2 A crystal structure of an extracellular fragment of human CD40 ligand

BACKGROUND

The CD40 ligand (CD40L) is a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family of proteins and is transiently expressed on the surface of activated T cells. The binding of CD40L to CD40, which is expressed on the surface of B cells, provides a critical and unique pathway of cellular activation resulting in antibody isotype switching, regulation of apoptosis, and B cell proliferation and differentiation. Naturally occurring mutations of CD40L result in the clinical hyper-IgM syndrome, characterized by an inability to produce immunoglobulins of the IgG, IgA and IgE isotypes.

RESULTS

We have determined the crystal structure of a soluble extracellular fragment of human CD40L to 2 A resolution and with an R factor of 21.8%. Although the molecule forms a trimer similar to that found for other members of the TNF family, such as TNF alpha and lymphotoxin-alpha, and exhibits a similar overall fold, there are considerable differences in several loops including those predicted to be involved in CD40 binding.

CONCLUSIONS

The structure suggests that most of the hyper-IgM syndrome mutations affect the folding and stability of the molecule rather than the CD40-binding site directly. Despite the fact that the hyper-IgM syndrome mutations are dispersed in the primary sequence, a large fraction of them are clustered in space in the vicinity of a surface loop, close to the predicted CD40-binding site.

Opposing roles of CD95 (Fas/APO-1) and CD40 in the death and rescue of human low density tonsillar B cells

The regulation of B cell death plays roles in the selection of Ag-specific B cells in humoral immune responses, controlling B cell homeostasis and perhaps limiting transformation. The present work addresses whether CD95 induces tonsillar B cells to undergo apoptosis and, if so, whether contact-dependent CD40-L:CD40 signaling can rescue tonsillar B cells from CD95-induced apoptosis. CD95 triggering by anti-CD95 mAb (APO-1) was studied in human tonsillar B cell populations that were separated by density centrifugation into fractions enriched for either low density, CD38+ B cells or high density, resting B cells. Low density tonsillar B cells express CD95 and undergo anti-CD95-mediated apoptosis by analysis of cellular morphology or DNA fragmentation by TUNEL assay. The induction of apoptosis in low density tonsillar B cells by anti-CD95 mAb is inhibited by CD40 signals provided by stably transfected CD40-L+ 293 cells, but not by control transfected 293 cells (expressing CD8). In addition, the rescuing effect of CD40-L+ cells is inhibited specifically by anti-CD40-L (mAb 5c8). The counteracting effects of CD95 and CD40 signaling were also studied in Ramos 2G6, a homogeneous B cell tumor line of germinal center phenotype that expresses CD95 and CD40. Similar to the behavior of low density tonsillar B cells, Ramos 2G6 undergoes anti-CD95-mediated apoptosis, which is prevented by CD40-mediated rescue. These data show that CD95 induces apoptosis in low density tonsillar B cells and that CD40-L:CD40 interactions rescue low density tonsillar B cells or the B cell tumor Ramos 2G6 from CD95-induced apoptosis, and suggest roles for CD95 and CD40 in B cell death and selection, respectively.

Opposing roles of CD95 (Fas/APO-1) and CD40 in the death and rescue of human low density tonsillar B cells

The regulation of B cell death plays roles in the selection of Ag-specific B cells in humoral immune responses, controlling B cell homeostasis and perhaps limiting transformation. The present work addresses whether CD95 induces tonsillar B cells to undergo apoptosis and, if so, whether contact-dependent CD40-L:CD40 signaling can rescue tonsillar B cells from CD95-induced apoptosis. CD95 triggering by anti-CD95 mAb (APO-1) was studied in human tonsillar B cell populations that were separated by density centrifugation into fractions enriched for either low density, CD38+ B cells or high density, resting B cells. Low density tonsillar B cells express CD95 and undergo anti-CD95-mediated apoptosis by analysis of cellular morphology or DNA fragmentation by TUNEL assay. The induction of apoptosis in low density tonsillar B cells by anti-CD95 mAb is inhibited by CD40 signals provided by stably transfected CD40-L+ 293 cells, but not by control transfected 293 cells (expressing CD8). In addition, the rescuing effect of CD40-L+ cells is inhibited specifically by anti-CD40-L (mAb 5c8). The counteracting effects of CD95 and CD40 signaling were also studied in Ramos 2G6, a homogeneous B cell tumor line of germinal center phenotype that expresses CD95 and CD40. Similar to the behavior of low density tonsillar B cells, Ramos 2G6 undergoes anti-CD95-mediated apoptosis, which is prevented by CD40-mediated rescue. These data show that CD95 induces apoptosis in low density tonsillar B cells and that CD40-L:CD40 interactions rescue low density tonsillar B cells or the B cell tumor Ramos 2G6 from CD95-induced apoptosis, and suggest roles for CD95 and CD40 in B cell death and selection, respectively.

Ligation of CD40 on fibroblasts induces CD54 (ICAM-1) and CD106 (VCAM-1) up-regulation and IL-6 production and proliferation

CD40 was originally described as a functionally significant B cell surface molecule. However, CD40 is also expressed on monocytes, dendritic cells, epithelial cells, and basophils. We now report that synovial membrane (SM) or dermal fibroblasts also express cell surface CD40 in vitro. Fibroblast CD40 expression declines with increasing time in culture and recombinant interferon-gamma (rINF-gamma) induces fibroblast CD40 up-regulation. This effect of rINF-gamma is augmented by recombinant interleukin-1 alpha or recombinant tumor necrosis factor-alpha. CD40 expression on fibroblasts is functionally significant because CD40L-CD40 interactions induce SM fibroblast CD54 (intercellular adhesion molecule-1) and CD106 (vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) up-regulation. Moreover, ligation of CD40 augments IL-6 production by SM fibroblasts and induces fibroblasts to proliferate. In addition, rINF-gamma enhances the effect of CD40L-CD40 interactions on fibroblast proliferation. Taken together, these studies show that fibroblasts can express CD40, cytokines can regulate fibroblast CD40 expression, and CD40 ligation induces fibroblast activation and proliferation.

Involvement of CRAF1, a relative of TRAF, in CD40 signaling

CD40 is a receptor on the surface of B lymphocytes, the activation of which leads to B cell survival, growth, and differentiation. A yeast two-hybrid screen identified a gene, CRAF1, encoding a protein that interacts directly with the CD40 cytoplasmic tail through a region of similarity to the tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) receptor-associated factors. Overexpression of a truncated CRAF1 gene inhibited CD40-mediated up-regulation of CD23. A region of CRAF1 was similar to the TNF-alpha receptor-associated factors TRAF1 and TRAF2 and so defined a shared TRAF-C domain that was necessary and sufficient for CD40 binding and homodimerization. The CRAF1 sequence also predicted a long amphipathic helix, a pattern of five zinc fingers, and a zinc ring finger. It is likely that other members of the TNF receptor superfamily use CRAF-related proteins in their signal transduction processes.

CD40 ligand (CD40L) expression and B cell function in agammaglobulinemia with normal or elevated levels of IgM (HIM). Comparison of X-linked, autosomal recessive, and non-X-linked forms of the disease, and obligate carriers

Hyper-IgM syndrome is a rare immunodeficiency characterized by low or absent IgG, IgA, and IgE with normal or elevated levels of IgM. It can occur as an acquired or familial disorder with either X-linked or autosomal modes of inheritance. The X-linked form (HIGM1) is a result of mutations in the CD40 ligand (CD40L) gene, but the defect in non-X-linked forms of the disease (HIM) has not been determined. We show here that CD40L expression on activated T cells from non-X-linked patients can be detected by CD40Fc, 5c8 Mab, and anti-TRAP, whereas activated T cells from HIGM1 patients either had no detectable CD40L (Type I), or stained with anti-TRAP but not CD40Fc or 5c8 (Type II). Activated T cells from obligate carriers varied from low to normal expression of CD40L. B cells from HIGM1 and non-X-linked HIM patients proliferated in response to CD40L. Costimulation of B cells from HIGM1, from sporadic HIM, or from non-X-linked HIM patients with CD40L plus IL-2 resulted in some IgM production, but no significant IgG or IgA. Costimulation with CD40L plus IL-10 resulted in significant IgG and/or IgA secretion by B cells from some HIGM1 patients, but consistently failed to stimulate IgG or IgA secretion by B cells from non-X-linked patients. In addition, costimulation with CD40L and IL-4 failed to induce IgE secretion by B cells from one non-X-linked HIM patient, and induced a weak response in another. These results suggest that patients with non-X-linked forms of HIM may have an intrinsic B cell defect preventing heavy chain switching, which is not related to expression of CD40L.

CD40 ligand (CD40L) expression and B cell function in agammaglobulinemia with normal or elevated levels of IgM (HIM). Comparison of X-linked, autosomal recessive, and non-X-linked forms of the disease, and obligate carriers

Hyper-IgM syndrome is a rare immunodeficiency characterized by low or absent IgG, IgA, and IgE with normal or elevated levels of IgM. It can occur as an acquired or familial disorder with either X-linked or autosomal modes of inheritance. The X-linked form (HIGM1) is a result of mutations in the CD40 ligand (CD40L) gene, but the defect in non-X-linked forms of the disease (HIM) has not been determined. We show here that CD40L expression on activated T cells from non-X-linked patients can be detected by CD40Fc, 5c8 Mab, and anti-TRAP, whereas activated T cells from HIGM1 patients either had no detectable CD40L (Type I), or stained with anti-TRAP but not CD40Fc or 5c8 (Type II). Activated T cells from obligate carriers varied from low to normal expression of CD40L. B cells from HIGM1 and non-X-linked HIM patients proliferated in response to CD40L. Costimulation of B cells from HIGM1, from sporadic HIM, or from non-X-linked HIM patients with CD40L plus IL-2 resulted in some IgM production, but no significant IgG or IgA. Costimulation with CD40L plus IL-10 resulted in significant IgG and/or IgA secretion by B cells from some HIGM1 patients, but consistently failed to stimulate IgG or IgA secretion by B cells from non-X-linked patients. In addition, costimulation with CD40L and IL-4 failed to induce IgE secretion by B cells from one non-X-linked HIM patient, and induced a weak response in another. These results suggest that patients with non-X-linked forms of HIM may have an intrinsic B cell defect preventing heavy chain switching, which is not related to expression of CD40L.

Phenotypic and functional characterization of T-BAM (CD40 ligand)+ T-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

The precise mechanisms regulating T-helper function have been intensively investigated. We and others have recently identified a new T-cell-B-cell-activating molecule called T-BAM that directs B-cell differentiation by interacting with the CD40 molecule on B cells. Using a specific monoclonal antibody against T-BAM (5C8), we have previously shown that T-BAM expressing T cells are predominantly CD4+CD8- and in normal lymphoid tissue have a unique distribution. However, no information has been obtained regarding the phenotype and functional properties of human neoplastic T cells. Therefore, we investigated T-BAM expression immunohistochemically in 87 well-characterized T-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas and lymphoid leukemias (LL). We found that 21/81 neoplasms expressed detectable T-BAM and these positive tumors belong almost exclusively to the CD4+CD8- subtype. In addition, to determine whether T-BAM expression could be induced on T-BAM-LL cells, we activated T-BAM-LLs in vitro and showed that T-BAM could be upregulated only in CD4+CD8- tumors. Our studies clearly show that T-BAM is constitutively expressed in a large number of T-cell neoplasms with a relative mature phenotype (CD4+CD8-) and that only CD4+ neoplastic T cells can be induced in vitro to express this molecule. Additional studies are necessary to identify the biologic significance of T-BAM expression and its potential and clinical implications.

Isolation of cDNAs encoding T-BAM, a surface glycoprotein on CD4+ T cells mediating contact-dependent helper function for B cells: identity with the CD40-ligand

"T-cell B-cell Activating Molecule" (T-BAM) is an activation-induced surface protein on CD4+ T cells that mediates a contact-dependent signal for B cell differentiation and immunoglobulin (Ig) secretion. The T-BAM protein on a helper clone of Jurkat (D1.1) was affinity purified using the anti-T-BAM mAb, 5c8. The NH2-terminal amino acid sequence of purified T-BAM was determined and found to be highly homologous to the predicted NH2-terminal sequence of a T cell ligand to the B cell CD40 molecule (CD40-L). From a D1.1 cDNA library, a clone was isolated that encodes CD40-L by sequence and drives expression of T-BAM protein on transfected cells, demonstrating that the T-BAM and CD40-L genes and proteins are identical. Moreover, transfection of T-BAM was shown to confer to non-lymphoid cells, the ability to induce B cells to upregulate the expression of surface CD23 molecules. In previous studies we showed that T-BAM was expressed predominantly on activated CD4+ and on few if any CD8+ cells. Although the current work confirms that T-BAM is largely restricted to activated CD4+ T cells, we now provide definitive evidence that T-BAM can be expressed by a small population of CD8+ T cells after activation. Importantly, a subset of CD8+ T cells do not express T-BAM after activation and this T-BAM- phenotype is maintained on certain CD8+ T cell clones. Taken together, these data unify the biology and structure of T-BAM and CD40-L and this synthesis has implications for understanding the T cell regulation of the humoral immune response.

T-BAM/CD40-L on helper T lymphocytes augments lymphokine-induced B cell Ig isotype switch recombination and rescues B cells from programmed cell death

An important component of T cell help for B lymphocyte differentiation is the contact-dependent signaling mediated by the T cell-B cell activating molecule (T-BAM/CD40-L), an activation-induced surface membrane protein on CD4+ T helper cells in lymphoid follicles that interacts with the B cell surface molecule, CD40. The present study dissects the roles of T-BAM/CD40-L in helper function by means of a neutralizing anti-T-BAM/CD40-L mAb (5c8), a T-BAM/CD40-L-expressing T cell tumor subclone (Jurkat D1.1), and a T-BAM/CD40-L-responsive IgM+ B cell tumor of germinal center origin (RAMOS 266). Like activated T cells, D1.1 cells induce B cells to synthesize IgG, IgA, and IgE in a process that is specifically inhibited by the mAb 5c8. Although rIL-4 alone, but not Jurkat D1.1, induces IgH C gamma mRNA transcripts in RAMOS 266, the T-BAM/CD40-L molecule on D1.1 acts on rIL-4-primed RAMOS B cells to augment expression of C gamma transcripts. In addition, IgG+ RAMOS 266 clones were expanded from D1.1- and rIL-4-stimulated cultures that had undergone deletional IgH isotype switch recombination events. Furthermore, T-BAM/CD40-L signals delivered by the D1.1 clone dramatically rescue RAMOS 266 from mAb anti-IgM-induced apoptosis. Taken together, these data support the idea that T-BAM/CD40-L plays important roles in inducing Ig isotype switch recombination and the clonal selection of isotype-switched B cells.

Characteristics of HIV-1 gp120 glycoprotein binding to glycolipids

We examined the binding of the gp120 envelope glycoprotein (gp120) of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) to sulfatide (GalS), galactocerebroside (GalC), and GM1-ganglioside (GM1). The gp120 glycoprotein bound to GalS but not to GalC or GM1 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and by an immunospot assay on nitrocellulose paper. However, it bound to all three glycolipids by an immunospot assay on thin layer chromatography (TLC) plates. In studies to determine whether GalS could be a receptor for gp120 on the surface of cells, gp120 bound to GalS incorporated into the plasma membrane of lymphoid cells as determined by cytofluorometric analysis and immunofluorescence microscopy. These studies indicate that GalS may function as a receptor for gp120 and HIV-1.

T-BAM/CD40-L on helper T lymphocytes augments lymphokine-induced B cell Ig isotype switch recombination and rescues B cells from programmed cell death

An important component of T cell help for B lymphocyte differentiation is the contact-dependent signaling mediated by the T cell-B cell activating molecule (T-BAM/CD40-L), an activation-induced surface membrane protein on CD4+ T helper cells in lymphoid follicles that interacts with the B cell surface molecule, CD40. The present study dissects the roles of T-BAM/CD40-L in helper function by means of a neutralizing anti-T-BAM/CD40-L mAb (5c8), a T-BAM/CD40-L-expressing T cell tumor subclone (Jurkat D1.1), and a T-BAM/CD40-L-responsive IgM+ B cell tumor of germinal center origin (RAMOS 266). Like activated T cells, D1.1 cells induce B cells to synthesize IgG, IgA, and IgE in a process that is specifically inhibited by the mAb 5c8. Although rIL-4 alone, but not Jurkat D1.1, induces IgH C gamma mRNA transcripts in RAMOS 266, the T-BAM/CD40-L molecule on D1.1 acts on rIL-4-primed RAMOS B cells to augment expression of C gamma transcripts. In addition, IgG+ RAMOS 266 clones were expanded from D1.1- and rIL-4-stimulated cultures that had undergone deletional IgH isotype switch recombination events. Furthermore, T-BAM/CD40-L signals delivered by the D1.1 clone dramatically rescue RAMOS 266 from mAb anti-IgM-induced apoptosis. Taken together, these data support the idea that T-BAM/CD40-L plays important roles in inducing Ig isotype switch recombination and the clonal selection of isotype-switched B cells.

CD40 molecules induce down-modulation and endocytosis of T cell surface T cell-B cell activating molecule/CD40-L. Potential role in regulating helper effector function

The T-BAM/CD40-L molecule on CD4+ T cells interacts with B cell CD40 molecules to deliver contact-dependent signals that drive B cell activation and Ig secretion. Cell surface T-BAM/CD40-L expression is transient and may be closely regulated in order to limit the activation and clonal selection of noncognate B cells. We demonstrate that B cells, but not non-B cells, rapidly and specifically down-modulate surface T-BAM/CD40-L expression in a contact-dependent and temperature-sensitive manner that renders T cells unable to activate resting bystander B cells. Because the ability to down-modulate T-BAM/CD40-L correlated with CD40 expression, the role of CD40 molecules in down-modulating its ligand was directly assessed. Anti-CD40 mAb, but not control mAb, block B cell-induced T-BAM/CD40-L down-modulation. Furthermore, CD40+ nonlymphoid transfectants specifically down-modulate surface T-BAM/CD40-L expression. B cells induce T-BAM/CD40-L internalization into cytoplasmic compartments in a process that is inhibited by cytochalasin B. Pretreatment of activated T cells with lysosomotropic agents does not affect CD40-induced down-modulation of surface T-BAM/CD40-L but results in a marked accumulation of T-BAM/CD40-L in cytoplasmic vesicles. Together, these studies strongly suggest that CD40 induced T-BAM/CD40-L down-modulation occurs, in part, by receptor-mediated endocytosis followed by lysosomal degradation and may represent a mechanism to regulate CD4+ T cell helper effector functions.

CD40 molecules induce down-modulation and endocytosis of T cell surface T cell-B cell activating molecule/CD40-L. Potential role in regulating helper effector function

The T-BAM/CD40-L molecule on CD4+ T cells interacts with B cell CD40 molecules to deliver contact-dependent signals that drive B cell activation and Ig secretion. Cell surface T-BAM/CD40-L expression is transient and may be closely regulated in order to limit the activation and clonal selection of noncognate B cells. We demonstrate that B cells, but not non-B cells, rapidly and specifically down-modulate surface T-BAM/CD40-L expression in a contact-dependent and temperature-sensitive manner that renders T cells unable to activate resting bystander B cells. Because the ability to down-modulate T-BAM/CD40-L correlated with CD40 expression, the role of CD40 molecules in down-modulating its ligand was directly assessed. Anti-CD40 mAb, but not control mAb, block B cell-induced T-BAM/CD40-L down-modulation. Furthermore, CD40+ nonlymphoid transfectants specifically down-modulate surface T-BAM/CD40-L expression. B cells induce T-BAM/CD40-L internalization into cytoplasmic compartments in a process that is inhibited by cytochalasin B. Pretreatment of activated T cells with lysosomotropic agents does not affect CD40-induced down-modulation of surface T-BAM/CD40-L but results in a marked accumulation of T-BAM/CD40-L in cytoplasmic vesicles. Together, these studies strongly suggest that CD40 induced T-BAM/CD40-L down-modulation occurs, in part, by receptor-mediated endocytosis followed by lysosomal degradation and may represent a mechanism to regulate CD4+ T cell helper effector functions.

The gp120 glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 binds to sensory ganglion neurons

Using immunofluorescence microscopy we found that gp120 binds to the surface of rat dorsal root ganglia neurons and human neuroblastoma cells but not to rat fibroblasts or glial cells. The binding of gp120 to neurons was eliminated by pretreatment with trypsin, which removes cell-surface proteins, but not with chloroform: methanol, which removes glycolipids. As control, neuronal staining by antisulfatide antibodies was eliminated by pretreatment with chloroform: methanol but not with trypsin. The gp120 binding to neurons was also inhibited by the mouse monoclonal antibody 01, which binds to galactocerebroside and cross-reactive glycoproteins. These studies suggest that the receptor for gp120 on the surface of the dorsal root ganglia neurons is a glycoprotein. This interaction may mediate the effects of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in sensory neuropathy.

Deletions in the ligand for CD40 in X-linked immunoglobulin deficiency with normal or elevated IgM (HIGMX-1)

Patients with X-linked Ig deficiency with normal or elevated IgM (HIGMX-1) fail to switch from IgM/IgD to other Ig isotypes. Interaction between the B cell antigen CD40 and the CD40 ligand expressed on activated T cells is critical for T cell driven isotype switching. We have reported that T lymphocytes from three unrelated male patients with HIGMX-1 failed to express CD40 ligand on their surface, but the mRNA for CD40 ligand was of an apparently normal size and level. Analysis of CD40 ligand cDNA from two of the patients revealed deletions that alter the reading frame. Patient 1 displayed two mutations: a C-->A transversion at nucleotide 590 and the deletion of an adjacent C nucleotide. The second patient had a 58 bp deletion from nucleotides 289-346. Furthermore, neither patient expressed a protein product detectable by the CD40L mAb, 5c8.

Non-antigen signals for B-cell growth and differentiation to antibody secretion

Recently, significant progress had been made in understanding the T-B lymphocyte interactions that control humoral immunity. This review highlights experiments that demonstrate a central role for interactions between T-cell-B-cell-activating molecule (CD40 ligand) expressed on T cells and CD40 on B cells in B-cell activation and immunoglobulin isotype switching, both in vitro and in vivo.

HIV-gp 160-induced T cell-dependent B cell differentiation. Role of T cell-B cell activation molecule and IL-6

The HIV envelope glycoprotein gp160 has been previously demonstrated to induce differentiation of normal B lymphocytes into Ig-secreting cells; the response is T cell-dependent, and T cells pretreated with gp160 can support B cell differentiation. This study investigates the cell surface molecules and cytokines that play a role in the gp160-induced T-B cell interaction. Utilizing CD4+CD45RO+ cloned T cells as the source of helper cells, we observed that physical contact with B cells is essential for the gp160-induced B cell response; no IgG-secretion occurred if T cells were separated from the B cells by culturing them in Transwell chambers. The expression of T cell-B cell activation molecule, a novel surface molecule associated with T cell activation, was moderately increased by gp160, and antibody to T cell-B cell activation molecule abrogated the gp160-mediated Th cell function. Cell surface molecules LFA-1, ICAM-1, HLA-DR, CD28, and B7 were also involved in the T-B cell interaction since mAb to any of these molecules inhibited the gp160-induced B cell differentiation response. gp160 also induced IL-6R and CD23 molecule expression on B cells when added to cultures of T plus B cells; there was CD23 expression only in cells that formed conjugates with T cells. Paraforamaldehyde-fixed, gp160-pretreated T cells failed to elicit IgG responses in B cells, but did induce CD23 and IL-6R up-regulation on B cells. Addition of exogenous IL-6, but not IL-2 or IL-4, restored the IgG secretion. These findings indicate that the T cell dependence for gp160-induced B cell differentiation responses involves two steps: one requires contact-dependent interaction of several cell surface molecules, and the second requires IL-6 secretion.

HIV-gp 160-induced T cell-dependent B cell differentiation. Role of T cell-B cell activation molecule and IL-6

The HIV envelope glycoprotein gp160 has been previously demonstrated to induce differentiation of normal B lymphocytes into Ig-secreting cells; the response is T cell-dependent, and T cells pretreated with gp160 can support B cell differentiation. This study investigates the cell surface molecules and cytokines that play a role in the gp160-induced T-B cell interaction. Utilizing CD4+CD45RO+ cloned T cells as the source of helper cells, we observed that physical contact with B cells is essential for the gp160-induced B cell response; no IgG-secretion occurred if T cells were separated from the B cells by culturing them in Transwell chambers. The expression of T cell-B cell activation molecule, a novel surface molecule associated with T cell activation, was moderately increased by gp160, and antibody to T cell-B cell activation molecule abrogated the gp160-mediated Th cell function. Cell surface molecules LFA-1, ICAM-1, HLA-DR, CD28, and B7 were also involved in the T-B cell interaction since mAb to any of these molecules inhibited the gp160-induced B cell differentiation response. gp160 also induced IL-6R and CD23 molecule expression on B cells when added to cultures of T plus B cells; there was CD23 expression only in cells that formed conjugates with T cells. Paraforamaldehyde-fixed, gp160-pretreated T cells failed to elicit IgG responses in B cells, but did induce CD23 and IL-6R up-regulation on B cells. Addition of exogenous IL-6, but not IL-2 or IL-4, restored the IgG secretion. These findings indicate that the T cell dependence for gp160-induced B cell differentiation responses involves two steps: one requires contact-dependent interaction of several cell surface molecules, and the second requires IL-6 secretion.

Phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides bind to the third variable loop domain (v3) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120

Although having variability in primary sequence, the v3 loop of gp120 in pathogenic strains of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) is positively charged and known to interact with sulfated polysaccharides. Because the interaction of sulfated polysaccharides with the v3 loop inhibits HIV infection in vitro, we investigated the interaction of the v3 loop with phosphodiester (PO) and phosphorothioate (PS) oligodeoxynucleotides (oligos). In a solid-phase ELISA assay, a PS 28-mer homopolymer of cytidine, SdC28, blocked the binding of the v3 loop-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) 9284 to rgp120 more potently than did dextran sulfate. In addition, like dextran sulfate, SdC28 appeared to bind specifically to the v3 loop, because neither compound inhibited the binding of other anti-gp120 mAbs. In contrast to PS oligos, PO oligos did not inhibit mAb 9284 binding. The length dependence of the interaction of PS oligos with the v3 loop was studied by using a series of PS oligos. A discrete loss of inhibiting activity occurred as a function of decreasing PS oligo length, which was most marked between PS oligos of 18-mer and 12-mer in length. We further probed the chemical nature of the interaction of oligos with gp120 by measuring the gp120 binding affinities of PS and PO oligos of various lengths. We employed a 5'-32P-labeled alkylating oligo, ClRNH32P-OdT15, and determined that the Km of gp120 binding is 4 microM. We also determined values of competition constant (Kc) for PS competitors of ClRNH32P-OdT15 binding. The binding constant (= 1/Kc) for PS oligos showed a discrete increase in gp120 binding for PS oligos > 12- to 18-mer in length, with no further increment beyond an 18-mer. Given the important role of the v3 loop in HIV-1 pathogenicity, these data suggest that therapeutic trials of PS oligos should be considered.

Molecular interactions mediating T-B lymphocyte collaboration in human lymphoid follicles. Roles of T cell-B-cell-activating molecule (5c8 antigen) and CD40 in contact-dependent help

In lymphoid follicles, CD4+ T lymphocytes provide contact-dependent stimuli to B cells that are critical for the generation of specific antibody responses in a process termed Th function. The CD4+ T cell-restricted surface activation protein, 5c8 Ag (T-BAM), has recently been shown to be a component of the contact-dependent helper signal to B cells. To further dissect this process, we utilized a Jurkat T cell lymphoma clone, termed D1.1, that constitutively expresses T-BAM and activates peripheral B cells to express surface CD23 in a contact-dependent mechanism that is inhibited by mAb anti-T-BAM (5c8). Similar to its effect on peripheral B cells, Jurkat D1.1 activates B cells from lymphoid organs, as well as a B cell lymphoma clone, RAMOS 266,4CN 3F10 (RAMOS 266), to up-regulate surface CD23. Interestingly, mAb to the B cell surface molecule, CD40 (mAb G28-5 and B-B20), inhibit D1.1 induced activation of RAMOS 266 and peripheral and lymphoid B cells. In contrast, mAb to CR2 or the adhesion molecules, LFA1, LFA3, or ICAM-1, have little effect. The inhibitory effect of anti-CD40 mAb on B cell activation induced by D1.1 is specific because anti-CD40 potentiates, rather than inhibits, the up-regulation of CD23 on B cells induced by rIL-4. Moreover, cross-linking CD40 molecules by anti-CD40 mAb bound to Fc gamma RII+ (CD32) L cells induces B cell CD23 expression. In vivo, T-BAM-expressing cells are CD4+ T cells that are restricted to lymphoid organs and are localized in the mantle and centrocytic zones of lymphoid follicles and the spleen periarteriolar lymphoid sheath in association with CD40+ B cells. Taken together, these data demonstrate that T-BAM on T cells and CD40 on B cells are involved in contact-dependent T-B help interactions that occur in lymphoid follicles.

Molecular interactions mediating T-B lymphocyte collaboration in human lymphoid follicles. Roles of T cell-B-cell-activating molecule (5c8 antigen) and CD40 in contact-dependent help

In lymphoid follicles, CD4+ T lymphocytes provide contact-dependent stimuli to B cells that are critical for the generation of specific antibody responses in a process termed Th function. The CD4+ T cell-restricted surface activation protein, 5c8 Ag (T-BAM), has recently been shown to be a component of the contact-dependent helper signal to B cells. To further dissect this process, we utilized a Jurkat T cell lymphoma clone, termed D1.1, that constitutively expresses T-BAM and activates peripheral B cells to express surface CD23 in a contact-dependent mechanism that is inhibited by mAb anti-T-BAM (5c8). Similar to its effect on peripheral B cells, Jurkat D1.1 activates B cells from lymphoid organs, as well as a B cell lymphoma clone, RAMOS 266,4CN 3F10 (RAMOS 266), to up-regulate surface CD23. Interestingly, mAb to the B cell surface molecule, CD40 (mAb G28-5 and B-B20), inhibit D1.1 induced activation of RAMOS 266 and peripheral and lymphoid B cells. In contrast, mAb to CR2 or the adhesion molecules, LFA1, LFA3, or ICAM-1, have little effect. The inhibitory effect of anti-CD40 mAb on B cell activation induced by D1.1 is specific because anti-CD40 potentiates, rather than inhibits, the up-regulation of CD23 on B cells induced by rIL-4. Moreover, cross-linking CD40 molecules by anti-CD40 mAb bound to Fc gamma RII+ (CD32) L cells induces B cell CD23 expression. In vivo, T-BAM-expressing cells are CD4+ T cells that are restricted to lymphoid organs and are localized in the mantle and centrocytic zones of lymphoid follicles and the spleen periarteriolar lymphoid sheath in association with CD40+ B cells. Taken together, these data demonstrate that T-BAM on T cells and CD40 on B cells are involved in contact-dependent T-B help interactions that occur in lymphoid follicles.

The gp120 glycoprotein of HIV-1 binds to sulfatide and to the myelin associated glycoprotein

We investigated the binding of the gp120 glycoprotein of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) to neural glycolipids and glycoproteins by ELISA. The gp120 protein bound to sulfatide (GalS), a sulfated glycolipid autoantigen implicated in sensory neuritis, and to the myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG), an autoantigen in demyelinating neuropathy. Binding of gp120 to MAG was inhibited by the HNK-1 antibody, which recognizes a sulfated glucuronic acid epitope, suggesting that the interaction involves carbohydrate determinants. Sulfatide and MAG are potential receptors for gp120 in peripheral nerve and may have a role in the neuropathy associated with HIV-1 infection.