Transchem project - Part II: Transgenerational effects of long-term exposure to pendimethalin at environmental concentrations on the early development and viral pathogen susceptibility of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

In the Transchem project, rainbow trout genitors were exposed to environmental concentrations of pendimethalin over a period of 18 months and two new first generations of offspring, F1_2013 and F1_2014, were obtained. We investigated the impact of direct chemical exposure on juveniles as well as the potential cumulative transgenerational and direct effects on the larval development and on the pathogen susceptibility of offspring. Depending on the chemical treatment or not of the adults, their offspring were distributed in the tanks of our experimental system, in two batches i.e. juveniles from the control genitors (G-) and others from the contaminated ones (G+), and then, half of the tanks were exposed daily to pendimethalin (Off+) while the others were used as controls (Off-). Viral challenges were performed on the offspring, before and after three months of direct chemical exposure, with strains of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), viral haemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) and sleeping disease alphavirus (SDV). Direct and transgenerational macroscopic effects were observed on offspring, with a percentage of abnormalities in offspring derived from the genitors exposed to pendimethalin (G+) significantly higher compared to those from the genitors from non-exposed group (G-). Before the direct chemical exposure, similar kinetics of mortality was observed between the offspring from the contaminated or control genitors after VHSV infection. With IHNV, the G+ group died in a slightly larger proportion compared to the G- group and seroconversion was greater for the G- group. For the SDV challenge, the mortality was delayed for the G+ offspring compared to the G- and seroconversion reached 65% in the G+ group compared to 45% in the G-, with similar antibody titres. After three months of direct chemical exposure, kinetics of mortality induced by IHNV infection were similar for all groups studied. Infection with SDV resulted in a cumulative mortality of 40% for the G- groups (Off- and Off+), significantly higher than those observed from the contaminated genitors G+. Proportion of seropositivity for SDV varied from 24 to 47% depending on the group, with very low quantities of secreted antibodies. Lastly, the direct exposure of offspring could impact the capacity of fish to adapt their haematological parameters to environmental and physiological changes, and underlines the potential toxic effects on the next generations.

Transchem project - Part I: Impact of long-term exposure to pendimethalin on the health status of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss L.) genitors

Pendimethalin is a herbicide active substance commonly used in terrestrial agricultural systems and is thus detected at high concentrations in the surface water of several European countries. Previous studies reported several histopathological changes, enzymatic antioxidant modulation and immunity disturbance in fish exposed to this pesticide. The objective of this work was to investigate the direct effects of long-term exposure to environmental concentrations of pendimethalin over a period of 18 months in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) genitors. To do so, an experimental system consisting of eight similar 400 L tanks with a flow-through of fresh river water was used to perform daily chemical contamination. Fish were exposed to 850 ng/L for one hour and the pendimethalin concentration was then gradually diluted during the day to maintain optimal conditions for the fish throughout the experiment and to achieve a mean theoretical exposure level of around 100 ng L^-1 per day. Every November, males and females were stripped to collect eggs and sperm and two new first generations of offspring were obtained. Kinetic sampling revealed differences in immune system parameters and antioxidative defences in the contaminated trout compared to the controls, due to pesticide exposure combined with seasonal changes related to gamete maturation. Moreover, reproductive capacity was significantly affected by exposure to the herbicide; a time lag of more than five weeks was observed for egg maturation in contaminated females and high bioconcentrations of pendimethalin were measured in eggs and sperm. Chemical transfer from genitors to offspring via gametes may affect embryo development and negatively impact the early stages of development.

Effects of oil spill response technologies on the physiological performance of the Arctic copepod Calanus glacialis

A mesocosm study with oil in ice was performed in Van Mijenfjorden in Svalbard to compare effects of the oil spill responses (OSR) in situ burning, chemical dispersion and natural attenuation on the physiological performance of the Arctic copepod Calanus glacialis. Seawater collected from the mesocosms in winter and spring was used in laboratory incubation experiments, where effects on fecal pellet production, egg production and hatching success were investigated over a period of 14 days. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) seawater concentrations were lowest in winter. Brine channel formation in spring resulted in an 18 times increase in PAH concentration in the chemical dispersion treatment (1.67 μg L^-1), and a 3 fold increase in the natural attenuation (0.36 μg L^-1) and in situ burning (0.04 μg L^-1) treatments. The physiological performance of female C. glacialis was unaffected by the PAH seawater concentrations. However, a higher mortality and deformity of nauplii was observed in the chemical dispersion treatment, highlighting the importance of considering secondary effects on next generation in future environmental risk assessment of OSR. This study shows that during the ice-covered period, chemical dispersion of oil spills leads to higher PAH exposure than natural attenuation and in situ burning, with potential consequences for recruitment of Arctic copepods.

Significance of metallothioneins in differential cadmium accumulation kinetics between two marine fish species

Impacted marine environments lead to metal accumulation in edible marine fish, ultimately impairing human health. Nevertheless, metal accumulation is highly variable among marine fish species. In addition to ecological features, differences in bioaccumulation can be attributed to species-related physiological processes, which were investigated in two marine fish present in the Canary Current Large Marine Ecosystem (CCLME), where natural and anthropogenic metal exposure occurs. The European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax and Senegalese sole Solea senegalensis were exposed for two months to two environmentally realistic dietary cadmium (Cd) doses before a depuration period. Organotropism (i.e., Cd repartition between organs) was studied in two storage compartments (the liver and muscle) and in an excretion vector (bile). To better understand the importance of physiological factors, the significance of hepatic metallothionein (MT) concentrations in accumulation and elimination kinetics in the two species was explored. Accumulation was faster in the sea bass muscle and liver, as inferred by earlier Cd increase and a higher accumulation rate. The elimination efficiency was also higher in the sea bass liver compared to sole, as highlighted by greater biliary excretion. In the liver, no induction of MT synthesis was attributed to metal exposure, challenging the relevance of using MT concentration as a biomarker of metal contamination. However, the basal MT pools were always greater in the liver of sea bass than in sole. This species-specific characteristic might have enhanced Cd biliary elimination and relocation to other organs such as muscle through the formation of more Cd/MT complexes. Thus, MT basal concentrations seem to play a key role in the variability observed in terms of metal concentrations in marine fish species.

Avoidance threshold to oil water-soluble fraction by a juvenile marine teleost fish

When oil spills occur, behavior is the first line of defense for a fish to avoid being contaminated. We determined the avoidance threshold of the European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) to the water-soluble fraction (WSF) of oil using a dual-flow choice box. The results showed that a plume of 20%-diluted WSF (total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon [PAH] concentration: 8.54 μg L^-1 ) triggered a significant avoidance response that was detected within 7.5 min of introducing WSF-contaminated water into the experimental setup. However, the ecological relevance of seabass capacity to detect and avoid WSF remains to be established. In the short term, such a response is indeed liable to reduce seabass contact time with oil-contaminated water and thus preserve their functional integrity. In the long term, however, avoidance may contribute to the displacement of a population into a possibly less auspicious environment, with consequences very similar to those of contaminant exposure, that is, disturbed population dynamics and demography. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:854-859. © 2017 SETAC.

Evaluation of the ability of calcite, bentonite and barite to enhance oil dispersion under arctic conditions

A test program was conducted at laboratory and pilot scale to assess the ability of clays used in drilling mud (calcite, bentonite and barite) to create oil-mineral aggregates and disperse crude oil under arctic conditions. Laboratory tests were performed in order to determine the most efficient conditions (type of clay, MOR (Mineral/Oil Ratio), mixing energy) for OMA (Oil Mineral Aggregate) formation. The dispersion rates of four crude oils were assessed at two salinities. Dispersion was characterized in terms of oil concentration in the water column and median OMA size. Calcite appeared to be the best candidate at a MOR of 2:5. High mixing energy was required to initiate OMA formation and low energy was then necessary to prevent the OMAs from resurfacing. Oil dispersion using Corexit 9500 was compared with oil dispersion using mineral fines.

Exposure of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) to chemically dispersed oil has a chronic residual effect on hypoxia tolerance but not aerobic scope

We tested the hypothesis that the chronic residual effects of an acute exposure of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) to chemically dispersed crude oil is manifest in indices of hypoxic performance rather than aerobic performance. Sea bass were pre-screened with a hypoxia challenge test to establish their incipient lethal oxygen saturation (ILOS), but on discovering a wide breadth for individual ILOS values (2.6-11.0% O₂ saturation), fish were subsequently subdivided into either hypoxia sensitive (HS) or hypoxia tolerant (HT) phenotypes, traits that were shown to be experimentally repeatable. The HT phenotype had a lower ILOS and critical oxygen saturation (O_2crit) compared with the HS phenotype and switched to glycolytic metabolism at a lower dissolved oxygen, even though both phenotypes accumulated lactate and glucose to the same plasma concentrations at ILOS. As initially hypothesized, and regardless of the phenotype considered, we found no residual effect of oil on any of the indices of aerobic performance. Contrary to our hypothesis, however, oil exposure had no residual effect on any of the indices of hypoxic performance in the HS phenotype. In the HT phenotype, on the other hand, oil exposure had residual effects as illustrated by the impaired repeatability of hypoxia tolerance and also by the 24% increase in O_2crit, the 40% increase in scope for oxygen deficit, the 17% increase in factorial scope for oxygen deficit and the 57% increase in accumulated oxygen deficit. Thus, sea bass with a HT phenotype remained chronically impaired for a minimum of 167days following an acute 24-h oil exposure while the HS phenotypes did not. We reasoned that impaired oxygen extraction at gill due to oil exposure activates glycolytic metabolism at a higher dissolved oxygen, conferring on the HT phenotype an inferior hypoxia resistance that might eventually compromise their ability to survive hypoxic episodes.

Influence of crude oil exposure on cardiac function and thermal tolerance of juvenile rainbow trout and European sea bass

Oil spills pose a threat to aquatic organisms. However, the physiological effects of crude oil on cardiac function and on thermal tolerance of juvenile fish are still poorly understood. Consequently, in this paper, we will present results of two separate experiments where we exposed juvenile rainbow trout and European sea bass to crude oil and made cardiac thermal tolerances and maximum heart rate (f _Hmax) measurements after 1 week (rainbow trout) and 6-month recovery (sea bass). In both species, the f _Hmax was lower in crude oil-exposed fish than in the control ones at temperatures below the optimum but this difference disappeared at higher temperatures. More importantly, the oil-exposed fish had significantly higher Arrhenius break point temperature for f _Hmax, which gave an estimate for optimum temperature, than the control fish in both species even though the exposure conditions and recovery times differed between species. The results indicated that exposure of juvenile fish to crude oil did not have a significant negative impact upon their cardiac performance in high temperatures and upper thermal tolerance increased when the fish were tested 1 week or 6 months after the exposure. Our findings suggest that the cardiac function and thermal tolerance of juvenile fish are relatively resistant to a crude oil exposure.

Dispersed oil decreases the ability of a model fish (Dicentrarchus labrax) to cope with hydrostatic pressure

Data on the biological impact of oil dispersion in deep-sea environment are scarce. Hence, the aim of this study was to evaluate the potential interest of a pressure challenge as a new experimental approach for the assessment of consequences of chemically dispersed oil, followed by a high hydrostatic pressure challenge. This work was conducted on a model fish: juvenile Dicentrarchus labrax. Seabass were exposed for 48 h to dispersant alone (nominal concentration (NC) = 4 mg L^-1), mechanically dispersed oil (NC = 80 mg L^-1), two chemically dispersed types of oil (NC = 50 and 80 mg L^-1 with a dispersant/oil ratio of 1/20), or kept in clean seawater. Fish were then exposed for 30 min at a simulated depth of 1350 m, corresponding to pressure of 136 absolute atmospheres (ATA). The probability of fish exhibiting normal activity after the pressure challenge significantly increased from 0.40 to 0.55 when they were exposed to the dispersant but decreased to 0.26 and 0.11 in the case of chemical dispersion of oil (at 50 and 80 mg L^-1, respectively). The chemical dispersion at 80 mg L^-1 also induced an increase in probability of death after the pressure challenge (from 0.08 to 0.26). This study clearly demonstrates the ability of a pressure challenge test to give evidence of the effects of a contaminant on the capacity of fish to face hydrostatic pressure. It opens new perspectives on the analysis of the biological impact of chemical dispersion of oil at depth, especially on marine species performing vertical migrations.

Dry bulk cargo shipping - An overlooked threat to the marine environment?

Approximately 9.5billiontonnes of goods is transported over the world oceans annually with dry bulk representing the largest cargo group. This paper aims to analyse whether the transport and associated inputs of dry bulks into the sea create a risk for the marine environment. For this purpose, we analyse the international regulatory background concerning environmental protection (MARPOL), estimate quantities and identify inputs of such cargoes into the oceans (accidental and operational), and use available information for hazard assessment. Annually, more than 2.15milliontonnes of dry bulk cargoes are likely to enter the oceans, of which 100,000tonnes are potentially harmful to the marine environment according to the definition included in draft maritime regulation. The assessment of the threat to the marine environment is hampered by a lack of available information on chemical composition, bioavailability and toxicity. Perspectives for amendments of the unsatisfying pollution prevention regulations are discussed.

Short-Term and Long-Term Biological Effects of Chronic Chemical Contamination on Natural Populations of a Marine Bivalve

Understanding the effects of chronic chemical contamination on natural populations of marine organisms is complex due to the combined effects of different types of pollutants and environmental parameters that can modulate the physiological responses to stress. Here, we present the effects of a chronic contamination in a marine bivalve by combining multiple approaches that provide information on individual and population health. We sampled variegated scallops (Mimachlamys varia) at sites characterized by different contaminants and contamination levels to study the short and long-term (intergenerational) responses of this species to physiological stress. We used biomarkers (SOD, MDA, GST, laccase, citrate synthase and phosphatases) as indicators of oxidative stress, immune system alteration, mitochondrial respiration and general metabolism, and measured population genetic diversity at each site. In parallel, concentration of 14 trace metals and 45 organic contaminants (PAHs, PCBs, pesticides) in tissues were measured. Scallops were collected outside and during their reproductive season to investigate temporal variability in contaminant and biomarker levels. Our analyses revealed that the levels of two biomarkers (Laccase-type phenoloxidase and malondialdehyde) were significantly correlated with Cd concentration. Additionally, we observed significant seasonal differences for four of the five biomarkers, which is likely due to the scallop reproductive status at time of sampling. As a source of concern, a location that was identified as a reference site on the basis of inorganic contaminant levels presented the same level of some persistent organic pollutants (DDT and its metabolites) than more impacted sites. Finally, potential long-term effects of heavy metal contamination were observed for variegated scallops as genetic diversity was depressed in the most polluted sites.

Innate immunity and antioxidant systems in different tissues of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) exposed to crude oil dispersed mechanically or chemically with Corexit 9500

The aim of the study was to evaluate effects of chemically dispersed oil by the dispersant Corexit 9500 on innate immunity and redox defenses in a marine model fish. Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) were exposed 48h to four experimental conditions: a control group (C), a group only exposed to the dispersant (D; 3.6mg/L) and two groups exposed to 80mg/L oil mechanically or chemically dispersed (MD; CD). Alternative pathway of complement activity and lysozyme concentration was measured in plasma in order to evaluate the general fish health status. Total glutathione, glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were analyzed in gills, liver, brain, intestine and muscle. The chemical dispersion induced a significant reduction of lysozyme concentration when compared to the controls, and the hemolytic activity of the alternative complement pathway was increased in mechanical and chemical dispersion. The analysis of SOD, GPX and total glutathione showed that antioxidant defenses were activated in liver and reduced in intestine and brain. Dispersant was also responsible for an SOD activity inhibition in these two last tissues, demonstrating a direct effect of this dispersant on reactive oxygen species homeostasis that can be interpreted as a signal of tissue toxicity. This result should raise concern about the use of dispersants and show that they can lead to adverse effects on marine species.

Growth and immune system performance to assess the effect of dispersed oil on juvenile sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

The potential impact of chemically and mechanically dispersed oil was assessed in a model fish of European coastal waters, the sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax. Juvenile sea bass were exposed for 48h to dispersed oil (mechanically and chemically) or dispersants alone. The impact of these exposure conditions was assessed using growth and immunity. The increase observed in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites in bile indicated oil contamination in the fish exposed to chemical and mechanical dispersion of oil without any significant difference between these two groups. After 28 days of exposure, no significant differences were observed in specific growth rate,apparent food conversion efficiency and daily feeding). Following the oil exposure, fish immunity was assessed by a challenge with Viral Nervous Necrosis Virus (VNNV). Fish mortality was observed over a 42 day period. After 12 days post-infection, cumulative mortality was significantly different between the control group (16% p≤0.05) and the group exposed to chemical dispersion of oil (30% p≤0.05). However, at the end of the experiment, no significant difference was recorded in cumulative mortality or in VNNV antibodies secreted in fish in responses to the treatments. These data suggested that in our experimental condition, following the oil exposure, sea bass growth was not affected whereas an impact on immunity was observed during the first days. However, this effect on the immune system did not persist over time.

Effect of dispersed crude oil on cardiac function in seabass Dicentrarchus labrax

In this study, the impact of dispersed oil was assessed in Dicentrarchus labrax, a fish frequently used as an oil contamination indicator species. Fish were exposed for 48h to (mechanically and chemically) dispersed oil and dispersant alone. The impact of these exposure conditions was assessed on cardiac function by measuring (i) the contraction strength, the contraction and the relaxation speeds (ii) the cardiac energy metabolism using respirometry on permeabilized cardiac fibers. Compared to control, the increase of polycyclic aromatic metabolites observed in the bile indicated oil contamination in our fish. Following 48h of oil exposure at realistic oil concentrations, alterations of cardiac performances were observed. A decrease in contraction strength, contraction and relaxation speeds was observed in the presence of oil without effect of dispersant on these three parameters. Looking at cardiac energy metabolism, dispersant alone decreases all the activity of the respiratory chain and increases the proton leak. From these results, it appears that the observed decrease in cardiac performance in fish exposed to oil was not linked to a decrease in energy availability.

Acute toxicity of chemically and mechanically dispersed crude oil to juvenile sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax): Absence of synergistic effects between oil and dispersants

The goal of the present experiment was to assess the relative acute toxicities of mechanically and chemically dispersed oil (crude Arabian Light) in controlled conditions. Juvenile sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) were exposed to 4 commercial formulations of dispersants (Corexit EC9500A, Dasic Slickgone NS, Finasol OSR 52, Inipol IP 90), to mechanically dispersed oil, and to the corresponding chemical dispersions. Acute toxicity was evaluated at 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 96 h through the determination of 10%, 50%, and 90% lethal concentrations calculated from measured total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentrations; Kaplan-Meyer mortality analyses were based on nominal concentrations. Animals were exposed to the dissolved fraction of the oil and to the oil droplets (ranging from 14.0 μm to 42.3 μm for the chemical dispersions). Kaplan-Meyer analyses demonstrated an increased mortality in the case of chemical dispersions. This difference can be attributed mainly to differences in TPH, because the chemical lethal concentrations were not reduced compared with mechanical lethal concentrations (except after 24 h of exposure). The ratios of lethal concentrations of mechanical dispersions to the different chemical dispersions were calculated to allow direct comparisons of the relative toxicities of the dispersions. The results ranged from 0.27 to 3.59, with a mean ratio close to 1 (0.92). These results demonstrate an absence of synergistic effect between oil and chemical dispersants in an operational context.

Impact of dispersed fuel oil on cardiac mitochondrial function in polar cod Boreogadus saida

In this study, impact of dispersed oil on cardiac mitochondrial function was assessed in a key species of Arctic marine ecosystem, the polar cod Boreogadus saida. Mature polar cod were exposed during 48 h to dispersed oil (mechanically and chemically) and dispersants alone. The increase observed in ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites in bile indicated no difference in contamination level between fish exposed to chemical or mechanical dispersion of oil. Oil induced alterations of O2 consumption of permeabilised cardiac fibres showing inhibitions of complexes I and IV of the respiratory chain. Oil did not induce any modification of mitochondrial proton leak. Dispersants did not induce alteration of mitochondrial activity and did not increase oil toxicity. These data suggest that oil exposure may limit the fitness of polar cod and consequently could lead to major disruption in the energy flow of polar ecosystem.

EROD activity and antioxidant defenses of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) after an in vivo chronic hydrocarbon pollution followed by a post-exposure period

Chronic concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been commonly detected in international estuaries ecosystems. Reliable indicators still need to be found in order to properly assess the impact of PAHs in fish. After an in vivo chronic exposure to hydrocarbons, the enzymatic activity of 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) and the antioxidant defense system were assessed in sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax. A total of 45 fish were exposed to the water-soluble fraction of Arabian crude oil, similar to a complex pollution by hydrocarbons chronically observed in situ, while 45 other control fish sustained the same experimental conditions in clean seawater. Fish samples were made after a 21-day exposure period and after a 15-day recovery period in clean fresh water. Throughout the experiment, liver EROD activity was significantly higher in contaminated fish than in control fish. In addition, nonenzymatic (total glutathione) and enzymatic (GPx, SOD, and CAT) antioxidant defense parameters measured in liver were not significantly different in fish. Furthermore, in gills, glutathione content had significantly increased while SOD activity had significantly decreased in contaminated fish compared to controls. On the other hand, CAT and GPx activities were not affected. Chronic exposure to PAHs disturbing the first step (SOD) and inhibiting the second step (GPx and CAT) could induce oxidative stress in tissues by the formation of oxygen radicals. After the postexposure period, there was no significant difference between control and contaminated fish in any of the antioxidant defense parameters measured in gills, attesting to the reversibility of the effects.

DISCOBIOL: Assessment of the Impact of Dispersant Use for Oil Spill Response in Coastal or Estuarine Areas

Dispersants are known to be an appropriate solution for offshore spill response when sea conditions provide enough energy to disperse and then dilute oil into surface waters. In shallow coastal areas, the use of dispersant is restricted due to the potential that the dispersed oil might come into contact with sensitive resources before dilution can take place. However, after assessing the advantages and potential risks of dispersing oil in coastal areas, it may emerge after careful consideration that and in some cases the use of dispersants could provide a net environmental benefit.

The DISCOBIOL research program aimed to provide practical recommendations on dispersant use in coastal and estuarine areas by acquiring relevant (in terms of likely dispersed oil concentrations) and robust experimental information on the impact of mechanically and chemically dispersed oil on living resources. The main conclusion from these experiments was that there is no significant difference between the impacts from oil with and without dispersant use in terms of acute toxicity. However there are some observable sub-lethal effects from exposure to dispersed oil which do not persist more than a few weeks. In a natural environment, on a medium or long timescale, biota which have been exposed to oil (with and without dispersant) do exhibit some symptoms which could affect their survival rate in the field even though they do not lead to acute toxicity effects. However the DISCOBIOL project demonstrated that effects of dispersed oil were less severe than previously recorded for near shore environments.

In terms of applying these results to decision making at an oil spill, it highlights the need in coastal areas prior to the use of dispersant to complete a “Net Environmental Benefit Analysis” (NEBA) to determine whether the use of dispersant is expected to minimize the overall damage resulting from the pollution. As it is difficult to cover the number of possible spill scenarios at the contingency planning stage, instead of completing a NEBA, many countries define geographical limits where dispersion can be undertaken, based on the water depth and the distance to the shore as well as the presence of sensitive resources. The DISCOBIOL study confirmed the appropriateness of these pre-defined limits for France's coastal waters but demonstrated that they could be less restrictive since the exposure to dispersed oil could be at least five times higher than was previously considered the safe limit.

Effects of in vivo chronic exposure to pendimethalin on EROD activity and antioxidant defenses in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Pendimethalin, an herbicide active substance frequently used in terrestrial systems, has detected in European aquatic ecosystems. Reliable indicators still need to be found in order to properly assess the impact of pesticides in fish. After an in vivo chronic exposure to pendimethalin, the detoxification process and the antioxidant defense system were assessed in 120 adult rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Four nominal exposure conditions were tested: control (C), 500 ng L(-1) (P500), 800 ng L(-1) (P800) and the commercial formulation Prowl(®) at 500 ng L(-1) (Pw500). Fish samples were made after a 28 day exposure period (D28) and after a fifteen day recovery period in clean fresh water (D43). At D28, ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity was not activated in liver in spite of the pendimethalin uptake in fish. At D43, EROD activity in fish exposed to the commercial product was lower than in control fish, which may be explained by the high presence of herbicide in fish (613±163 ng g bile(-1)). Furthermore, antioxidant defense responses were set up by trout in gills and liver following chronic exposure to 800 ng L(-1) of pendimethalin concentration. While the glutathione content (GSH) decreased in gills, it increased in liver associated with higher activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). These disturbances could lead to reactive oxygen species production and oxidative stress in the vital organs in fish. After fifteen days in clean water, while the SOD activity was restored, the GSH content and GPx activity were still significantly disturbed in fish exposed to pendimethalin in comparison with control. These significant differences between treatments in antioxidant defenses parameters measured, attesting to the irreversibility of the effects.

Effects of oil exposure and dispersant use upon environmental adaptation performance and fitness in the European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax

The worldwide increasing recourse to chemical dispersants to deal with oil spills in marine coastal ecosystems is a controversial issue. Yet, there exists no adequate methodology that can provide reliable predictions of how oil and dispersant-treated oil can affect relevant organism or population-level performance. The primary objective of the present study was to examine and compare the effects of exposure to untreated oil (weathered Arabian light crude oil), chemically dispersed oil (Finasol, TOTAL-Fluides) or dispersant alone, upon the ability of fish for environmental adaptation. To reach that goal, we implemented high-throughput, non-lethal challenge tests to estimate individual hypoxia and heat tolerance as surrogate measures of their capacity to face natural contingencies. Experimental populations were then transferred into semi-natural tidal ponds and correlates of individuals' fitness (growth and survival) were monitored over a period of 6 months. In accordance with our stated objectives, the contamination conditions tested corresponded to those observed under an oil slick drifting in shallow waters. Our results revealed that the response of control fish to both challenges was variable among individuals and temporally stable (repeatable) over a 2-month period. Exposure to chemical dispersant did not affect the repeatability of fish performance. However, exposure to oil or to a mixture of oil plus dispersant affected the repeatability of individuals' responses to the experimental challenge tests. At population level, no difference between contamination treatments was observed in the distribution of individual responses to the hypoxia and temperature challenge tests. Moreover, no correlation between hypoxia tolerance and heat tolerance was noticed. During the field experiment, hypoxia tolerance and heat tolerance were found to be determinants of survivorship. Moreover, experimental groups exposed to oil or to dispersant-treated oil displayed significantly lower survival than control or dispersant-exposed groups. Finally, from the four experimental populations tested, the one exposed to chemically dispersed oil presented the lowest growth rate.

Toxicological effects of crude oil and oil dispersant: biomarkers in the heart of the juvenile golden grey mullet (Liza aurata)

Dispersant use is a controversial oil spill response technique in coastal areas. Using an experimental approach, this study evaluated the toxicity of dispersant use upon juveniles of golden grey mullet (Liza aurata). Fish were exposed for 48 h to either dispersant only, chemically dispersed oil, mechanically dispersed oil, the water soluble fraction of oil or to control conditions. Following exposure and a depuration period, biomarkers were assessed in fish hearts, namely the total glutathione content and the activity of four enzymes (glutathione S-transferase, superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxides). Comparing biomarker responses between the different treatments, this study revealed that 48 h exposure to dispersed oil (whether mechanically or chemically dispersed) resulted in a toxicity that was still detectable after a 14 days depuration period. Comparing biomarkers responses after an exposure to chemically and mechanically dispersed oil, this study suggests that chemical dispersion of the oil slick would not be more toxic than its natural dispersion under certain turbulent meteorological conditions (e.g. waves). Furthermore, the results indicated that the heart could be a target organ of interest in further studies investigating the toxicity of hydrocarbons. This study, which has been integrated into the DISCOBIOL project (Dispersant et techniques de lutte en milieu côtier: effets biologiques et apport à la réglementation), presents information of interest when attempting to provide a framework for dispersant applications in coastal areas.

Responses of conventional and molecular biomarkers in turbot Scophthalmus maximus exposed to heavy fuel oil no. 6 and styrene

Several accidental spills in European coastal areas have resulted in the release of different toxic compounds into the marine environment, such as heavy fuel oil type no. 6 in the "Erika" and "Prestige" oil spills and the highly toxic styrene after the loss of the "Ievoli Sun". There is a clear need to develop tools that might allow assessing the biological impact of these accidental spills on aquatic organisms. The aim of the present study was to determine the short-term effects and recovery after exposure of juvenile fish (Scophthalmus maximus) to heavy fuel oil no. 6 and styrene by using a battery of molecular, cell and tissue level biomarkers. Turbots were exposed to styrene for 7 days and to the diluted soluble fraction of the oil (10%) for 14 days, and then allowed to recover in clean seawater for the same time periods. cyp1a1 transcript was overexpressed in turbots after 3 and 14 days of exposure to heavy fuel oil, whereas ahr transcription was not modulated after heavy fuel oil and styrene exposure. pparα transcription level was significantly up-regulated after 3 days of treatment with styrene. Liver activity of peroxisomal acyl-CoA oxidase (AOX) was significantly induced after 14 days of oil exposure, but it was not affected by styrene. Hepatocyte lysosomal membrane stability (LMS) was significantly reduced after exposure to both treatments, indicating that the tested compounds significantly impaired fish health. Both AOX and LMS values returned to control levels after the recovery period. No differences in gamete development were observed between fuel- or styrene- exposed fish and control fish, and vitellogenin plasma levels were low, suggesting no xenoestrogenic effects of fuel oil or styrene. While styrene did not cause any increase in the prevalence of liver histopathological alterations, prevalence of extensive cell vacuolization increased after exposure to heavy fuel oil for 14 days. In conclusion, the suite of selected biomarkers proved to be useful to determine the early impact of and recovery from exposure to tested compounds in turbot.

Offshore experiments on styrene spillage in marine waters for risk assessment

Within the context of risk evaluation of chemical spillages into the marine environment, this paper reports on an offshore experiment to study the behaviour of styrene spilled into sea under natural conditions and discusses theoretical approaches. Floating structures were used to enclose the spillage and the gaseous cloud formation, and dissolution processes were in situ monitored. The identification of spill risks for man and marine environment through GESAMP's hazard profile is described for styrene: Styrene is rated as a chemical with a significant health hazard that will float but also evaporate. However, monitoring of the water column in the experiments showed that the concentration of styrene in water during the first hour represents 50% of the product spilled. For the potentially exposed public, the GESAMP hazard rating recommends the closure of beaches and evacuation. The risk assessment developed from experimental data confirms this safety advice.

Effects of in vivo chronic exposure to pendimethalin/Prowl 400® on sanitary status and the immune system in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

The in vivo effects of the herbicide active substance (AS) pendimethalin (alone and with Prowl 400® adjuvant) were evaluated on sanitary status i.e. the health status with regard to chemical pollution and on the physiological state via the immune system in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Four nominal exposure conditions were tested: i) control (C), ii) AS at 500 ng L(-1) (P500), iii) AS at 800 ng L(-1) (P800) and iv) Prowl 400® at 500 ng L(-1) (Pw). After a 28 day exposure period (D28), 10 fish were sampled for each condition and 10 other after a 15 day recovery period in clean fresh water (D43). Pendimethalin concentrations in the exposure water and muscles were followed. White blood cell counts, differential leucocyte counts, cell mortality and phagocytosis activity were measured. Haemolytic alternative complement activity, lysozyme concentration and stress parameters were analyzed. The resulting concentration of pendimethalin in the exposure water was lower than the expected concentration. At D28, the concentration quantified in the contaminated fish was negligible in comparison with the Reference Dose for Oral Exposure estimated by US-EPA's Integrated Risk Information System. Leucopenia was noted in all contaminated fish. A decrease in phagocytosis activity and ACH(50) was also observed in contaminated fish by P800 and Pw. Disturbed lysozyme activity was noted only in fish exposed to Pw. Furthermore, during exposure to a similar concentration of pendimethalin, the commercial product seemed to be more immunotoxic than the AS alone. Finally, at D43, the effects proved reversible for sanitary status while immunity was still disturbed in contaminated fish by P800 and Pw.

Effect of chronic exposure to pendimethalin on the susceptibility of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss L., to viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV)

In this study, the in vivo effects of chronic pollution by the active substance (AS) pendimethalin, a dinitroaniline herbicide, on the susceptibility of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss L., to an experimental challenge with viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) were assessed. After four weeks of exposure to fresh water (C group) or 500 ng L(-1) of AS (P500 group), the fish were challenged by immersion in water containing 10(4) TCID(50) mL(-1) of VHSV. While exposure to pendimethalin was maintained throughout the experiment, mortalities were recorded during the 40 days post-infection (dpi) and organs were collected from dead fish for virological examination. At the end of the experiment, anti-VHSV antibodies and the classical pathway of complement activity were assessed in trout plasma. Exposure to pendimethalin significantly affected the distribution of cumulative mortality accelerating death in fish infected by VHSV. Pendimethalin appeared to decrease the Mean Time to Death (MTD) after virus treatment from 14.9 days (C-VHSV) to 10.2 days (P500-VHSV). Nevertheless, by the end of the experiment, differences in cumulative mortality were no longer observed between the two groups, which had reached the same stage (50 percent). Furthermore, a higher concentration of the virus was recovered from the pools of organs from the P500-VHSV group than the C-VHSV group. Moreover, at 40 dpi, although no significant difference was observed in the immune response between the two groups, more fish in the P500-VHSV group had set up an immune response by secreting antibodies than in the control viral group (C-VSHV).