Little or no enzyme activity was noted in membrane processes in the intercellular canaliculi and in the secretory coil lumen. Basolateral membranes of the dark cells also showed moderate enzyme activity. The myoepithelial cell membrane was devoid of reaction product, except in a few membrane processes arising from the inner aspect of myoepithelial cells. In the coiled duct, K-pNPPase activity was present predominantly in the entire cell membrane of the peripheral ductal cells. The predominantly basolateral distribution of Na-K-ATPase in the eccrine sweat secretory cells is consistent with the concept that a Na-K-Cl co-transport model may be involved in the mechanism of eccrine sweat secretion.

Immunohistochemistry of gross cystic disease fluid protein (GCDFP-15) in 65 benign sweat gland tumors of the skin

Sixty-five cases of benign sweat gland tumors of the skin were studied for the expression and localization of gross cystic disease fluid protein-15 (GCDFP-15) by immunoperoxidase methods. There was positive staining of tumors of probable apocrine differentiation in 10 of 11 cases of apocrine hidrocystoma and five of five cases of hidradenoma papilliferum. There was no immunoreactivity for GCDFP-15 for tumors of probable eccrine differentiation, including five cases of eccrine hidrocystoma, five cases of eccrine poroma, five cases of eccrine spiradenoma, 10 cases of clear cell hidradenoma, and nine cases of syringoma. There was variable positive staining of tumors of more uncertain histogenesis, including eight of eight cases of syringocystadenoma papilliferum, one of four cases of cylindroma, and two of two cases of chondroid syringoma (mixed tumor). The above data support a functional differentiation of the expression of GCDFP-15 by eccrine compared to apocrine glandular epithelium with benign tumor development.

Morphological diagnosis and misdiagnosis in Batten-Kufs disease

Skin biopsy is a reliable method for diagnosis of Batten disease; it is probably not reliable in Kufs disease. Eccrine secretory cells are the most consistently involved cell type. The abundance of lysosomal storage facilitates diagnosis in infantile and late-infantile cases. The curvilinear bodies of the late-infantile cases have high specificity and should be easily recognizable, though their lamination must be demonstrable. In the usual juvenile cases the cell types involved are more limited, and a superficial biopsy, which does not include eccrine secretory cells, may be nondiagnostic. These cells may contain fingerprint profiles in occasional juvenile, adolescent, or adult patients with other diseases. Thus, verification of involvement of a second cell type, such as duct cells, Schwann cells, and smooth or skeletal muscle, is essential. In all varieties of the disease strict criteria for the ultrastructural patterns must be followed. Otherwise, confusion may arise with normal organelles, with banal lipofuscin, or with nonspecific lysosomes.

Generalized anhidrosis associated with Fabry's disease

A 28-year-old Korean man suffered from generalized acquired anhidrosis and heat intolerance that were confirmed by a sweat test. Other clinical features consistent with Fabry's disease were fever and severe pain of the lower extremities and leg edema. Although the patients lacked cutaneous angiokeratomas, ultrastructural studies of the normal skin demonstrated diagnostic intracytoplasmic inclusions in the endothelial cells and pericytes of dermal vessels, fibroblasts, perineural cells, and secretory cells of eccrine glands. alpha-Galactosidase assay of the patient's leukocytes showed markedly decreased activity, which confirms the diagnosis.

Cytochemical localization of VIP-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity in human sweat glands

Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-stimulated adenylate cyclase was demonstrated cytochemically in human sweat glands. Biopsies containing axillary sweat glands were incubated with 5 micron VIP and adenylate cyclase was demonstrated using the cerium-salt technique. Reaction products were localized in the plasma membranes of glandular and myoepithelial cells. Thus, VIP appears to stimulate adenylate cyclase activity without acetylcholine. VIP and acetylcholine in human sweat glands most probably act through a receptor complex, where adenylate cyclase is coupled to that part of the receptor stimulated by VIP.

Morphology and development of an apoeccrine sweat gland in human axillae

Evidence is presented that in adult human axillae there exists a third type of sweat gland tentatively designated as the apoeccrine sweat gland. This type of gland shows a segmental or diffuse apocrinelike dilatation of its secretory tubule but has a long and thin duct which does not open into a hair follicle. The electron microscopy of its dilated segment is often indistinguishable from that of the classical apocrine gland. The less remarkably dilated segment of the apoeccrine gland tends to retain intercellular canaliculi and/or dark cells. These apoeccrine glands are consistently present in adult human axillae regardless of sex or race. In the axillae of the two 6-yr-old subjects, both classical apocrine and eccrine glands were present but no apoeccrine glands were found. Between 8-14 yr of age, the number of large eccrine glands with or without partial segmental dilatation gradually increased. At 16-18 yr of age, the number of apoeccrine glands increased to as high as 45% of the total axillary glands. The data support the notion that apoeccrine glands develop during puberty in the axillae from eccrine or eccrinelike sweat glands.

Are acrosyringia involved in the pathogenesis of "dyshidrosis"?

Investigations of dyshidrotic eruptions of various causes were done by conventional and electron microscopy. In all cases, the histological patterns were identical. The dyshidrotic vesicle is an intraepidermal, spongiotic lesion. The intraepidermal part of the eccrine sweat duct (acrosyringium) is not altered even by spongiosis. As the acrosyringium does not take part in formation of a dyshidrotic vesicle, the term "dyshidrosis" has to be regarded as a misnomer. Dyshidrosis is nothing but spongiotic dermatitis modified by the distinctive characteristics of palmar and plantar skin.