Including climate change in pest risk assessment: the peach fruit fly, Bactrocera zonata (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) is one of the most harmful species of Tephritidae. It causes extensive damage in Asia and threatens many countries located along or near the Mediterranean Sea. The climate mapping program, CLIMEX 3.0, and the GIS software, ArcGIS 9.3, were used to model the current and future potential geographical distribution of B. zonata. The model predicts that, under current climatic conditions, B. zonata will be able to establish itself throughout much of the tropics and subtropics, including some parts of the USA, southern China, southeastern Australia and northern New Zealand. Climate change scenarios for the 2070s indicate that the potential distribution of B. zonata will expand poleward into areas which are currently too cold. The main factors limiting the pest's range expansion are cold, hot and dry stress. The model's predictions of the numbers of generations produced annually by B. zonata were consistent with values previously recorded for the pest's occurrence in Egypt. The ROC curve and the AUC (an AUC of 0.912) were obtained to evaluate the performance of the CLIMEX model in this study. The analysis of this information indicated a high degree of accuracy for the CLIMEX model. The significant increases in the potential distribution of B. zonata projected under the climate change scenarios considered in this study suggest that biosecurity authorities should consider the effects of climate change when undertaking pest risk assessments. To prevent the introduction and spread of B. zonata, enhanced quarantine and monitoring measures should be implemented in areas that are projected to be suitable for the establishment of the pest under current and future climatic conditions.

Investigation of the genetic diversity of an invasive whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) in China using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers

It is often considered that reduced genetic variation due to bottlenecks and founder effects limits the capacity for species to establish in new environments and subsequently spread. The recent invasion (during the past five years) of an alien whitefly, one member of Bemisia tabaci cryptic species complex, referred to as Mediterranean (herein referred to as Q-type) in Shandong Province, China, provides an ideal opportunity to study the changes in genetic variation between its home range in the Mediterranean region and its invasion range. Using both the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (mtCOI) and nuclear (microsatellite) DNA, we show that Q in Shandong likely originated in the western Mediterranean. We also found that the haplotype diversity was low compared with its presumed geographic origin, whereas microsatellite allele diversity showed no such decline. A key factor in invasions is the establishment of females and so bottleneck and founder events can lead to a very rapid and considerable loss of mitochondrial diversity. The lack of haplotype diversity in Shandong supports the interpretation that, at one or more points between the western Mediterranean and China, the invading Q lost haplotype diversity, most probably through the serial process of establishment and redistribution through trade in ornamental plants. However, the loss in haplotype diversity does not necessarily mean that nuclear allelic diversity should also decline. Provided females can mate freely with whichever males are available, allelic diversity can be maintained or even increased relative to the origin of the invader. Our findings may offer some explanation to the apparent paradox between the concept of reduced genetic variation limiting adaptation to new environments and the observed low diversity in successful invaders.

Multiple mechanisms underlie rapid expansion of an invasive alien plant

• With growing concerns over serious ecological problems, a particular challenge is to reveal the complex mechanisms underlying rapid expansion of invasive species. Ageratina adenophora is of particular interest in addressing this question. • We used geographic information systems and logistic regression to identify the geographic and environmental factors contributing to the presence of A. adenophora. Join-count spatial statistics with reproduction mode examination were employed to elucidate the spatiotemporal dispersal mechanisms. • Multiple factors have significantly contributed to the rapid expansion of A. adenophora. Its biological traits, favoring dispersal by water and wind coupled with local spatiotemporally heterogeneous geography and ecology, promote invasion downstream and upstream along river valleys, while other factors associated with human activities facilitate its invasion over high mountains and across river valleys, providing new scope for progressive invasions. We further identified an unusual invasion event of A. adenophora subsequent to a great flood that amplified its dispersal ability from vegetative propagules and seeds. • These findings suggest that dynamic interactions of multiple factors in heterogeneous ecogeographical environments - a 'combinatorial' invasion mechanism - would generate an unexpected invasion rate of an alien species or a seemingly stochastic invasion event.

Further insights into the strange role of bacterial endosymbionts in whitefly, Bemisia tabaci: comparison of secondary symbionts from biotypes B and Q in China

The percentage infection of secondary symbionts (SS) (Wolbachia, Arsenophonus, Rickettsia, Hamiltonella, Fritschea and Cardinium) in the exotic Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) invaders, commonly known as biotypes B and Q from China, were determined by PCR. In total, 373 biotype B and 1830 biotype Q individuals were screened for the presence of SS. Biotype B was more abundant than biotype Q from 2005 to 2006, and biotype Q was more abundant from 2007 to 2009. Each of the SS, with the exception of Fritschea, was detected in both biotypes B and Q; Fritschea was found in none of the samples examined. For biotype B, the percentage infection of Hamiltonella was the highest (92.0%) followed by Rickettsia (70.2%). For biotype Q, the percentage infection of Hamiltonella was again the highest (73.3%). Arsenophonus was the least common of the SS observed in both biotypes B and Q. The percentage infection of Wolbachia, Rickettsia and Hamiltonella in biotype B was each significantly higher than in biotype Q, whereas the percentage infection of Cardinium in biotype B was significantly lower than in biotype Q. The percentage infection of SS in biotypes B and Q varied from year to year over the period 2005-2009. Furthermore, within biotype Q, two distinct subgroups were identified which differ from each other in terms of their SS complement. We discuss these results in the light of the potentially influential factors and roles of the SS.

Using double-stranded RNA to explore the role of heat shock protein genes in heat tolerance in Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius)

The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) biotype B, is one of the most destructive invasive pests of field and glasshouse crops, and has a high tolerance to heat. Our previous work found that whitefly females are more heat tolerant than males. In the present study, real-time PCR and double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) methods were used to explore the role of heat shock protein (Hsp) genes in whitefly of both sexes; this provided further evidence of the mechanism underlying the differential heat tolerance abilities of females and males. The results showed that both hsp23 and hsp70 mRNA expression levels were higher in females than in males from 37.5 to 42°C, while at the extreme temperature of 44°C the hsp70 mRNA level was higher in males than in females. There was no significant difference in hsp90 mRNA expression between females and males under heat shock conditions. Furthermore, the survival rate of females fed hsp23 or hsp70 dsRNA significantly decreased following heat shock at 44°C for 1 h, but male survival rate was not significantly affected. Additionally, the survival rate of both females and males showed no significant change after they were fed with hsp90 dsRNA. Collectively, the present study shows that the optimum mRNA expression of Hsp genes in females promotes a higher survival rate under heat shock conditions; hsp23 and hsp70 play a key role for heat tolerance in females but not in males, and hsp90 shows no significant role in heat tolerance in either females or males. Further, our study indicates that feeding with dsRNA is an effective method by which to study gene function, and the simplicity of this approach opens the way for further research on gene function in different sexes and diverse groups of species.

Interspecific interactions between Bemisia tabaci biotype B and Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) biotype B and Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) are invasive whitefly species that often co-occur on greenhouse-grown vegetables in northern China. Although B. tabaci biotype B has been present in China for a relatively short period of time, it has become dominant over T. vaporariorum. We studied the interspecific competitive interactions between the two species in single or mixed cultures at 24 ± 1 °C, 40 ± 5% RH, and L14:D10 h photoperiod. Female longevity on tomato was not significantly different between species, but B. tabaci reproduced 4.3 to 4.9 fold more progeny. The ratio of female to male progeny in both instances was greater for B. tabaci. When cultured on tomato, cotton, and tobacco, B. tabaci developed 0.8, 3.3, and 4.7 d earlier in single culture, and 1.8, 3.9, and 4.3 d earlier in mixed culture. B. tabaci displaced T. vaporariorum in four, five and six generations when the initial ratios of B. tabaci to T. vaporariorum were 15:15, 20:10, or 10:20 on tomato. Populations of B. tabaci were 2.3 fold higher than that of T. vaporariorum on tomato plants for seven consecutive generations in single culture. B. tabaci performed better in development, survival, fecundity, and female ratio. We conclude that B. tabaci could displace T. vaporariorum in as short as four generations in a controlled greenhouse environment when they start at equal proportions. Warmer greenhouse conditions and an increase in total greenhouse area could be contributing factors in the recent dominance of B. tabaci.

Host plant effects on alkaline phosphatase activity in the whiteflies, Bemisia tabaci Biotype B and Trialeurodes vaporariorum

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) B-biotype and Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) often coexist on greenhouse-grown vegetable crops in northern China. The recent spread of B. tabaci B-biotype has largely replaced T. vaporariorum, and B-biotype now overlaps with T. vaporariorum where common hosts occur in most invaded areas. The impact of the B-biotype on the agro eco system appears to be widespread, and involves the ability to compete with and perhaps replace other phytophages like T. vaporariorum. An emerging hypothesis is that the B-biotype is physiologically superior due at least in part to an improved ability to metabolically utilize the alkaline phosphatase pathway. To test this hypothesis, alkaline phosphatase activity was studied in the B-biotype and T. vaporariorum after feeding on a number of different hosts for a range of durations, with and without host switching. Alkaline phosphatase activity in T. vaporariorum was 1.45 to 2.53-fold higher than that of the B-biotype when fed on tomato for 4 and 24 h, or switched from tomato to cotton and cabbage for the same durations. However, alkaline phosphatase activity in the B-biotype was 1.40 to 3.35-fold higher than that of T. vaporariorum when the host switching time was ∼72 and ∼120 h on the same plant. Both short-term (4 h) and long-term (72 h) switching of plant hosts can significantly affect the alkaline phosphatase activity in the two species. After ∼120 h, feeding on tomato and cotton alkaline phosphatase activity in the B-biotype was significantly higher than that of T. vaporariorum. It was shown that alkaline phosphatase aids the species feeding on different plant species, and that the B-biotype is physiologically superior to T. vaporariorum in utilizing the enzyme compared to T. vaporariorum over longer periods of feeding.

Effects of temperature on survival, development, longevity, and fecundity of Ophraella communa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a potential biological control agent against Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Asterales: Asteraceae)

Ophraella communa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is a leaf beetle that is unintentionally introduced in China. It is a potential biological control agent against common ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Asterales: Asteraceae). The effects of temperature on the development and fecundity of O. communa were studied at eight constant temperature regimens (15, 20, 22, 25, 28, 30, 32, 36 degrees C) in the laboratory. The results showed that the developmental periods for egg, larva, pupa, and entire immature stages decreased in response to the increasing temperature, with the exception of 30 degrees C. The survival rates at different developmental stages were higher at 25 and 28 degrees C than at other temperatures. Ovipositional period and longevity of female shortened with the increasing temperature. The highest fecundity of female was observed to be 2,712.3 eggs/female at 28 degrees C. Life table of O. communa was constructed based on the data at 20-32 degrees C. The innate capacity for increase (r(m)), the net reproductive rate (R(0)), and the finite rate of increase (lambda) reached the maximum at 28 degrees C, with values of 0.247, 1,773.0, and 1.280, respectively. The shortest period of a generation (T) was 24.6 d at 32 degrees C, whereas the longest T value was recorded as 79.3 d at 20 degrees C. These results offer valuable insight on the establishment potential of O. communa in new environments with diverse temperature regimens and on its mass-rearing techniques in laboratory.

[Affecting factors on capture efficacy of sex pheromone traps for Cydia pomonella L]

Codling moth Cydia pomonella L. (Lepidoptera, Olethreutidae) is the most serious pest of orchards, and one of the most important quarantine pests in China. This paper studied the effects of the color, shape, placement location, lure color, and lure number of sex pheromone traps on the capture efficacy for C. pomonella L. male moth. It was found that the capture efficacy of white and green traps was two times higher than that of blue trap (P < 0.05), and water bottle and triangle traps had no significant difference in their trapping effect. The traps hung in the middle of crown gave two times higher catches than those hung in the upper portion of crown (P < 0.05). Lure color and number had no significant effect on the capture efficacy. The present results could be used in better monitoring C. pomonella by using its sex pheromones.

Responses of three successive generations of beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua, fed exclusively on different levels of gossypol in cotton leaves

The beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is an important pest of numerous crops, and it causes economic damage in China. Use of secondary metabolic compounds in plants is an important method used to control this insect as a part of integrated pest management. In this study the growth, development, and food utilization of three successive generations of S. exigua fed on three cotton gossypol cultivars were examined. Significantly longer larval life-spans were observed in S. exigua fed on high gossypol cultivar M9101 compared with those fed on two low gossypol cultivars, ZMS13 and HZ401. The pupal weight of the first generation was significantly lower than that of the latter two generations fed on ZMS13 group. Significantly lower fecundity was observed in the second and third generations of S. exigua fed on M9101 compared with S. exigua fed on ZMS13 and HZ401. The efficiency of conversion was significantly higher in the first and third generations fed on HZ401 compared with those fed on ZMS13 and M9101. A significantly lower relative growth rate was observed in the three successive generations fed on M9101 compared with those fed on ZMS13 and HZ401. Cotton cultivars significantly affected the growth, development, and food utilization indices of S. exigua, except for frass and approximate digestibility. Development of S. exigua was significantly affected by relative consumption rate and efficiency of conversion of ingested food, but not by relative growth rate or approximate digestibility, suggesting that diet-utilization efficiency was different based on food quality and generation. Measuring the development and food utilization of S. exigua at the individual and population levels over more than one generation provided more meaningful predictions of long-term population dynamics.

[Comprehensive assessment on control measures of Ambrosia artemisiifolia L]

Three control measures of Ambrosia artemisiifolia, including biological control, chemical control, and CK without any treatment, were evaluated by analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Corresponding contributions of the three control measures to comprehensive profit (CP) and comprehensive cost (CC) were calculated and ranked, which were regarded as the assessment criteria of the control measures. The results showed that among the three control measures, biological control had the highest CP and the lowest CC, CK was in adverse; and chemical control was in intervenient. Biological control had the highest ratio of profit to cost, and suggesting that this control measure is an optimal and recommendable measure in controlling A. artemisiifolia.

Reproductive biology of two nontarget insect species, Aphis gossypii (Homoptera: Aphididae) and Orius sauteri (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), on Bt and non-Bt cotton cultivars

Transgenic Bt cotton, engineered to continuously produce activated delta-endotoxins of the soil bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis, holds great promise in controlling Helicoverpa armigera and other lepidopteran pests. However, it also may impact the invertebrate community, which needs to be clarified. The effects of Bt cotton on two nontarget insects, Aphis gossypii and Orius sauteri, were assessed under semifield and laboratory conditions. Mean total duration of nymphal stages of A. gossypii was shorter (5.9 versus 6.3 d), and rm was higher (0.418 versus 0.394) on conventional Simian 3 (the most frequently planted non-Bt cotton in northern China) than on Bt transgenic NuCOTN 33B (the first Bt cotton commercially planted in China). Mean duration of fourth-instar O. sauteri was significantly longer on transgenic GK-12 (3.7 d) than on NuCOTN 33B (3.2 d), but no different from Simian 3. Mean total mortality was significantly lower on Simian 3 (3.7%) than on GK-12 (14.8%). During the fourth instar, the predator consumed a significantly higher number of prey on Simian 3 (202.3 prey) than on NuCOTN 33B (159.0), whereas the mean total number of A. gossypii prey consumed during the nymphal stage was significantly higher on Simian 3 (336.8 prey) and GK-12 (330.3 prey) than on NuCOTN 33B (275.7). No detrimental effects were detected on development (nymphs, adults, and progeny eggs), fecundity, longevity, and egg viability of O. sauteri on Bt cotton aphids compared with non-Bt cotton aphids. These results suggest that Bt cotton cultivars GK-12 and NuCOTN 33B have no direct effect on nontargets A. gossypii and O. sauteri. Germplasm divergence may account for the negative effects observed on A. gossypii and O. sauteri when reared on NuCOTN 33B or NuCOTN 33B-fed aphids. The biological meanings of the small difference observed between GK-12 and Simian 3 on survival of O. sauteri will require close monitoring over longer time periods.

Tri-trophic interactions between Bt cotton, the herbivore Aphis gossypii Glover (Homoptera: Aphididae), and the predator Chrysopa pallens (Rambur) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

Tri-trophic impacts of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton GK12 and NuCOTN 99B were studied using a predator, the great lacewing Chrysopa pallens (Rambur), and its prey, the cotton aphid Aphis gossypii Glover, in laboratory feeding experiments. The parental nontransgenic cotton cultivar of GK12 was used as control. The predator was fed with uniform (aphids from a single cultivar) or mixed prey (aphids from the three cotton cultivars provided on alternate days). Mortality and development of the immature stages, pupal body mass, adult sex ratio, fecundity, and egg viability of C. pallens were measured. When fed GK12-originated aphid prey, pupal body mass of C. pallens was significantly higher than that of the control, more females emerged, and these females laid significantly more eggs. Other parameters were not impacted. Females emerging from larvae maintained on NuCOTN 99B-originated prey laid fewer eggs than those maintained on GK12. Other measurements did not differ significantly between the two Bt cotton cultivars. Compared with the control, mixed feeding significantly prolonged pupal development time and increased pupal body mass and percentage of females but did not affect other parameters. These results indicate that C. pallens is sensitive to aphid prey from different cotton cultivars. Transgenic Bt cotton GK12-originated aphid prey has no adverse impact on survival, development, and fecundity of C. pallens. Between the two Bt cotton cultivars, NuCOTN 99B-originated aphid prey provided to C. pallens in the larval stage may lower female fecundity. Mixed feeding of C. pallens with the two Bt cotton-originated prey and non-Bt prey may have some adverse impacts on pupal development.

[Screening, identification, and antagonism assessment, of dominant bacteria in Ageratina adenophora Sprengel rhizosphere soil]

By using isolation and culture method, 25 strains of dominant bacteria in Ageratina adenophora rhizosphere soil were isolated and identified, of which, 8 strains were assessed for their antagonistic activity. The results showed that Bacillus and Pseudomonas were highly abundant in A. adenophora rhizosphere soil, of which, B. subtilis and B. megaterium were most abundant and occupied 55.6% of the total identified bacteria. These dominant bacteria had different level antagonistic activity to Fusarium oxysporum and Ralstonia solanacearum, and B. subtilis BS-5 and B. thuringiensis BT-1 had the strongest antagonistic effect on F. oxysporum, with the antagonistic activity of their metabolic products being 85.5% and 83.8%, respectively. The metabolic products of the dominant antagonistic bacteria had even more stronger antagonistic effect on pathogens than the dominant antagonistic bacteria themselves. The existence of abundant bacterial groups with strong antagonistic activity in A. adenophora rhizosphere soil could help A. adenophora to resist harmful soil-borne diseases and escape its natural enemies. Through the feedback actions of the beneficial rhizosphere microbes, A. adenophora probably earned its competition superiority directly or indirectly, being favorable to its rapid expansion.

[Effects of host plants on development and fecundity of Brontispa longissima (Gestro)]

With Cocos nucifera, Hyophorbe lagenicaulis, Washingtonia filifera, Roystonea regia and Areca catechu as test host plants, this paper studied the effects of their un-spread leaves on the development and fecundity of experimental population of Brontispa longissima. The results showed that the development duration of one generation B. longissima fed on different hosts varied significantly, with the longest (72.8 days) on W. filifera and the shortest (39.8 days) on H. lagenicaulis. The average pupa weight of B. longissima was bigger on H. lagenicaulis than on the other four host plants, and the female B. longissima had the highest fecundity (157.6 ova) on W. filifera while the lowest one (65.2 ova) on A. catechu. The longevity of B. longissima adults fed on H. lagenicaulis was 207.52 days, being significantly longer than that on the other host plants. The trend index of experimental population of B. longissima fed on the five host plants was 53.57, 54.98, 48.56, 20.46 and 11.54, respectively.

[Effects of crop arrangement patterns on arthropod community structure in transgenic bollworm-resistant cotton fields]

The study on the arthropod community structures in transgenic bollworm-resistant cotton (cv. Lumianyan 15) fields with different crop arrangement patterns showed that compared with those in mono-cultured cotton plot, there were more species of arthropod community and of phytophagous pest and natural enemy sub-communities as well as more individuals of neutral arthropods in vegetable-, fruit tree-, and peanut-cotton plots. More individuals of phytophagous pests in vegetable- and peanut-cotton plots, and natural enemies in vegetable- and fruit tree-cotton plots were observed. The arthropod community in peanut- and fruit tree-cotton plots had the highest similarity, while that in mono-cultured cotton and vegetable-cotton plots had the lowest one. The Renyi diversity index indicated that compared with mono-cultured cotton plot, vegetable-cotton plot had lower diversities of arthropod community and pest sub-community, while fruit tree- and peanut-cotton plots had higher diversities of arthropod community and natural enemy sub-community, and of arthropod community and pest sub-community diversity, respectively. It was concluded that fruit tree-cotton was a recommendable crop arrangement pattern for transgenic bollworm-resistant cotton.

[Application of ISSR molecular marker in invasive plant species study]

Alien species invasion is one of the most important drivers of worldwide environmental change, which may result in environmental degradation, biodiversity loss, and food and water shortage. It may also increase the possibility and severity of natural disasters, and damage international trade and benefits. In last two decades, DNA-based molecular markers were widely used to detect the genetic diversity of invaded alien species. Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) is a microsatellite-based technique, with the superiorities of simple, quick, reliable, and generating higher levels of DNA polymorphism, and being used as a new molecular marker for genetic study. This paper introduced the principles, characteristics and procedures of ISSR, and summarized its applications in studying the genetic structure, genetic diversity, origin, distribution mode, phylogenesis, and breeding features of invasive plants.

Vector-virus mutualism accelerates population increase of an invasive whitefly

The relationships between plant viruses, their herbivore vectors and host plants can be beneficial, neutral, or antagonistic, depending on the species involved. This variation in relationships may affect the process of biological invasion and the displacement of indigenous species by invaders when the invasive and indigenous organisms occur with niche overlap but differ in the interactions. The notorious invasive B biotype of the whitefly complex Bemisia tabaci entered China in the late 1990s and is now the predominant or only biotype in many regions of the country. Tobacco curly shoot virus (TbCSV) and Tomato yellow leaf curl China virus (TYLCCNV) are two whitefly-transmitted begomoviruses that have become widespread recently in south China. We compared the performance of the invasive B and indigenous ZHJ1 whitefly biotypes on healthy, TbCSV-infected and TYLCCNV-infected tobacco plants. Compared to its performance on healthy plants, the invasive B biotype increased its fecundity and longevity by 12 and 6 fold when feeding on TbCSV-infected plants, and by 18 and 7 fold when feeding on TYLCCNV-infected plants. Population density of the B biotype on TbCSV- and TYLCCNV-infected plants reached 2 and 13 times that on healthy plants respectively in 56 days. In contrast, the indigenous ZHJ1 performed similarly on healthy and virus-infected plants. Virus-infection status of the whiteflies per se of both biotypes showed limited effects on performance of vectors on cotton, a nonhost plant of the viruses. The indirect mutualism between the B biotype whitefly and these viruses via their host plants, and the apparent lack of such mutualism for the indigenous whitefly, may contribute to the ability of the B whitefly biotype to invade, the displacement of indigenous whiteflies, and the disease pandemics of the viruses associated with this vector.

Enhancement of the biological activity of nucleopolyhedrovirus through disruption of the peritrophic matrix of insect larvae by chlorfluazuron

The enhancement of Spodoptera litura (F.) nucleopolyhedrovirus (SlNPV) activity using the chitin synthesis inhibitor chlorfluazuron was investigated. When tested against fifth-instar S. litura larvae, chlorfluazuron produced synergistic effects at doses of 0.05 and 0.025 microg per insect, and additive effects at doses of 0.1 and 0.2 microg. Furthermore, the time required for SlNPV to kill larvae was significantly reduced by chlorfluazuron at all doses tested. The activity and killing speed of Autographa californica (Spey) nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) against third-instar Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) larvae were similarly improved by chlorfluazuron at a dose of 0.05 microg per larva. Furthermore, the growth of S. exigua was significantly retarded by chlorfluazuron. Environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) showed that the peritrophic matrices (PMs) of S. litura exposed to chlorfluazuron alone, or the combination treatment, were markedly disrupted. Obvious ruptures on the outer surfaces of the PM were observed, which potentially facilitated the passage of virions through the matrix.