Scopoletin, an active principle of tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca) inhibits human tumor vascularization in xenograft models and modulates ERK1, VEGF-A, and FGF-2 in computer model

We recently reported the antineovascularization effect of scopoletin on rat aorta and identified its potential anti-angiogenic activity. Scopoletin could be useful as a systemic chemotherapeutic agent against angiogenesis-dependent malignancies if its antitumorigenic activity is investigated and scientifically proven using a suitable human tumor xenograft model. In the present study, bioassay-guided (anti-angiogenesis) phytochemical investigation was conducted on Nicotiana glauca extract which led to the isolation of scopoletin. Further, anti-angiogenic activity of scopoletin was characterized using ex vivo, in vivo and in silico angiogenesis models. Finally, the antitumorigenic efficacy of scopoletin was studied in human colorectal tumor xenograft model using athymic nude mice. For the first time, an in vivo anticancer activity of scopoletin was reported and characterized using xenograft models. Scopoletin caused significant suppression of sprouting of microvessels in rat aortic explants with IC50 (median inhibitory concentration) 0.06μM. Scopoletin (100 and 200mg/kg) strongly inhibited (59.72 and 89.4%, respectively) vascularization in matrigel plugs implanted in nude mice. In the tumor xenograft model, scopoletin showed remarkable inhibition on tumor growth (34.2 and 94.7% at 100 and 200mg/kg, respectively). Tumor histology revealed drastic reduction of the extent of vascularization. Further, immunostaining of CD31 and NG2 receptors in the histological sections confirmed the antivascular effect of scopoletin in tumor vasculature. In computer modeling, scopoletin showed strong ligand affinity and binding energies toward the following angiogenic factors: protein kinase (ERK1), vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2). These results suggest that the antitumor activity of scopoletin may be due to its strong anti-angiogenic effect, which may be mediated by its effective inhibition of ERK1, VEGF-A, and FGF-2.

Functional characterization of a Mg(2+)-dependent O-methyltransferase with coumarin as preferred substrate from the liverwort Plagiochasma appendiculatum

Coumarins (1,2-benzopyrones), which originate via the phenylpropanoid pathway, are found ubiquitously in plants and make an essential contribution to the health of the plant. Some natural coumarins have been used as human therapeutics. However, the details of their biosynthesis are still largely unknown. Scopoletin is derived from either esculetin or feruloyl CoA according to the plant species involved. Here, a gene encoding a O-methyltransferase (PaOMT2) was isolated from the liverwort species Plagiochasma appendiculatum (Aytoniaceae) through transcriptome sequencing. The purified recombinant enzyme catalyzed the methylation of esculetin, generating scopoletin and isoscopoletin. Kinetic analysis shows that the construct from the second Met in PaOMT2 had a catalytic efficiency for esculetin (Kcat/Km) of about half that of the full length PaOMT2, while the Kms of two enzymes were similar. The catalytic capacities of the studied protein suggest that two routes to scopoletin might co-exist in liverworts in that the enzyme involved in the methylation process participates in both paths, but especially the route from esculetin. The transient expression of a PaOMT2-GFP fusion in tobacco demonstrated that PaOMT2 is directed to the cytoplasm.

Coumarin pretreatment alleviates salinity stress in wheat seedlings

The potentiality of COU to improve plant tolerance to salinity was investigated. Wheat grains were primed with COU (50 ppm) and then grown under different levels of NaCl (50, 100, 150 mM) for two weeks. COU pretreatment improved the growth of wheat seedling under salinity, relative to COU-untreated seedlings, due to the accumulation of osmolytes such as soluble sugars and proline. Moreover, COU treatment significantly improved K(+)/Na(+) ratio in the shoots of both salt stressed and un-stressed seedlings. However, in the roots, this ratio increased only under non-salinity. In consistent with phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), phenolics and flavonoids were accumulated in COU-pretreated seedlings under the higher doses of salinity, relative to COU-untreated seedlings. COU primed seedlings showed higher content of the coumarin derivative, scopoletin, and salicylic, chlorogenic, syringic, vanillic, gallic and ferulic acids, under both salinity and non-salinity conditions. Salinity stress significantly improved the activity of peroxidase (POD) in COU-pretreated seedlings. However, the effect of COU on the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was only obtained at the highest dose of NaCl (150 mM). The present results suggest that COU pretreatment could alleviate the adverse effect of salinity on the growth of wheat seedlings through enhancing, at least partly, the osmoregulation process and antioxidant defense system.

Identification of QTLs affecting scopolin and scopoletin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana

BACKGROUND

Scopoletin and its glucoside scopolin are important secondary metabolites synthesized in plants as a defense mechanism against various environmental stresses. They belong to coumarins, a class of phytochemicals with significant biological activities that is widely used in medical application and cosmetics industry. Although numerous studies showed that a variety of coumarins occurs naturally in several plant species, the details of coumarins biosynthesis and its regulation is not well understood. It was shown previously that coumarins (predominantly scopolin and scopoletin) occur in Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) roots, but until now nothing is known about natural variation of their accumulation in this model plant. Therefore, the genetic architecture of coumarins biosynthesis in Arabidopsis has not been studied before.

RESULTS

Here, the variation in scopolin and scopoletin content was assessed by comparing seven Arabidopsis accessions. Subsequently, a quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping was performed with an Advanced Intercross Recombinant Inbred Lines (AI-RILs) mapping population EstC (Est-1 × Col). In order to reveal the genetic basis of both scopolin and scopoletin biosynthesis, two sets of methanol extracts were made from Arabidopsis roots and one set was additionally subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis prior to quantification done by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We identified one QTL for scopolin and five QTLs for scopoletin accumulation. The identified QTLs explained 13.86% and 37.60% of the observed phenotypic variation in scopolin and scopoletin content, respectively. In silico analysis of genes located in the associated QTL intervals identified a number of possible candidate genes involved in coumarins biosynthesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, our results demonstrate for the first time that Arabidopsis is an excellent model for studying the genetic and molecular basis of natural variation in coumarins biosynthesis in plants. It additionally provides a basis for fine mapping and cloning of the genes involved in scopolin and scopoletin biosynthesis. Importantly, we have identified new loci for this biosynthetic process.

Scopoletin is a phytoalexin against Alternaria alternata in wild tobacco dependent on jasmonate signalling

Alternaria alternata (tobacco pathotype) is a necrotrophic fungus causing severe losses in Nicotiana species by infection of mature leaves. Similar to what has been observed in cultivated tobacco, N. tabacum, young leaves of wild tobacco, N. attenuata, were more resistant to A. alternata than mature leaves, and this was correlated with stronger blue fluorescence induced after infection. However, the nature of the fluorescence-emitting compound, its role in defence, and its regulation were not clear. Silencing feruloyl-CoA 6'-hydroxylase 1 (F6'H1), the gene encoding the key enzyme for scopoletin biosynthesis, by virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) revealed that the blue fluorescence was mainly emitted by scopoletin and its β-glycoside form, scopolin. Further analysis showed that scopoletin exhibited strong antifungal activity against A. alternata in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, jasmonic acid (JA) levels were highly elicited in young leaves but much less in mature leaves after infection; and fungus-elicited scopoletin was absent in JA-deficient plants, but was largely restored with methyl jasmonate treatments. Consistent with this, plants strongly impaired in JA biosynthesis and perception were highly susceptible to A. alternata in the same way scopoletin/scopolin-depleted VIGS F6'H1 plants. Furthermore, silencing MYC2, a master regulator of most JA responses, reduced A. alternata-induced NaF6'H1 transcripts and scopoletin. Thus, it is concluded that JA signalling is activated in N. attenuata leaves after infection, which subsequently regulates scopoletin biosynthesis for the defence against A. alternata partly through MYC2, and higher levels of scopoletin accumulated in young leaves account for their strong resistance.

Metabolome analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana roots identifies a key metabolic pathway for iron acquisition

Fe deficiency compromises both human health and plant productivity. Thus, it is important to understand plant Fe acquisition strategies for the development of crop plants which are more Fe-efficient under Fe-limited conditions, such as alkaline soils, and have higher Fe density in their edible tissues. Root secretion of phenolic compounds has long been hypothesized to be a component of the reduction strategy of Fe acquisition in non-graminaceous plants. We therefore subjected roots of Arabidopsis thaliana plants grown under Fe-replete and Fe-deplete conditions to comprehensive metabolome analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and ultra-pressure liquid chromatography electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Scopoletin and other coumarins were found among the metabolites showing the strongest response to two different Fe-limited conditions, the cultivation in Fe-free medium and in medium with an alkaline pH. A coumarin biosynthesis mutant defective in ortho-hydroxylation of cinnamic acids was unable to grow on alkaline soil in the absence of Fe fertilization. Co-cultivation with wild-type plants partially rescued the Fe deficiency phenotype indicating a contribution of extracellular coumarins to Fe solubilization. Indeed, coumarins were detected in root exudates of wild-type plants. Direct infusion mass spectrometry as well as UV/vis spectroscopy indicated that coumarins are acting both as reductants of Fe(III) and as ligands of Fe(II).

Secondary Metabolite Content in Fabiana imbricata Plants and in vitro Cultures

A rapid in vitro propagation system leading to the formation of shoots, calli, roots, cell suspensions and plantlets was developed for the Andean medicinal plant Fabiana imbricata (Solanaceae). Massive propagation of shoots and roots was achieved by the temporary immersion system (TIS), morphogenesis and maintenance of cell suspensions by standard in vitro culture techniques. Oleanolic acid (OA), rutin, chlorogenic acid (CA) and scopoletin content in aerial parts of wild growing Fabiana imbricata plants as well as in plantlets regenerated in vitro, callus cultures, cell suspensions and biomass, obtained by the TIS system was assessed by HPLC.

On a dry weight basis, the OA content in the aerial parts of the plant ranged between 2.26 and 3.47% while in vitro plantlets, callus and root cultures presented values ranging from not detected up to 0.14%. The rutin content of the samples presented a similar trend with maxima between 0.99 and 3.35% for the aerial parts of the plants to 0.02 to 0.20% for plantlets, 0.12% for cell suspensions and 0.28% for callus. Rutin was not detected in the roots grown by the TIS principle. The CA and scopoletin content in the aerial parts of F. imbricata ranged between 0.22-1.15 and < 0.01-0.55%, respectively. In the plantlets, the concentration of CA was 0.29 to 1.48% with scopoletin in the range 0.09 to 0.64% while in the callus sample, the CA and scopoletin content were 0.46 and 0.66%, respectively. A very different result was found in roots grown by TIS, where both OA and rutin were not detected and its main secondary metabolite, scopoletin was found between a range of 0.99 and 1.41% with CA between of 0.11 and 0.42%.

The secondary metabolism glycosyltransferases UGT73B3 and UGT73B5 are components of redox status in resistance of Arabidopsis to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato

Secondary metabolism plant glycosyltransferases (UGTs) ensure conjugation of sugar moieties to secondary metabolites (SMs) and glycosylation contributes to the great diversity, reactivity and regulation of SMs. UGT73B3 and UGT73B5, two UGTs of Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis), are involved in the hypersensitive response (HR) to the avirulent bacteria Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst-AvrRpm1), but their function in planta is unknown. Here, we report that ugt73b3, ugt73b5 and ugt73b3 ugt73b5 T-DNA insertion mutants exhibited an accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), an enhanced cell death during the HR to Pst-AvrRpm1, whereas glutathione levels increased in the single mutants. In silico analyses indicate that UGT73B3 and UGT73B5 belong to the early salicylic acid (SA)-induced genes whose pathogen-induced expression is co-regulated with genes related to cellular redox homeostasis and general detoxification. Analyses of metabolic alterations in ugt mutants reveal modification of SA and scopoletin contents which correlate with redox perturbation, and indicate quantitative modifications in the pattern of tryptophan-derived SM accumulation after Pst-AvrRpm1 inoculation. Our data suggest that UGT73B3 and UGT73B5 participate in regulation of redox status and general detoxification of ROS-reactive SMs during the HR to Pst-AvrRpm1, and that decreased resistance to Pst-AvrRpm1 in ugt mutants is tightly linked to redox perturbation.

Involvement of the ABCG37 transporter in secretion of scopoletin and derivatives by Arabidopsis roots in response to iron deficiency

Studies of Iron (Fe) uptake mechanisms by plant roots have focussed on Fe(III)-siderophores or Fe(II) transport systems. Iron deficency also enhances root secretion of flavins and phenolics. However, the nature of these compounds, their transport outside the roots and their role in Fe nutrition are largely unknown. We used HPLC/ESI-MS (TOF) and HPLC/ESI-MS/MS (ion trap) to characterize fluorescent phenolic-type compounds accumulated in roots or exported to the culture medium of Arabidopsis plants in response to Fe deficiency. Wild-type and mutant plants altered either in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis or in the ABCG37 (PDR9) ABC transporter were grown under standard or Fe-deficient nutrition conditions and compared. Fe deficiency upregulates the expression of genes encoding enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway and leads to the synthesis and secretion of phenolic compounds belonging to the coumarin family. The ABCG37 gene is also upregulated in response to Fe deficiency and coumarin export is impaired in pdr9 mutant plants. Therefore it can be concluded that: Fe deficiency induces the secretion of coumarin compounds by Arabidopsis roots; the ABCG37 ABC transporter is required for this secretion to take place; and these compounds improved plant Fe nutrition.

Feruloyl-CoA 6'-Hydroxylase1-dependent coumarins mediate iron acquisition from alkaline substrates in Arabidopsis

Although iron (Fe) is one of the most abundant elements in the earth's crust, its low solubility in soils restricts Fe uptake by plants. Most plant species acquire Fe by acidifying the rhizosphere and reducing ferric to ferrous Fe prior to membrane transport. However, it is unclear how these plants access Fe in the rhizosphere and cope with high soil pH. In a mutant screening, we identified 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase Feruloyl-CoA 6'-Hydroxylase1 (F6'H1) to be essential for tolerance of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) to high pH-induced Fe deficiency. Under Fe deficiency, F6'H1 is required for the biosynthesis of fluorescent coumarins that are released into the rhizosphere, some of which possess Fe(III)-mobilizing capacity and prevent f6'h1 mutant plants from Fe deficiency-induced chlorosis. Scopoletin was the most prominent coumarin found in Fe-deficient root exudates but failed to mobilize Fe(III), while esculetin, i.e. 6,7-dihydroxycoumarin, occurred in lower amounts but was effective in Fe(III) mobilization. Our results indicate that Fe-deficient Arabidopsis plants release Fe(III)-chelating coumarins as part of the strategy I-type Fe acquisition machinery.

Modulation of phytoalexin biosynthesis in engineered plants for disease resistance

Phytoalexins are antimicrobial substances of low molecular weight produced by plants in response to infection or stress, which form part of their active defense mechanisms. Starting in the 1950's, research on phytoalexins has begun with biochemistry and bio-organic chemistry, resulting in the determination of their structure, their biological activity as well as mechanisms of their synthesis and their catabolism by microorganisms. Elucidation of the biosynthesis of numerous phytoalexins has permitted the use of molecular biology tools for the exploration of the genes encoding enzymes of their synthesis pathways and their regulators. Genetic manipulation of phytoalexins has been investigated to increase the disease resistance of plants. The first example of a disease resistance resulting from foreign phytoalexin expression in a novel plant has concerned a phytoalexin from grapevine which was transferred to tobacco. Transformations were then operated to investigate the potential of other phytoalexin biosynthetic genes to confer resistance to pathogens. Unexpectedly, engineering phytoalexins for disease resistance in plants seem to have been limited to exploiting only a few phytoalexin biosynthetic genes, especially those encoding stilbenes and some isoflavonoids. Research has rather focused on indirect approaches which allow modulation of the accumulation of phytoalexin employing transcriptional regulators or components of upstream regulatory pathways. Genetic approaches using gain- or less-of functions in phytoalexin engineering together with modulation of phytoalexin accumulation through molecular engineering of plant hormones and defense-related marker and elicitor genes have been reviewed.

CYP98A22, a phenolic ester 3'-hydroxylase specialized in the synthesis of chlorogenic acid, as a new tool for enhancing the furanocoumarin concentration in Ruta graveolens

BACKGROUND

Furanocoumarins are molecules with proven therapeutic properties and are produced in only a small number of medicinal plant species such as Ruta graveolens. In vivo, these molecules play a protective role against phytophageous insect attack. Furanocoumarins are members of the phenylpropanoids family, and their biosynthetic pathway is initiated from p-coumaroyl coA. The enzymes belonging to the CYP98A cytochrome P450 family have been widely described as being aromatic meta-hydroxylases of various substrates, such as p-coumaroyl ester derivatives, and are involved in the synthesis of coumarins such as scopoletin. In furanocoumarin-producing plants, these enzymes catalyze the step directly downstream of the junction with the furanocoumarin biosynthetic pathway and might indirectly impact their synthesis.

RESULTS

In this work, we describe the cloning and functional characterization of the first CYP98A encoding gene isolated from R. graveolens. Using Nicotiana benthamiana as a heterologous expression system, we have demonstrated that this enzyme adds a 3-OH to p-coumaroyl ester derivatives but is more efficient to convert p-coumaroyl quinate into chlorogenic acid than to metabolize p-coumaroyl shikimate. Plants exposed to UV-B stress showed an enhanced expression level of the corresponding gene. The R. graveolens cyp98a22 open reading frame and the orthologous Arabidopsis thaliana cyp98a3 open reading frame were overexpressed in stable transgenic Ruta plants. Both plant series were analyzed for their production of scopoletin and furanocoumarin. A detailed analysis indicates that both genes enhance the production of furanocoumarins but that CYP98A22, unlike CYP98A3, doesn't affect the synthesis of scopoletin.

CONCLUSIONS

The overexpression of CYP98A22 positively impacts the concentration of furanocoumarins in R. graveolens. This gene is therefore a valuable tool to engineer plants with improved therapeutical values that might also be more resistant to phytophageous insects.

Dissecting phosphite-induced priming in Arabidopsis infected with Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis

Phosphite (Phi), a phloem-mobile oxyanion of phosphorous acid (H(3)PO(3)), protects plants against diseases caused by oomycetes. Its mode of action is unclear, as evidence indicates both direct antibiotic effects on pathogens as well as inhibition through enhanced plant defense responses, and its target(s) in the plants is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the biotrophic oomycete Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis (Hpa) exhibits an unusual biphasic dose-dependent response to Phi after inoculation of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), with characteristics of indirect activity at low doses (10 mm or less) and direct inhibition at high doses (50 mm or greater). The effect of low doses of Phi on Hpa infection was nullified in salicylic acid (SA)-defective plants (sid2-1, NahG) and in a mutant impaired in SA signaling (npr1-1). Compromised jasmonate (jar1-1) and ethylene (ein2-1) signaling or abscisic acid (aba1-5) biosynthesis, reactive oxygen generation (atrbohD), or accumulation of the phytoalexins camalexin (pad3-1) and scopoletin (f6'h1-1) did not affect Phi activity. Low doses of Phi primed the accumulation of SA and Pathogenesis-Related protein1 transcripts and mobilized two essential components of basal resistance, Enhanced Disease Susceptibility1 and Phytoalexin Deficient4, following pathogen challenge. Compared with inoculated, Phi-untreated plants, the gene expression, accumulation, and phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase MPK4, a negative regulator of SA-dependent defenses, were reduced in plants treated with low doses of Phi. We propose that Phi negatively regulates MPK4, thus priming SA-dependent defense responses following Hpa infection.

Biochemical, microbiological and phytochemical studies on aqueous-fermented extracts from Atropa belladonna L. Part 2--Phytochemistry

Extraction methods of fresh plants into aqueous-fermented extracts according to German Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia (HAB), regulation nos. 33 and 34 were evaluated. In the course of production, the extraction is accompanied by fermentation and the resulting preparation is stored for at least 6 months until further processing. In part 1 of the work, the biochemical reactions proceeding in aqueous-fermented extracts from the fresh flowering herb of Atropa belladonna var. belladonna (L.) were studied and the responsible microorganisms were identified. This second part aimed at shedding light on the phytochemical changes upon manufacture and storage. Additionally, questions were addressed at the robustness of the method by varying production conditions, its reproducibility and the comparison with ethanolic extraction. Studying 110 extracts produced from 2006 to 2009 as well as model experiments on isolated lactic acid bacteria in atropine solutions proved that the active substance atropine was stable under regular pH conditions. Interestingly, no difference between aqueous-fermented and ethanolic extracts could be found with respect to atropine concentration. In contrast, the amounts of scopoletin and kaempferol glycosides from Atropa belladonna differed depending on the extraction procedure.

A 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase from Ruta graveolens L. exhibits p-coumaroyl CoA 2'-hydroxylase activity (C2'H): a missing step in the synthesis of umbelliferone in plants

Coumarins are important compounds that contribute to the adaptation of plants to biotic or abiotic stresses. Among coumarins, umbelliferone occupies a pivotal position in the plant phenylpropanoid network. Previous studies indicated that umbelliferone is derived from the ortho-hydroxylation of p-coumaric acid by an unknown biochemical step to yield 2,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid, which then undergoes spontaneous lactonization. Based on a recent report of a gene encoding a 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase from Arabidopsis thaliana that exhibited feruloyl CoA 6'-hydroxylase activity (Bourgaud et al., 2006), we combined a bioinformatic approach and a cDNA library screen to identify an orthologous ORF (Genbank accession number JF799117) from Ruta graveolens L. This ORF shares 59% amino acid identity with feruloyl CoA 6'-hydroxylase, was functionally expressed in Escherichia coli, and converted feruloyl CoA into scopoletin and p-coumaroyl CoA into umbelliferone with equal activity. Its bi-functionality was further confirmed in planta: transient expression of JF799117 in Nicotiana benthamiana yielded plants with leaves containing high levels of umbelliferone and scopoletin when compared to control plants, which contained barely detectable traces of these compounds. The expression of JF799117 was also tightly correlated to the amount of umbelliferone that was found in UV-elicited R. graveolens leaves. Therefore, JF799117 encodes a p-coumaroyl CoA 2'-hydroxylase in R. graveolens, which represents a previously uncharacterized step in the synthesis of umbelliferone in plants. Psoralen, which is an important furanocoumarin in R. graveolens, was found to be a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme, and it may exert this effect through negative feedback on the enzyme at an upstream position in the pathway.

Calcium- and ROS-mediated defence responses in BY2 tobacco cells by nonpathogenic Streptomyces sp

AIMS

The early molecular events underlying the elicitation of plant defence reactions by Gram-positive bacteria are relatively unknown. In plants, calcium and reactive oxygen species are commonly involved as cellular messengers of a wide range of biotic stimuli from pathogenic to symbiotic bacteria. In the present work, we checked whether nonpathogenic Streptomyces sp. strains could induce early signalling events leading to defence responses in BY2 tobacco cell suspensions.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We have demonstrated that nonpathogenic Streptomyces sp. OE7 strain induced a cytosolic Ca(2+) increase and a biphasic oxidative burst in the upstream signalling events, leading to defence responses in BY2 tobacco cell suspensions. Streptomyces sp. OE7 also elicited delayed intracellular free scopoletin production and programmed cell death. In agreement with scopoletin production, OE7 induced accumulation of PAL transcripts and increased accumulation of transcripts of EREBP1 and AOX genes that are known to be regulated by the jasmonate/ethylene pathway. Transcript levels of PR1b and NIMIN2α, both salicylic acid pathway-linked genes, were not modified. Moreover, Streptomyces sp. OE7 culture filtrates could reduce Pectobacterium carotovorum- and Pectobacterium atrosepticum-induced death of BY2 cells and soft rot on potato slices.

CONCLUSIONS

New insights are thus provided into the interaction mechanisms between Streptomyces sp. and plants; Streptomyces sp. could be sensed by plant cells, and through cytosolic Ca(2+) changes and the generation of reactive oxygen species, defence responses were induced.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

These induced defence responses appeared to participate in attenuating Pectobacterium-induced diseases in plants. Thus, Streptomyces sp. OE7 could be a biocontrol agent against Pectobacterium sp.

Molecular cloning and functional analysis of the ortho-hydroxylases of p-coumaroyl coenzyme A/feruloyl coenzyme A involved in formation of umbelliferone and scopoletin in sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam

Ortho-hydroxylation of cinnamates is a key step in coumarin biosynthesis in plants. Ortho-hydroxylated cinnamates undergo trans/cis isomerization of the side-chain and then lactonization to form coumarins. Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] accumulates umbelliferone and scopoletin after biotic and abiotic stresses. To elucidate molecular aspects of ortho-hydroxylation involved in umbelliferone formation in sweet potato, isolation and characterization of cDNAs encoding 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases (2OGD) was performed from sweet potato tubers treated with a chitosan elicitor. Five cDNAs (designated as Ib) encoding a protein of 358 amino acid residues were cloned, and these were categorized into two groups, Ib1 and Ib2, based on their amino acid sequences. Whether the recombinant Ib proteins had any enzymatic activity toward cinnamates was examined. Ib1 proteins exhibited ortho-hydroxylation activity toward feruloyl coenzyme A (CoA) to form scopoletin (K(m)=~10 μM, k(cat)=~2.7s(-1)). By contrast, Ib2 proteins catalyzed ortho-hydroxylation of feruloyl-CoA (K(m)=7.3-14.0 μM, k(cat)=0.28-0.55 s(-1)) and also of p-coumaroyl-CoA (K(m)=6.1-15.2 μM, k(cat)=0.28-0.64 s(-1)) to form scopoletin and umbelliferone, respectively. Fungal and chitosan treatments increased levels of umbelliferone and its glucoside (skimmin) in the tubers, and expression of the Ib2 gene was induced concomitantly.

AtRbohF is a crucial modulator of defence-associated metabolism and a key actor in the interplay between intracellular oxidative stress and pathogenesis responses in Arabidopsis

This work investigated the contribution of AtRbohD and AtRbohF to regulating defence-associated metabolism during three types of interaction: (i) incompatible and (ii) compatible interaction with Pseudomonas syringae; and (iii) intracellular oxidative stress in the catalase-deficient cat2 background. In all three cases, loss of function of either gene modulated the response of defence compounds. AtRbohF gene function was necessary for rapid and full induction of salicylic acid (SA) during compatible and incompatible interactions, and for resistance to virulent bacteria. Both artrboh mutations modulated the effects of intracellular ROS in the cat2 background, although the predominant effect was mediated by atrbohF. Loss of this gene function increased lesion formation in cat2 but uncoupled this effect from cat2-triggered induction of SA and camalexin, accumulation of glutathione and disease resistance, all of which were much lower in cat2 artbohF than in cat2. A detailed comparison of GC-TOF-MS profiles produced by the three interactions revealed considerable overlap between cat2 effects and those produced by bacterial infection in the wild-type background. Analysis of the impact of the two atrboh mutations on these profiles provided further evidence that AtRbohF interacts closely with intracellular oxidative stress to tune dynamic metabolic responses during infection. Thus, AtRbohF appears to be a key player not only in HR-related cell death but also in regulating metabolomic responses and resistance. Based on the results obtained during the three types of interaction, a model is proposed of how NADPH oxidases and intracellular ROS interact to determine the outcome of pathogen defence responses.

Cytokinins mediate resistance against Pseudomonas syringae in tobacco through increased antimicrobial phytoalexin synthesis independent of salicylic acid signaling

Cytokinins are phytohormones that are involved in various regulatory processes throughout plant development, but they are also produced by pathogens and known to modulate plant immunity. A novel transgenic approach enabling autoregulated cytokinin synthesis in response to pathogen infection showed that cytokinins mediate enhanced resistance against the virulent hemibiotrophic pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tabaci. This was confirmed by two additional independent transgenic approaches to increase endogenous cytokinin production and by exogenous supply of adenine- and phenylurea-derived cytokinins. The cytokinin-mediated resistance strongly correlated with an increased level of bactericidal activities and up-regulated synthesis of the two major antimicrobial phytoalexins in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), scopoletin and capsidiol. The key role of these phytoalexins in the underlying mechanism was functionally proven by the finding that scopoletin and capsidiol substitute in planta for the cytokinin signal: phytoalexin pretreatment increased resistance against P. syringae. In contrast to a cytokinin defense mechanism in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) based on salicylic acid-dependent transcriptional control, the cytokinin-mediated resistance in tobacco is essentially independent from salicylic acid and differs in pathogen specificity. It is also independent of jasmonate levels, reactive oxygen species, and high sugar resistance. The novel function of cytokinins in the primary defense response of solanaceous plant species is rather mediated through a high phytoalexin-pathogen ratio in the early phase of infection, which efficiently restricts pathogen growth. The implications of this mechanism for the coevolution of host plants and cytokinin-producing pathogens and the practical application in agriculture are discussed.

Evaluation of the interaction of coumarins with biomembrane models studied by differential scanning calorimetry and Langmuir-Blodgett techniques

Three coumarins, scopoletin (1), esculetin (2), and esculin (3), were investigated by differential scanning calorimetry and Langmuir-Blodgett techniques to gain information about the interaction of these compounds with cellular membranes. Phospholipids assembled as multilamellar vesicles or monolayers (at the air-water interface) were used as biomembrane models. Differential scanning calorimetry was employed to study the interaction of these coumarins with multilamellar vesicles and to evaluate their absorption by multilamellar vesicles. These experiments indicated that 1-3 interact in this manner to different extents. The Langmuir-Blodgett technique was used to study the effect of these coumarins on the organization of phospholipids assembled as a monolayer. The data obtained were in agreement with those obtained in the calorimetric experiments.

The nature of tobacco resistance against Botrytis cinerea depends on the infection structures of the pathogen

To protect themselves, plants have evolved an armoury of defences in response to pathogens and other stress situations. These include the production of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and the accumulation of antimicrobial molecules such as phytoalexins. Here we report that resistance of tobacco to Botrytis cinerea is cultivar specific. Nicotiana tabacum cv. Petit Havana but not N. tabacum cv. Xanthi or cv. samsun is resistant to B. cinerea. This resistance is correlated with the accumulation of the phytoalexin scopoletin and PR proteins. We also show that this resistance depends on the type of B. cinerea stage. Nicotiana tabacum cv. Petit Havana is more resistant to spores than to mycelium of B. cinerea. This reduced resistance of N. tabacum cv. Petit Havana to the mycelium compared with spores is correlated with the suppression of PR proteins accumulation and the capacity of the mycelium, not the spores, to metabolize scopoletin. These data present an important advance in understanding the strategies used by B. cinerea to establish its disease on tobacco plants.

Streptomyces scabiei and its toxin thaxtomin A induce scopoletin biosynthesis in tobacco and Arabidopsis thaliana

Streptomyces scabiei is the predominant causal agent of common scab of potato in North America. The virulence of common scab-causing streptomycetes relies on their capacity to synthesize thaxtomins. In this study, the effects of S. scabiei infection and of thaxtomin A, the main toxin produced by S. scabiei, were tested for the elicitation of plant defense molecules in the model plants tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and Arabidopsis thaliana. Tobacco leaves infected with spores of S. scabiei strain EF-35 or infiltrated with purified thaxtomin A produced a blue fluorescent compound that was not detected in leaves infiltrated with spores of a S. scabiei mutant deficient in thaxtomin A biosynthesis. Thin layer chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography identified this fluorescent compound as scopoletin, a plant defense phytoalexin. Arabidopsis seedlings grown in liquid medium also excreted scopoletin as a reaction to S. scabiei and thaxtomin A. The effects of the presence of scopoletin on S. scabiei were also investigated. The phytoalexin scopoletin caused a slight reduction of bacterial growth and a severe decrease of thaxtomin A production. Scopoletin was shown to inhibit thaxtomin A production by repression of a gene involved in the toxin biosynthesis.

Biosynthesis of scopoletin and scopolin in cassava roots during post-harvest physiological deterioration: the E-Z-isomerisation stage

Two to three days after harvesting, cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) roots suffer from post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) when secondary metabolites are accumulated. Amongst these are hydroxycoumarins (e.g. scopoletin and its glucoside scopolin) which play roles in plant defence and have pharmacological activities. Some steps in the biosynthesis of these molecules are still unknown in cassava and in other plants. We exploit the accumulation of these coumarins during PPD to investigate the E-Z-isomerisation step in their biosynthesis. Feeding cubed cassava roots with E-cinnamic-3,2',3',4',5',6'-d(5) acid gave scopoletin-d(2). However, feeding with E-cinnamic-3,2',3',4',5',6'-d(6) and E-cinnamic-2,3,2',3',4',5',6'-d(7) acids, both gave scopoletin-d(3), the latter not affording the expected scopoletin-d(4). We therefore synthesised and fed with E-cinnamic-2-d(1) when unlabelled scopoletin was biosynthesised. Solely the hydrogen (or deuterium) at C2 of cinnamic acid is exchanged in the biosynthesis of hydroxycoumarins. If the mechanism of E-Z-cinnamic acid isomerisation were photochemical, we would not expect to see the loss of deuterium which we observed. Therefore, a possible mechanism is an enzyme catalysed 1,4-Michael addition, followed by sigma-bond rotation and hydrogen (or deuterium) elimination to yield the Z-isomer. Feeding the roots under light and dark conditions with E-cinnamic-2,3,2',3',4',5',6'-d(7) acid gave scopoletin-d(3) with no significant difference in the yields. We conclude that the E-Z-isomerisation stage in the biosynthesis of scopoletin and scopolin, in cassava roots during PPD, is not photochemical, but could be catalysed by an isomerase which is independent of light.

Scopoletin is biosynthesized via ortho-hydroxylation of feruloyl CoA by a 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase in Arabidopsis thaliana

Coumarins are derived via the phenylpropanoid pathway in plants. The 2H-1-benzopyran-2-one core structure of coumarins is formed via the ortho-hydroxylation of cinnamates, trans/cis isomerization of the side chain, and lactonization. Ortho-hydroxylation is a key step in coumarin biosynthesis as a branch point from lignin biosynthesis; however, ortho-hydroxylation of cinnamates is not yet fully understood. In this study, scopoletin biosynthesis was explored using Arabidopsis thaliana, which accumulates scopoletin and its beta-glucopyranoside scopolin in its roots. T-DNA insertion mutants of caffeoyl CoA O-methyltransferase 1 (CCoAOMT1) showed significant reduction in scopoletin and scopolin levels in the roots, and recombinant CCoAOMT1 exhibited 3'-O-methyltransferase activity on caffeoyl CoA to feruloyl CoA. These results suggest that feruloyl CoA is a key precursor in scopoletin biosynthesis. Ortho-hydroxylases of cinnamates were explored in the oxygenase families in A. thaliana, and one of the candidate genes in the Fe(II)- and 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase (2OGD) family was designated as F6'H1. T-DNA insertion mutants of F6'H1 showed severe reductions in scopoletin and scopolin levels in the roots. The pattern of F6'H1 expression is consistent with the patterns of scopoletin and scopolin accumulation. The recombinant F6'H1 protein exhibited ortho-hydroxylase activity for feruloyl CoA (K(m) = 36.0 +/- 4.27 microM; k(cat) = 11.0 +/- 0.45 sec(-1)) to form 6'-hydroxyferuloyl CoA, but did not hydroxylate ferulic acid. These results indicate that Fe(II)- and 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase is the pivotal enzyme in the ortho-hydroxylation of feruloyl CoA in scopoletin biosynthesis.

Effects of auxins on growth and scopoletin accumulation in cell suspension cultures of Angelica archangelica L

Scopoletin is a coumarin possessing many interesting biological effects, e.g., spasmolytic, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antioxidant, antifungal, apoptosis-inducing, antiproliferative, acetylcholinesterase-inhibitory, and hypouricemic activities. Plant tissue cultures represent a promising alternative source of valuable plant-derived substances. A number of physical and chemical factors influence the cell growth and secondary metabolite biosynthesis in plant tissue cultures. The mechanism of their action is not completely understood. Besides other factors, plant growth regulators and light conditions play an important role. Effects of four auxins (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4-D, alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid, NAA, beta-indoleacetic acid, IAA or beta-indolebutyric acid, IBA) at four concentrations (0.2, 2, 10 or 20 mg/l) on the culture growth and accumulation of scopoletin in the medium were tested in Angelica archangelica cell suspension cultures cultured under continuous light or in the dark. The highest culture growth was achieved with 2 mg/l 2,4-D, and 10 mg/l IAA. The best scopoletin levels were obtained with 0.2 mg/l 2,4-D, 2 mg/l 2,4-D, 10 mg/l NAA, and 20 mg/l IAA. The effects of light conditions were less marked than those of auxins and their concentrations in influencing both the cell growth and scopoletin accumulation in Angelica archangelica cell suspension cultures. The changes brought about by auxins were modified by light conditions.