Hypothalamic expression of oestrogen receptor α and androgen receptor is sex-, age- and region-dependent in mice

Sex steroid hormones act on developing neural circuits regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and are involved in hormone-sensitive behaviours. These hormones act mainly via nuclear receptors, such as oestrogen receptor (ER)-α and androgen receptor (AR). By using immunohistochemistry, we analysed the expression level of ERα and AR throughout perinatal life [at embryonic (E) day 19 and postnatal (P) days 5, 15 and 25] and in adulthood in several hypothalamic nuclei controlling reproduction in both wild-type and aromatase knockout (ArKO) (i.e. which cannot convert testosterone into oestradiol) mice to determine whether there are sex differences in hypothalamic ERα and AR expression and, if so, whether these are established by the action of oestradiol. As early as E19, ERα immunoreactivity (-IR) was observed at same expression levels in both sexes in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPv), the medial preoptic area (MPOA), the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BnST), the ventrolateral part of the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus and the arcuate nucleus (ARC). Sex differences (female > male) in ERα-IR were observed not only during the prepubertal period in the BnST (P5 to P25) and the MPOA (P15), but also in adulthood in these two brain regions. Sex differences in AR-IR (male > female) were observed at P5 in the AVPv and ARC, and at P25 in the MPOA and ARC, as well as in adulthood in all hypothalamic regions analysed. In adulthood, gonadectomy and hormonal treatment (oestradiol or dihydrotestosterone) also strongly modulated ERα-IR and AR, respectively. Taken together, sex differences in ERα-IR and AR-IR were observed in all hypothalamic regions analysed, although they most likely do not reflect the action of oestradiol because ArKO mice of both sexes showed expression levels very similar to wild-type mice throughout perinatal development.

Botpathologie bij apen van de Nieuwe en Oude Wereld

Primaten worden vaak gebruikt als diermodel in het biomedisch onderzoek wegens hun sterke overeenkomsten met de mens. Voornamelijk penseelapen (Callithrix jacchus) en resusapen (Macaca mulatta) zijn frequent gebruikte apensoorten in het wetenschappelijk onderzoek. In dit artikel wordt een systematisch overzicht gegeven van de belangrijkste botaandoeningen bij primaten. Botaandoeningen kunnen spontaan voorkomen maar ook experimenteel worden geïnduceerd in het kader van onderzoek naar humane ziekten. Een gedegen kennis van deze pathologieën is niet enkel belangrijk om preventieve of therapeutische interventies te onderbouwen bij zowel de aap als de mens, maar draagt ook bij tot een optimale keuze van het diermodel. De, voornamelijk historisch gezien, belangrijkste groep van aandoeningen die hier worden besproken zijn de metabole aandoeningen, waarbij de nadruk ligt op rachitis/osteomalacie en osteoporose. Congenitale aandoeningen, ontwikkelingsstoornissen, intoxicaties en deficiënties met effect op het skelet worden ook besproken. Tenslotte zijn er nog de bottumoren, die weliswaar minder frequent gerapporteerd worden, maar die toch een niet te verwaarlozen groep vormen.

Assessing the immunomodulatory potential of high-molecular-weight extracts from mushrooms; an assay based on THP-1 macrophages

BACKGROUND

Food is a potential source of immunomodulating compounds that may be used to steer immune responses towards a desired status such as reducing inflammatory disorders. However, to identify and characterize such bioactive compounds, biologically relevant and standardized assays are required. Macrophages play an important role in immunomodulation and are suited for developing cell-based assays. An assay was developed based on macrophages, in a homogeneous differentiation state, using the human monocytic cell line THP-1 previously used to assess immunomodulatory properties of low-molecular-weight allergens, hormones, dietary supplements and therapeutic drugs.

RESULTS

Zymosan and mushroom polysaccharide extracts lead to a heterogeneous differentiation state of THP-1 monocytes, and these cells secrete low levels of cytokines upon stimulation. Differentiation into macrophages using a low concentration of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate improved responsiveness. Elevated levels of cytokines were secreted by cells in a homogenous differentiation state. In addition, it was determined that the assay performs best when using cells at a concentration of (2.5-5) × 10(5) cells mL(-1).

CONCLUSION

An assay was developed suitable to distinguish the immunomodulatory properties of food compounds in a reproducible manner. It was evaluated using eight mushroom species by measuring the secretion of relevant cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10.

Transient Expression of Secretory IgA In Planta is Optimal Using a Multi-Gene Vector and may be Further Enhanced by Improving Joining Chain Incorporation

Secretory IgA (sIgA) is a crucial antibody in host defense at mucosal surfaces. It is a promising antibody isotype in a variety of therapeutic settings such as passive vaccination and treatment of inflammatory disorders. However, heterologous production of this heteromultimeric protein complex is still suboptimal. The challenge is the coordinate expression of the four required polypeptides; the alpha heavy chain, the light chain, the joining chain, and part of the polymeric-Ig-receptor called the secretory component, in a 4:4:1:1 ratio. We evaluated the transient expression of three sIgAκ variants, harboring the heavy chain isotype α1, α2m1, or α2m2, of the clinical antibody Ustekinumab in planta. Ustekinumab is directed against the p40 subunit that is shared by the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-23. A sIgA variant of this antibody may enable localized treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Of the three different sIgA variants we obtained the highest yield with sIgA1κ reaching up to 373 μg sIgA/mg total soluble protein. The use of a multi-cassette vector containing all four expression cassettes was most efficient. However, not the expression strategy, but the incorporation of the joining chain turned out to be the limiting step for sIgA production. Our data demonstrate that transient expression in planta is suitable for the economic production of heteromultimeric protein complexes such as sIgA.

Monomeric IgA can be produced in planta as efficient as IgG, yet receives different N-glycans

The unique features of IgA, such as the ability to recruit neutrophils and suppress the inflammatory responses mediated by IgG and IgE, make it a promising antibody isotype for several therapeutic applications. However, in contrast to IgG, reports on plant production of IgA are scarce. We produced IgA1κ and IgG1κ versions of three therapeutic antibodies directed against pro-inflammatory cytokines in Nicotiana benthamiana: Infliximab and Adalimumab, directed against TNF-α, and Ustekinumab, directed against the interleukin-12p40 subunit. We evaluated antibody yield, quality and N-glycosylation. All six antibodies had comparable levels of expression between 3.5 and 9% of total soluble protein content and were shown to have neutralizing activity in a cell-based assay. However, IgA1κ-based Adalimumab and Ustekinumab were poorly secreted compared to their IgG counterparts. Infliximab was poorly secreted regardless of isotype backbone. This corresponded with the observation that both IgA1κ- and IgG1κ-based Infliximab were enriched in oligomannose-type N-glycan structures. For IgG1κ-based Ustekinumab and Adalimumab, the major N-glycan type was the typical plant complex N-glycan, biantennary with terminal N-acetylglucosamine, β1,2-xylose and core α1,3-fucose. In contrast, the major N-glycan on the IgA-based antibodies was xylosylated, but lacked core α1,3-fucose and one terminal N-acetylglucosamine. This type of N-glycan occurs usually in marginal percentages in plants and was never shown to be the main fraction of a plant-produced recombinant protein. Our data demonstrate that the antibody isotype may have a profound influence on the type of N-glycan an antibody receives.

A heritable antiviral RNAi response limits Orsay virus infection in Caenorhabditis elegans N2

Orsay virus (OrV) is the first virus known to be able to complete a full infection cycle in the model nematode species Caenorhabditis elegans. OrV is transmitted horizontally and its infection is limited by antiviral RNA interference (RNAi). However, we have no insight into the kinetics of OrV replication in C. elegans. We developed an assay that infects worms in liquid, allowing precise monitoring of the infection. The assay revealed a dual role for the RNAi response in limiting Orsay virus infection in C. elegans. Firstly, it limits the progression of the initial infection at the step of recognition of dsRNA. Secondly, it provides an inherited protection against infection in the offspring. This establishes the heritable RNAi response as anti-viral mechanism during OrV infections in C. elegans. Our results further illustrate that the inheritance of the anti-viral response is important in controlling the infection in the canonical wild type Bristol N2. The OrV replication kinetics were established throughout the worm life-cycle, setting a standard for further quantitative assays with the OrV-C. elegans infection model.

Both SSU rDNA and RNA polymerase II data recognise that root-knot nematodes arose from migratory Pratylenchidae, but probably not from one of the economically high-impact lesion nematodes

In 2000 Siddiqi formulated a hypothesis stating that root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) constitute a branch arising from yet another important group of plant parasites, the migratory Pratylenchidae. This hypothesis was solely based on morphological characteristics. Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequence analysis supports this hypothesis in its broad sense, but the more precise question about the identity of a migratory Pratylenchidae representative being closest to the most basal Meloidogyne species could not be addressed due to a lack of backbone resolution (Holterman et al., 2009). Here we present an extended small subunit rDNA sequence analysis and a data set of partial RNA polymerase II sequences from Pratylenchidae and basal Meloidogynidae. Our data point at members of the genus Pratylenchus as being closest to the common ancestor of the root-knot nematodes, but it was not possible unequivocally to identify a candidate lesion nematode species. Pratylenchus is a species-rich genus (ca 70 valid species), and we suggest that the species closest to the most basal root-knot nematode should be sought outside of the group of relatively well-characterised, agronomically relevant, species.

Risk of infection and sepsis in severely injured patients related to single nucleotide polymorphisms in the lectin pathway

BACKGROUND

Infectious complications remain a serious threat to patients with multiple trauma. Susceptibility and response to infection is, in part, heritable. The lectin pathway plays a major role in innate immunity. The aim of this study was to assess whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in three key genes within the lectin pathway affect susceptibility to infectious complications in severely injured patients.

METHODS

A prospective cohort of severely injured patients admitted to a level I trauma centre between January 2008 and April 2011 were genotyped for SNPs in MBL2 (mannose-binding lectin 2), MASP2 (MBL-associated serine protease 2) and FCN2 (ficolin 2). Association of genotype with prevalence of positive culture findings and infection was tested by χ(2) and logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 219 patients were included, of whom 112 (51·1 per cent) developed a positive culture from sputum, wounds, blood or urine. A systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) developed in 139 patients (63·5 per cent), sepsis in 79 (36·1 per cent) and septic shock in 37 (16·9 per cent). Patients with a MBL2 exon 1 variant allele were more prone to positive wound cultures (odds ratio (OR) 2·51, 95 per cent confidence interval 1·12 to 5·62; P = 0·025). A MASP2 Y371D DD genotype predisposed to SIRS (OR 4·78, 1·06 to 21·59; P = 0·042) and septic shock (OR 2·53, 1·12 to 4·33; P = 0·003). A FCN2 A258S AS genotype predisposed to positive wound cultures (OR 3·37, 1·45 to 7·85; P = 0·005) and septic shock (OR 2·18, 1·30 to 4·78; P = 0·011).

CONCLUSION

Severely injured patients with SNPs in MBL2, MASP2 Y371D and FCN2 A258S of the lectin pathway of complement activation are significantly more susceptible to positive culture findings, and to infectious complications, SIRS and septic shock than patients with a wildtype genotype.

Global and regional parameters to visualize the 'best' PEEP during a PEEP trial in a porcine model with and without acute lung injury

BACKGROUND

Setting the optimal level of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) in critically ill patients remains a matter of debate. "Best" PEEP is regarded as minimal lung collapse and overdistention to prevent lung injury. In this study, global and regional variables were evaluated in a porcine model to identify which variables should be used to visualize "best" PEEP.

METHODS

Eight pigs (28-31 kg) were studied during an incremental and decremental PEEP trial before and after the induction of acute lung injury (ALI) with oleic acid. Arterial oxygenation, compliance, lung volume, dead space, esophageal pressure and electrical impedance tomography (EIT) were recorded at the end of each PEEP step.

RESULTS

After ALI, "best" PEEP was comparable at 15 cmH2O between regional compliance of the dorsal lung region by EIT and the global indicators: dynamic compliance, arterial oxygenation, alveolar dead space and venous admixture. After ALI, the intratidal gas distribution was able to detect regional overdistention at 15 cmH2O PEEP. "Best" PEEP based on transpulmonary pressure was lower and no optimal level could be found based on lung volume measurements alone. In addition, the recruitment phase significantly improved end-expiratory lung volume, PaO2, venous admixture and regional and global compliance, both in ALI and the "healthy" lung.

CONCLUSION

Most of the evaluated parameters indicate comparable 'best' PEEP levels. However, a combination of these parameters, and especially EIT-derived intratidal gas distribution, might provide additional information. The application of lung recruitment was beneficial in both ALI and the "healthy" lung.

Structural determinants at the interface of the ARC2 and leucine-rich repeat domains control the activation of the plant immune receptors Rx1 and Gpa2

Many plant and animal immune receptors have a modular nucleotide-binding-leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR) architecture in which a nucleotide-binding switch domain, NB-ARC, is tethered to a LRR sensor domain. The cooperation between the switch and sensor domains, which regulates the activation of these proteins, is poorly understood. Here, we report structural determinants governing the interaction between the NB-ARC and LRR in the highly homologous plant immune receptors Gpa2 and Rx1, which recognize the potato cyst nematode Globodera pallida and Potato virus X, respectively. Systematic shuffling of polymorphic sites between Gpa2 and Rx1 showed that a minimal region in the ARC2 and N-terminal repeats of the LRR domain coordinate the activation state of the protein. We identified two closely spaced amino acid residues in this region of the ARC2 (positions 401 and 403) that distinguish between autoactivation and effector-triggered activation. Furthermore, a highly acidic loop region in the ARC2 domain and basic patches in the N-terminal end of the LRR domain were demonstrated to be required for the physical interaction between the ARC2 and LRR. The NB-ARC and LRR domains dissociate upon effector-dependent activation, and the complementary-charged regions are predicted to mediate a fast reassociation, enabling multiple rounds of activation. Finally, we present a mechanistic model showing how the ARC2, NB, and N-terminal half of the LRR form a clamp, which regulates the dissociation and reassociation of the switch and sensor domains in NB-LRR proteins.

Numerical chromosome disorders in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)--comparison between two captive colonies

BACKGROUND

Chromosomal analyses were performed for marmosets from two colonies - Deutsches Primatenzentrum (DPZ) and Biomedical Primate Research Centre (BPRC). Chlorine-based disinfectants are used in DPZ; no chemical disinfection is applied in BPRC.

METHODS

The rates of chromosomal non-disjunction, polyploidy and endoreduplication were investigated after G-banding.

RESULTS

For DPZ monkeys, the mean rates of non-disjunction were 7.6% for bone marrow and 11.3% for lymphocytes. The polyploidy level was 2.5% in bone marrow and 0.8% in blood. Frequency of endoreduplication in bone marrow and in leucocytes was 0.5% and 0.8%, respectively. For BPRC, the rate of non-disjunction in leucocytes (1.3%) was significantly lower than that for DPZ; the polyploidy rate (0.2%) in blood was lower than that in DPZ; endoreduplication was not observed.

CONCLUSION

The levels of chromosomal disorders are elevated for DPZ colony. We suggest that the increased rate of chromosomal disorders in DPZ marmosets can be related to the chemical disinfection of their environment.

Regulation of skeletal muscle oxidative phenotype by classical NF-κB signalling

BACKGROUND

Impairments in skeletal muscle oxidative phenotype (OXPHEN) have been linked to the development of insulin resistance, metabolic inflexibility and progression of the metabolic syndrome and have been associated with progressive disability in diseases associated with chronic systemic inflammation. We previously showed that the inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) directly impairs muscle OXPHEN but underlying molecular mechanisms remained unknown. Interestingly, the inflammatory signalling pathway classical nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is activated in muscle in abovementioned disorders. Therefore, we hypothesised that muscle activation of classical NF-κB signalling is sufficient and required for inflammation-induced impairment of muscle OXPHEN.

METHODS

Myotubes from mouse and human muscle cell lines were subjected to activation or blockade of the classical NF-κB pathway. In addition, wild-type and MISR (muscle-specific inhibition of classical NF-κB) mice were injected intra-muscularly with TNF-α. Markers and key regulators of muscle OXPHEN were investigated.

RESULTS

Classical NF-κB activation diminished expression of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) sub-units, slow myosin heavy chain expression, activity of mitochondrial enzymes and potently reduced intra-cellular ATP levels. Accordingly, PGC-1/PPAR/NRF-1/Tfam signalling, the main pathway controlling muscle OXPHEN, was impaired upon classical NF-κB activation which required intact p65 trans-activation domains and depended on de novo gene transcription. Unlike wild-type myotubes, IκBα-SR myotubes (blocked classical NF-κB signalling) were refractory to TNF-α-induced impairments in OXPHEN and its regulation by the PGC-1/PPAR/NRF-1/Tfam cascade. In line with in vitro data, NF-κB blockade in vivo abrogated TNF-α-induced reductions in PGC-1α expression.

CONCLUSION

Classical NF-κB activation impairs skeletal muscle OXPHEN.

Small subunit ribosomal DNA-based phylogenetic analysis of foliar nematodes (Aphelenchoides spp.) and their quantitative detection in complex DNA backgrounds

Foliar nematodes, plant-parasitic representatives of the genus Aphelenchoides, constitute a minority in a group dominated by fungivorous species. Distinction between (mostly harmless) fungal feeding Aphelenchoides species and high impact plant parasites such as A. besseyi, A. fragariae, A. ritzemabosi, and A. subtenuis is severely hampered by the scarcity of informative morphological characters, some of which are only observable in specific developmental stages. Poor description of a number of non-plant-parasitic Aphelenchoides species further complicates identification. Based on (nearly) full-length small subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU rDNA) sequences (≈1,700 bp), a phylogenetic tree was generated, and the four target species appeared as distinct, well-supported groups. Notably, this genus does not constitute a monophyletic group: A. besseyi and A. ritzemabosi cluster together and they are phylogenetically isolated from A. fragariae, A. subtenuis, and most other fungivorous species. A phylum-wide SSU rDNA framework was used to identify species-specific DNA motifs. For the molecular detection of four plant-parasitic Aphelenchoides species, polymerase chain reaction primers were developed with high, identical annealing temperatures (63°C). Within the molecular framework presented here, these primers can be used for the rapid screening of plant material and soil for the presence of one or multiple foliar nematode species.

Long-term survival after ICU treatment

BACKGROUND

The aim of this paper was to study long-term survival in patients treated in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and who survived to hospital discharge.

METHODS

This was a single-center retrospective cohort study of patients admitted to a mixed intensivist-led 10 bed ICU in a teaching hospital between 2004 and 2009 and discharged alive from the hospital with complete follow-up until January 1, 2011.

RESULTS

A total of 3477 individual patients were admitted to the ICU, 491 (14.1%) of whom died in the hospital while 2986 survived to hospital discharge. In the first year after discharge 436 out of 2986 (14.6%) patients died. Mortality after hospital discharge was highest in the first three months. For patients discharged alive from the hospital the risk of dying during the first year increased significantly with age, APACHE II score at admission and being discharged to a place other than home. Sepsis on ICU admission, mechanical ventilation, renal replacement therapy during ICU treatment or admission type had no effect on one-year mortality rate.

CONCLUSION

Patients who survive ICU treatment have a high risk of dying during the next year. This risk is almost as great the risk of dying during ICU and hospital treatment and increases with age and illness severity on admission to the ICU.

Rather than by direct acquisition via lateral gene transfer, GHF5 cellulases were passed on from early Pratylenchidae to root-knot and cyst nematodes

BACKGROUND

Plant parasitic nematodes are unusual Metazoans as they are equipped with genes that allow for symbiont-independent degradation of plant cell walls. Among the cell wall-degrading enzymes, glycoside hydrolase family 5 (GHF5) cellulases are relatively well characterized, especially for high impact parasites such as root-knot and cyst nematodes. Interestingly, ancestors of extant nematodes most likely acquired these GHF5 cellulases from a prokaryote donor by one or multiple lateral gene transfer events. To obtain insight into the origin of GHF5 cellulases among evolutionary advanced members of the order Tylenchida, cellulase biodiversity data from less distal family members were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

Single nematodes were used to obtain (partial) genomic sequences of cellulases from representatives of the genera Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus, Hirschmanniella and Globodera. Combined Bayesian analysis of ≈ 100 cellulase sequences revealed three types of catalytic domains (A, B, and C). Represented by 84 sequences, type B is numerically dominant, and the overall topology of the catalytic domain type shows remarkable resemblance with trees based on neutral (= pathogenicity-unrelated) small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences. Bayesian analysis further suggested a sister relationship between the lesion nematode Pratylenchus thornei and all type B cellulases from root-knot nematodes. Yet, the relationship between the three catalytic domain types remained unclear. Superposition of intron data onto the cellulase tree suggests that types B and C are related, and together distinct from type A that is characterized by two unique introns.

CONCLUSIONS

All Tylenchida members investigated here harbored one or multiple GHF5 cellulases. Three types of catalytic domains are distinguished, and the presence of at least two types is relatively common among plant parasitic Tylenchida. Analysis of coding sequences of cellulases suggests that root-knot and cyst nematodes did not acquire this gene directly by lateral genes transfer. More likely, these genes were passed on by ancestors of a family nowadays known as the Pratylenchidae.