Recreation, consumption of wild game, risk, and the Department of Energy sites: perceptions of people attending the Lewiston, ID, "Roundup"

Several federal agencies are reclaiming land through remediation and restoration, and are considering potential future land uses that are compatible with current land uses and local needs. Understanding potential recreational and wild game consumption patterns and risk perceptions are critical for determining cleanup levels and assessing potential risk associated with certain uses. In this article, recreational rates of people attending the Lewiston "Roundup" rodeo in northwestern Idaho were examined, as well as their perceptions of the safety of consuming fish and game from two Department of Energy (DOE) facilities: the Hanford Site and the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL). These are two of DOE's largest sites. Lewiston is closer to Hanford, but is in the same state as INEEL. Men engaged in significantly higher hunting and fishing rates than women, but there were no gender differences in camping and hiking rates. Rates of hunting and camping decreased significantly with age, while rates of hiking were lowest for 31- to 45-yr-olds. Level of education generally was not related to rates of recreation. Over 70% of the subjects ate deer, elk, and self-caught fish; 30-50% ate grouse, moose, and waterfowl; and fewer people ate other game species. Overall, subjects were less concerned about eating the fish and game from INEEL than from Hanford, and more people thought Hanford should be cleaned up completely compared to INEEL. Mean rates of fishing, hiking, and camping all exceeded the DOE's maximum recreational exposure assumption of 14 d/yr used in their future use documents. Although at present people are generally not allowed access to DOE lands for recreation, recreation is one future land use being considered for these federal facilities. Given that some people would engage in multiple activities, the potential exists for people living in the general region of Hanford and INEEL to exceed the 14-d exposure assumption. The relative gender differences in recreational rates mean that men are potentially more at risk, particularly since hunting (on both sites) and fishing (on Hanford) are attractive.

Effects of lead on behavior, growth, and survival of hatchling slider turtles

In this study the effects of lead on behavioral development of hatchling slider turtles (Trachemys scripta) from the Savannah River Site, near Aiken, SC, were examined. It was of interest to determine whether dose or size affects survival, growth, or behavior. Hatchlings from 1995 showed no significant differences in growth, survival, or behavior between control and lead-injected animals at a dose of 0.05 and 0.1 mg/g (n = 10 per group). In 1996, 48 hatchlings were divided into four groups injected with 0 (control), 0.25, 1, or 2.5 mg/g lead. Few significant differences occurred in growth or size as a function of lead treatment at 4 mo of age, but survival declined markedly as a function of lead dose. Righting response was significantly impaired by lead; time to right was directly related to lead dose. Size also affected behavior; larger hatchlings turned over more quickly and reached cover sooner than did smaller hatchlings.

Fishing and risk along the Savannah River: possible intervention

Fishing is often perceived as an enjoyable activity, and eating fish is viewed as safe and healthful. However, with recent increases in consumption advisories because of contamination, the public is faced with whether to eat fish or not. In this article I examine the knowledge base of people fishing along the Savannah River, where South Carolina has issued consumption advisories because of mercury and radionuclides. Over 250 people fishing from the Augusta lock and dam to south of the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site (SRS) were interviewed from early April until late November 1997. Overall 82% of the fishermen thought the fish were safe to eat, even though 62% had heard some warnings about eating the fish. There were significant differences in whether people thought the fish were safe to eat as a function of income, age, education, and whether they were employed at the Savannah River Site. Significantly more fishermen thought the fish were safe who made more than $20,000/year, were over 34 yr of age, worked at SRS, and had no college or technical training, compared to others. Significantly fewer blacks had heard of consumption advisories than whites, fewer low-income people had heard, and fewer people who had not worked at SRS had heard, compared to others. Most people heard about the advisories from television, newspapers, and other people, although more blacks than whites heard about advisories from the radio. There were also significant ethnic differences in distance traveled, and in whether specific fish were frozen for later consumption. These data can be used to design an information program to target the people who may be most at risk from eating fish obtained from the Savannah River.

Evidence for social facilitation of preening in the common tern

Social facilitation of reproductive behaviour has been studied extensively in gulls and terns, but social facilitation of preening has been reported only anecdotally, and has not been previously quantified. We studied a common tern, Sterna hirundo, colony during the summers of 1996 and 1997 to test for socially facilitated preening. Scan sampling provided evidence of spatial and temporal synchrony of preening behaviour. Preening occurred more often than expected in groups of three or more neighbours. Breeding pairs also preened simultaneously more often than expected. In loafing (resting) areas, the proportion of preeners present increased with tern density. Behavioural observations suggest that preening spread from neighbour to neighbour. The observed clumping in preening behaviour could not be explained by differences in date, time of day or weather. Social facilitation of preening and other maintenance behaviour may be an important aspect of group living that is often overlooked. Copyright 1998 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

A risk assessment for consumers of mourning doves

Recreational and subsistence hunters and anglers consume a wide range of species, including birds, mammals, fish and shellfish, some of which represent significant exposure pathways for environmental toxic agents. This study focuses on the Department of Energy's (DOE's) Savannah River Site (SRS), a former nuclear weapons production facility in South Carolina. The potential risk of contaminant intake from consuming mourning doves (Zenaida macroura), the most popular United States game bird, was examined under various risk scenarios. For all of these scenarios we used the mean tissue concentration of six metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, selenium, chromium, manganese) and radiocesium, in doves collected on and near SRS. We also estimated risk to a child consuming doves that had the maximum contaminant level. We used the cancer slope factor for radiocesium, the Environmental Protection Agencies Uptake/Biokinetic model for lead, and published reference doses for the other metals. As a result of our risk assessments we recommend management of water levels in contaminated reservoirs so that lake bed sediments are not exposed to use by gamebirds and other terrestrial wildlife. Particularly, measures should be taken to insure that the hunting public does not have access to such a site. Our data also indicate that doves on popular hunting areas are exposed to excess lead, suggesting that banning lead shot for doves, as has been done for waterfowl, is desirable.

Antipredator behaviour of hatchling snakes: effects of incubation temperature and simulated predators

All animals that are exposed to predators must distinguish dangerous from nondangerous threats and respond correctly. In reptiles, emerging hatchlings are vulnerable to a wide range of predators, particularly if they emerge during daylight. In these experiments I tested the response of pine snake, Pituophis melanoleucus, hatchlings incubated at 22-23, 27-28, or 32-33 degreesC to visual and vibratory stimuli to examine antipredator behaviour. Emerging hatchlings were exposed to one of five conditions: (1) hawk model, (2) white head model with no facial features, (3) white head model with black eyes, (4) a person, or (5) a vibration without a visual stimulus. I tested the null hypotheses of no differences in response as a function of predator type or incubation temperature. Emergence behaviour when undisturbed was affected by incubating temperature, and antipredatory behaviour was affected by both predator type and incubation temperature. Pine snake hatchlings responded more protectively (withdrawal into tunnels) than defensively (striking), responded with less intensity to a vibration compared with visual predator stimuli, and required longer to respond to a head model without eyes than to all other predator types. Given the relatively small size of hatchlings, it is adaptive for them to withdraw into the nest rather than attack a predator. Hatchlings from eggs that were incubated at medium temperatures required less time to emerge from their underground nests when undisturbed, and had stronger protective responses than snakes incubated at other temperatures. These results suggest that hatchlings incubated at medium temperatures are generally less vulnerable to predators than hatchlings incubated at higher or lower temperatures. Copyright 1998 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Plasma prostaglandin E2 concentrations after single dose administration of ketorolac tromethamine (Toradol) in dogs

Ketorolac tromethamine (Toradol) is a relatively new, potent, non-narcotic analgesic with cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitory activity and has been associated with gastric and renal toxicity in people and dogs. The objectives of this study were to establish whether endogenous PGE2 exists in the plasma of healthy dogs and to determine if, and to what magnitude, ketorolac alters PGE2 plasma concentrations after administration. Enzyme immunoassay measurement of a stable PGE2 derivative, bicyclo PGE2, showed that after i.v. administration of 0.5 mg/kg ketorolac tromethamine, 1 and 24 h plasma samples contained significantly (P < or = 0.01) less PGE2 than did plasma samples collected from dogs before the drug treatment. After p.o. administration, 1 h plasma samples contained significantly (P < or = 0.01) less PGE2 than did pretreatment samples, and the 24 h post-drug administration samples contained significantly (P < or = 0.01) less plasma PGE2 than the 96 h plasma samples. The results of this study suggest that a clinically effective single i.v. or p.o. dose of ketorolac tromethamine to healthy dogs causes a significant but reversible decrease in endogenous PGE2 production which may partially explain the drug's low therapeutic index.

Effects of lead on sibling recognition in young herring gulls

Lead exposure early in life affects physiology, behavior, and cognitive development in humans and other animals. In gulls, lead also disrupts parental recognition, leading to potential decreases in survival in wild populations. In this paper, young herring gulls, Larus argentatus, were used to examine the effect of lead on sibling recognition. Each of 80 one-day-old herring gull chicks was randomly assigned to either a control group or a lead treatment group that received a single dose of lead acetate solution (100 mg/kg) at day 2. Matched controls were injected with isotonic saline at the same age. At 10 days of age, there was no demonstrable sibling recognition in control chicks, but recognition was clearly developed by 15 days of age. Lead disrupted sibling recognition, and there still was no evidence of sibling recognition in lead-injected chicks by 26 days of age. Time to respond initially increased and then decreased with age in both control and lead-injected chicks. Control chicks that correctly reached their siblings did so in significantly less time than did lead-injected chicks, and they remained closer to their siblings at the end of the test. These experiments clearly demonstrate that lead disrupts sibling recognition in herring gull chicks, delays the time to respond and to reach their siblings, and increases the final distance chicks are from their calling siblings. In nature, lead-impaired chicks would be unable to use siblings as a cue enabling them to find their nests and might suffer higher mortality from territorial adults and chicks, as well as from cannibalistic adults.

Trace elements in egg contents and egg shells of slider turtles (Trachemys scripta) from the Savannah River Site

In this paper we examine the levels of trace elements in the egg contents and egg shells of slider turtles (Trachemys scripta) from the Savannah River Site, near Aiken, South Carolina. Trace elements have seldom been examined in the tissues or eggs of reptiles, although some turtles and large snakes occupy a high trophic level. Lead, mercury, cadmium, selenium, chromium, and manganese levels were examined in one egg and its egg shell collected from each of 16 females that laid in late May and June 1996. We were interested in determining background levels, whether certain metals were sequestered in the egg shells, and whether levels were higher in contents or shells. Concentrations were higher in egg contents than in shells for lead, mercury, and selenium, while chromium was higher in the shell. There were no differences for cadmium and manganese. Compared to eggs from other reptiles, levels in slider turtles were generally similar for cadmium and selenium, lower for chromium and lead, and higher for manganese.

Temporal trends in metal levels in eggs of the endangered roseate tern (Sterna dougallii) in New York

Female birds sequester certain organic and inorganic compounds in their eggs which have been widely used as a bioindicator for examining the body burdens of contaminants and therefore the temporal and spatial trends of the contaminants in the environment. The same analyses can also reflect the status or vulnerability of the indicator species. Extensive bridge de-leading activities in the New York Bight (Cape May to Montauk) in the early 1990s coincided with a long-term study of the endangered roseate tern (Sterna dougallii) on Long Island, New York, affording the opportunity to test the utility of such fish-eating species as bioindicators of lead contamination, as well as the potential impact on the bird population itself. In this paper we test the null hypothesis that there were no temporal trends between 1989 and 1994 in metal levels in eggs of roseate terns nesting at Cedar Beach, Long Island, where the birds have been declining since the late 1980s. We report levels and trends for cadmium, chromium, manganese, mercury, and selenium as well as lead in abandoned eggs collected each year. There were significant interyear differences for all metals, with 1990 to 1992 generally having higher levels than 1989 and 1994. The yearly differences were particularly prominent for lead, where the 10-fold increase may have been partially due to the increased removal of leaded paint from bridges in the early 1990s, leading to increased lead in the aquatic environment. Cadmium and chromium are also released during de-leading. The causes for the higher levels in the other metals in the early 1990s are unclear. Metal levels in roseate tern eggs are several times higher than the median reported for most birds, and the possible impact on the population requires study.

Fishing, consumption, and risk perception in fisherfolk along an east coast estuary

Increasingly public and governmental agencies are concerned about the safety of fish and shellfish that recreational fishermen consume. Fishing behavior, consumption patterns, and risk perceptions were examined for people flashing and crabbing in Barnegat Bay, NJ. Women fished in significantly larger groups than men, and their groups included more children. Subjects fished an average of seven times per month and crabbed three times per month; they caught fish on most outings, and 80% ate their catch. Subjects consumed fish an average of five times a month, eating just under 10 oz (ca. 280 g) per meal. Only 25% of the fish consumed by women, and 49% of the fish consumed by men, are self-caught. Nearly 90% of the people believe the fish and crabs from Barnegat Bay are safe to eat, although about 40% have heard some warnings about their safety. Most people heard about advisories from newspapers or television. Most subjects believe that saltwater fish are safer than freshwater fish and that fish they catch themselves or buy in a bay store are safer than those from a supermarket. People generally do not have a clear understanding of the relationship between contaminants and fish size or trophic level, suggesting an avenue for risk reduction.

Environmental attitudes and perceptions of future land use at the Savannah River Site: are there racial differences?

People make subjective judgments about the severity of environmental problems and on future land use relying on certain information, and on their experiences with the problem. This article examines perceptions of the severity of environmental problems, willingness to expend future funds to solve these problems, and future land use for the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site (SRS) in South Carolina as a function of race. The null hypothesis that there are no racial differences in perceptions was tested. Of those interviewed, 23% of the 399 people were black, 75% were white, and 2% identified themselves as other. Blacks were significantly more willing than whites to spend federal funds to solve environmental problems such as cleaning up the SRS and Superfund sites, fixing ozone depletion, and reducing the threats from radon and high-tension power lines. There were statistically significant racial differences in preferences for future land use at the SRS, with blacks having a higher preference for using it as a preserve, and whites having a higher preference for a research park, camping, hiking, and hunting. These results indicate that the environmental concerns of the blacks interviewed were equal to or stronger than those of the whites. This is in contrast to much of previously published work that shows that blacks exhibit lower concerns and actions than whites for environmental problems.

Gender differences in attitudes about fish safety in a coastal population

Behavioral approaches to reducing the adverse health effects of consuming fish with high contaminant levels benefit from understanding attitudes and perceptions about the relative safety of fish. Gender differences in attitudes about fish safety were investigated by interviewing 197 men and 94 women who attended a Duck Decoy show at Tuckerton, NJ. There were significant gender differences in perceptions of the safety of fish, ducks, and deer, with women generally believing that it was less safe to eat these foods than did men. Although people correctly perceived that ocean fish were safer than bay-caught fish from a chemical contaminant perspective, perceptions were less clear with respect to consuming predatory or herbivorous, or large versus small fish. Although men significantly perceived small fish as safer than large fish, women did not. However, people correctly believed that bluefish (a predaceous fish) were less safe than flounder (an herbivore). People uniformly believed it was safer to eat fish they caught themselves or bought in a fish store than those from a supermarket. These results suggest that any program to inform the public about the potential dangers from contaminated fish should take into account gender differences in perceptions.

Apparent paralytic shellfish poisoning in captive herring gulls fed commercial scallops

This report describes an acute poisoning event observed in captive herring gull (Larus argentatus) chicks fed a batch of store-bought scallops. They developed a characteristic acute syndrome, that has not hitherto been reported in birds and the cause of which remains to be identified. We suggest that it is a variant of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) insofar as it was paralytic and caused by shellfish. However, analyses by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to identify known toxins (saxitoxins, brevetoxins, domoic acid) in the scallops were negative.

Paradigms for ecological risk assessment

Ecological risk assessment developed from the convergence of human health risk assessment, ecology, and ecotoxicology to provide data for environmental management and decision making. There has been an emphasis on using the health risk paradigm. However, ecological systems are much more complex than the single-species, single-lifetime approach used in human health risk assessment; hence several modifications are necessary, as ecological risk assessment evolves for particular uses. The advancement of ecological risk assessment is particularly timely, given competing considerations for cleanup of a variety of hazardous-waste sites, including the huge Department of Defense and Department of Energy sites, as well as the 1000+ Superfund sites. Sufficient resources are not available to clean up all sites completely, much less at the same time. Some sites pose no current identifiable risk to human receptors, but may be unusable for human habitation. Where human receptors are not the targets, ecological risk assessment can be used not only to evaluate the risks to ecosystems, but to help determine the degree of cleanup required to restore degraded environments to functioning ecosystems that provide valuable ecological services, and to rank sites for possible cleanup.

Risk, mercury levels, and birds: relating adverse laboratory effects to field biomonitoring

There is an abundance of field data on levels of mercury in a variety of organisms and there are a number of studies that demonstrate the adverse effects of mercury on laboratory animals, but few studies examine the relationship between the two. Thus it is often difficult to determine the ecological relevance of mercury concentrations found in nature, or to predict the ecosystem consequences of current levels. In this paper we review the levels in tissues that are associated with adverse effects in birds from laboratory studies and compare these with levels found in wild bird populations in the New York Bight to provide a basis for interpreting values in avian populations. We use feathers from fledgling birds which would have been fed on locally obtained food to eliminate the problem of where toxic burdens were acquired by more mobile adult birds. Laboratory studies indicate that in some species mercury levels of 1.5 ppm in eggs and/or 5 to 40 ppm in the feathers of birds are associated with adverse effects, including impaired reproduction. We report egg levels in birds that range as high as 3.8 ppm and feather levels that range as high as 10.3 ppm, although means are much lower. The levels in eggs of some wild birds in the New York Bight are within the range known to lower hatchability, embryo and chick survival, and chick weight, all variables that reduce reproductive success. Species with high egg levels include Forster's tern (Sterna forsteri) and black skimmer (Rynchops niger). Levels in feathers of some young wild birds from the New York Bight are within the range associated with reduced hatchability of eggs, behavioral abnormalities of adults, and infertility. Species with dangerously elevated mercury levels in feathers include great egret (Ardea [=Egretta] alba), snowy egret [Egretta thula), and black skimmers.

Age differences in metals in the blood of herring (Larus argentatus) and Franklin's (Larus pipixcan) gulls

Concentrations of heavy metals and selenium were measured in the blood of adult and young herring (Larus argentatus) and Franklin's (Larus pipixcan) gulls collected during the same breeding season in colonies in the New York Bight and in northwestern Minnesota, respectively. Concentrations were expected to be higher in young herring gulls collected in an urban, industrialized area, compared to young Franklin's gulls collected in a relatively pristine prairie marsh. Exposure is similar for the fledgling and adult gulls because by the time the blood of young gulls is drawn both adults and young have been eating foods from the surrounding region for two months; leading to the prediction that metal levels should be similar in adults and young. However, young Franklin's gulls had significantly higher levels of arsenic, cadmium, and manganese than adults; adults had significantly higher levels of mercury and selenium. Young herring gulls had significantly higher concentrations of arsenic and selenium, but lower levels of lead than adult herring gulls. Interspecific comparisons indicated that young Franklin's gulls had significantly higher levels of cadmium than young herring gulls, and adult Franklin's gulls had higher levels of selenium and chromium than adult herring gulls, but for all other comparisons herring gulls had higher levels of metals in their blood. Young herring gulls chicks had higher arsenic, manganese, and selenium levels and lower cadmium and lead levels in 1993 than in 1994. Overall, the levels in the two species were usually within an order of magnitude.

Metal levels in mourning doves from South Carolina: potential hazards to doves and hunters

Most game birds are found in lower trophic levels, but since such birds are harvested and consumed by humans, there is a particular need to assess their contaminant levels. In this paper, we report concentrations of mercury, lead, cadmium, selenium, manganese, and chromium in the breast feathers, liver, and muscle of mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) collected at a partially drawn-down, contaminated reactor-cooling reservoir (Par Pond) on the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site in South Carolina and at nearby agricultural fields managed as dove hunting areas. We test the hypothesis that the levels in doves are not harmful to either dove populations or humans. We also tested the simultaneous effects of collection location, year (1992, 1993), and dove age-class (hatch-year vs after hatch-year) on heavy metal and selenium levels. For all three tissues, mercury levels were nondetectable at all locations. Lead was highest in tissues from agricultural fields with prior histories of dove hunting activities. Doves at those fields were likely ingesting lead shot to a greater degree than at the recently drawn-down reservoir which was closed to public access and hunting. For other metals, Par Pond doves had equally high or higher tissue levels. For all metals, levels in doves from South Carolina were generally within the lower range of those reported in the literature, suggesting that these metals were likely to pose no health problems to these doves. Except for lead and selenium, metal levels in dove muscle that we observed were well below reference metal doses established for human intake. Lead and selenium, at the levels described here, would only be a problem if a child (not an adult) ate 120 g of dove meat every day of the year. Thus, we conclude that meat from these doves, if consumed by hunters, would not pose a risk.

Recreation and risk: potential exposure

The Department of Energy and other federal facilities are reclaiming land through the process of remediation and restoration, and this land will eventually be turned over for future land uses that may involve recreation. Understanding the amount of recreation that is likely (and thus individual exposure) is an essential element in decisions about cleanup standards. In this article the number of days people engage in different recreational activities as a measure of potential exposure is examined. People attending a Mayfest celebration (n = 399) and the Palmetto Sportsmen's Classic (n = 285) in Columbia, SC, were interviewed regarding their recreational activities. In most cases reported in the literature, recreational activities are examined as the mean number of days people engage in each activity per year, but to determine risk it is essential to know the distribution of these activities. In descending order of frequency, people attending the Mayfest reported their activities as birdwatching, photographing, fishing, hiking, camping, and hunting. There were significant gender differences in the frequency of activities, with men spending more days in every activity except birdwatching and photography. There were ethnic differences in recreation, with whites engaging in higher levels of most recreational activities than blacks, but the percentage of black men who reported fishing more than 100 d per year was greater than for white men. Most people reported their participation in most activities less than 30 d per year; however, a higher percentage of people reported participating in photography, birdwatching, and fishing more than 30 d per year compared to the other activities. Further, individuals at the Sportsman's Classic reported far higher rates of hunting and fishing per year than the general public. These data can be used to examine potential exposure of recreationists on remediated and restored land. The data clearly indicate that over 25% of the people engage in at least one recreational activity over 20 d per year, and thus exceed the Department of Energy's 14-d recreation assumption in its future land use document.

Lead and neurobehavioral development in gulls: a model for understanding effects in the laboratory and the field

Animals, including humans, are increasingly exposed to a variety of environmental chemicals that can cause adverse developmental neurobehavioral effects. Most studies either examine effects in the laboratory, or report levels in wild animals, but the relationship between dose, tissue levels and effects are seldom examined in one system. Establishing this relationship is particularly important for endocrine disruptors because of the current controversies regarding impacts on both humans and wildlife. In this paper we synthesize results from a 10-year research program that uses the herring gull chick as a model to examine the relationship between dose, tissue levels, and response to lead in both the laboratory and the wild; and compare levels that cause deficits to those that occur in wild populations of a number of birds. The laboratory studies show that lead affects several aspects of neurobehavioral development in herring gull chicks. There are critical periods for the effects of lead on neurobehavioral development; and there are dissociations: different behaviors have different critical periods. Response latency may be affected most when exposure occurs at one age, while accuracy of response may be affected more at a different age of exposure. Further, there is not necessarily a correlation between impairment and the recovery trajectory. The field experiments show that there are similar lead-induced neurobehavioral deficits in the wild as occur in the laboratory. However, there were important differences: recovery occurred sooner in the field compared to the laboratory; parents partially compensated for the behavioral deficits and succeeded in getting surviving chicks to a similar fledging weight as control chicks, and although survival was decreased in lead-injected chicks in the wild, it was not as low as predicted because of the protective behavior of their parents. These impairments resulted in decreases in survival, which reduced overall fledging rates for a population with lead exposure. Data on exposure levels, as indicated by lead levels in feathers of birds worldwide, suggest that some birds are at risk of neurobehavioral impairment from exposure to lead. Although the neurobehavioral deficits are subtle, and difficult to prove using only wild populations, the data from the field experiments with herring gulls clearly indicate that the deficits occur. This providers a model for studying the neurobehavioral effects of any chemicals on wild populations.

Attitudes toward environmental hazards: where do toxic wastes fit?

The public is continually faced with making decisions about the risks associated with environmental hazards, and, along with managers and government officials, must make informed decisions concerning possible regulation, mitigation, and restoration of degraded sites or other environmental threats. We explored the attitudes regarding several environmental hazards of six groups of people: undergraduate science majors, undergraduate nonscience majors, and graduate students in environmental health, in ecological risk assessment, and in nonscience disciplines, as well as nonstudents over 35 yr of age. We had predicted that there would be significant differences in attitudes between science and nonscience majors and as a function of age. Relative concerns could be divided into three discrete classes (in descending order of concern): (1) general ecological problems (cutting tropical forests, polluting groundwater, trash along the coasts, lead in drinking water, and acid rain), (2) radon and nuclear wastes, and finally (3) specific nuclear waste facilities, chromium, fertilizers and pesticides, and electromagnetic waves. For any hazard, attitudes were consistent across groups with regard to ranking the severity of the environmental problem and willingness to expend funds to solve the problems. Attitudes about spending money to develop methods to evaluate risk fell in the middle level of concern. There were no major differences among classes of college-age students, or between them and older nonstudents.

[Detection of DNA single-copy sequences of prehistoric teeth. Site milieu as a factor for preservation of DNA]

DNA-extracts from prehistoric roots of teeth were analyzed by PCR to investigate microsatellite-systems. At the same time the x/y-chromosome specific system Amel A/B was investigated. The samples were collected from different burial conditions of similar age. Factors leading to limited DNA-degradation are given. For the first time reproducible Quadruplex-amplification on single-copy loci of prehistoric tissue was obtained in samples from the Lichtenstein-Cave, Kr. Osterode/Harz. Positive results are explained by low temperature in the burial site. In addition the results show that desiccation allows DNA-preservation but cannot protect the DNA from damage due to microbial origin. Microorganisms can destroy DNA-structures completely.

Methods for and approaches to evaluating susceptibility of ecological systems to hazardous chemicals

Differences in genetic susceptibility to hazardous chemicals affect individuals of both human and nonhuman populations. In both cases, differences in response to chemicals or general ill health result as a function of these differences in genetic susceptibility. However, ecological systems are a compilation of hundreds or even thousands of different species, resulting in structural and functional characteristics that are themselves affected by differences in susceptibility. Although individual and population differences in susceptibility to hazardous chemicals underlie effects at the community and the ecosystem level, they do not account for all differences. I propose a two-tiered approach to evaluating susceptibility to ecological systems: a general susceptibility as a function of ecosystem type (based on structure and function of that system) and a differential in susceptibility within broad ecosystem types as a function of biotic and abiotic factors. In terrestrial ecosystems, the two factors that most affect overall susceptibility are species diversity and hydrology; evaluation of the effects of hazardous chemicals involves measuring species diversity and water movement. This same methodological approach can be applied to aquatic ecosystems and to highly altered ecosystems such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and urbanization.

Risk perception, federal spending, and the Savannah River Site: attitudes of hunters and fishermen

This paper examines the attitudes of 285 hunters and fishermen from South Carolina about hunting and fishing, risk, environmental issues, and future land use of the Savannah River Site, We test the null hypothesis that there is no difference in hunting and fishing rates, attitudes toward the safety of fish and deer obtained from SRS, attitudes toward future land use at SRS, and perceptions of the severity of environmental problems as a function of how far respondents lived from the site. Respondents hunted or fished an average of over 40 days a year, and only half felt that the fish and deer from SRS were safe to eat. Willingness to expend federal funds was correlated with perceptions of the severity of the problem. Preferences for future land use at SRS fell into three categories: high (environmental research park, hunting, fishing, camping), medium (nuclear production, factories, preserve only), and low (nuclear waste storage, residential). There were no differences in hunting and fishing rates, ranking of the severity of environmental problems, and willingness to expend federal funds as a function of distance of residence from SRS, but attitudes toward future land use differed significantly as a function of location of residence. Those living close to SRS were more willing to have the site used for factories, residential, nuclear material production and to store nuclear wastes than those living farther from the site. Our data on recreational rates, attitudes toward future land use, and willingness to expend federal funds to solve environmental problems reiterate the importance of assessing stakeholder attitudes toward decisions regarding future land use at DOE sites.

Lead levels in exposed herring gulls: differences in the field and laboratory

We compared blood lead levels for herring gull (Larus argentatus) chicks exposed at two days of age in the field and the laboratory. One randomly selected chick in each family of three was injected with lead, the second with a sterile saline solution, and the third was not injected. Field birds were then completely free-living, and were entirely cared for by their parents. Blood was drawn at 35 or 45 days of age for comparison with laboratory-reared chicks. In both the laboratory and the field, blood lead levels were positively related to dose, and concentrations were lower at 45 than at 35 days of age. However, at each dose, the field birds had lower levels than did the laboratory birds. We postulate that this relates to higher overall activity and accelerated bone development in the field, and perhaps to a move varied diet. Wild young gulls were mobile and practiced flight more often than did laboratory-reared gulls. Growth metabolic, and behavioral factors may enhance deposition of lead in the bone, reducing blood lead. Thus, both in ecological risk assessments and in using birds as bioindicators, caution is required in extrapolating from laboratory studies in field conditions.

Heavy metal and selenium concentrations in feathers of egrets from Bali and Sulawesi, Indonesia

Herons and egrets are ideal organisms to use asindicators of heavy metal exposure in an ecosystem because different speciesfeed at different levels of the food chain and live in both coastal andinland habitats. This paper reports on the concentration of heavy metals andselenium in the feathers of cattle egrets Bubulcus ibis that wereexamined from nesting and roosting sites in Bali and Sulawesi, Indonesia, andin feathers of little egrets Egretta garzetta and intermediate egretsE. intermedia from the same colony in Bali. Mercury and manganeseconcentrations were significantly higher in cattle egrets from Bali comparedto Sulawesi, but otherwise there were no significant differences. There weresignificant differences in lead, cadmium and mercury among the three egretspecies nesting on Bali: 1) the cadmium and mercury concentrations related tosize and trophic level (insectivorous cattle egrets had the lowestconcentrations, fish-eating intermediate egrets had the highestconcentrations), and 2) cattle egrets had significantly lower concentrationsof lead than the other two species. For cattle egrets, secondary flightfeathers had significantly higher levels of cadmium and mercury, and lowerlevels of manganese, than mixed breast and tertiary feathers, reflectingtemporal differences in exposure.

Heavy metal and selenium levels in birds at Agassiz National Wildlife Refuge, Minnesota: Food chain differences

The levels of heavy metals and selenium in the eggs and in breast feathers of adult doublecrested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus), black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), and franklin's gull (Larus pipixcan) nesting at Agassiz National Wildlife Refuge in Marshall County, northwestern Minnesota were examined. Also examined were metal levels in the feathers of fledgling night herons and gulls, in the feathers of adult and fledgling American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus), in eggs of American coot (Fulica americana) and eared grebe (Podiceps caspicus), and in feathers of adult Canada geese (Branta canadensis). These species represent different levels on the food chain from primarily vegetation-eating species (geese, coot) to species that eat primarily fish (cormorant). A clear, positive relationship between level on the food chain and levels of heavy metals occurred only for mercury in feathers and eggs. Otherwise, eared grebes had the highest levels of all other metals in their eggs compared to the other species. No clear food chain pattern existed for feathers for the other metals. For eggs at Agassiz: 1) lead, selenium, and manganese levels were similar to those reported in the literature, 2) mercury levels were slightly higher for cormorants and night herons, 3) all species had higher chromium and cadmium levels than generally reported, and 4) eared grebes had significantly higher levels of cadmium than reported for any species from elsewhere. For adult feathers: 1) gulls had higher levels of lead than the other species, 2) cadmium levels were elevated in gulls and adult herons and cormorants, 3) mercury levels showed an increase with position on the food chain, 4) selenium and chromium levels of all birds at Agassiz were generally low and 5) manganese levels in adults were generally higher than in the literature for other species. Adults had significantly higher mercury levels than fledgling gulls, night herons, and bitterns.

Lead and behavioral development: parental compensation for behaviorally impaired chicks

Lead is ubiquitous in nature, and can affect behavioral, physiological, and intellectual development in humans and other animals. We used lead-induced behavioral deficits to examine the behavior of parents and young herring gulls in the Captree, NY, gull colony. Our objectives were to determine: a) If there were differences in the behavior, weight, and survival of chicks as a function of treatment; b) if parental behavior varied as a function of treatment; and 3) if there were differences in sibling competition and parent-young conflict between experimental nests (with lead-impaired chicks and control chicks) and control nests. We injected one chick in each of 22 nests (1-2 days of age) with lead acetate (100 mg/kg in sterile water) and injected its sibling with sterile saline, and compared behavior of parents and young (from 1-21 days postinjection). We also observed behavior of parents and chicks in 12 control nests in which chicks were handled similarly but were not injected. There were significant lead-induced differences in righting response, locomotion, thermoregulation, begging, and feeding behavior in the chicks; corroborating observations from the laboratory. Lead-injected chicks were less able to compete for food with their siblings, with a resultant significant difference by weight at 16 days of age. For experimental nests in which the weight difference was great, parents engaged in divided feeding of the brood. After one parent initiated feeding, the other parent walked a short distance away and began to call to and then feed the second, smaller chick. The extra parental care resulted in increased survival for the lead-injected chicks, and in their catching up to their siblings in weight by fledging. The results of this experiment indicate that lead induces behavioral deficits and growth retardation in gulls in nature, decreases survival at young ages, and that parents compensate for these behavioral and growth deficits by brood division for feeding chicks such that by fledging the chicks are no longer at a weight and size disadvantage. Parents are, thus, able to perceive a difference in body size and/or vigor of their offspring, and to behaviorally compensate partially for the lead-induced deficits.

Fishing in a polluted estuary: fishing behavior, fish consumption, and potential risk

People make subjective judgments about hazards relying on what they know and feel. These risk perceptions may be based on accurate or inaccurate information and are often optimistically biased. The existence of uncertainties in the evaluation of many environmental hazards effects how risks are perceived. This paper examines fish consumption and risk perception of urban fishermen in the New York/New Jersey estuary, in areas where there were consumption advisories. We interviewed 318 fishermen and crabbers in the Arthur Kill, Raritan Bay, and New Jersey shore. Fish were eaten an average of at least four times per month in all regions, but fishermen in the Arthur Kill fished most frequently, averaging over eight times per month. Although 60% of fishermen and crabbers in the Arthur Kill reported hearing warnings about consuming fish caught in these waters, 70% of fishermen and 76% of crabbers said they are their catch. Significantly fewer fishermen in the Bay and Shore regions had heard warnings (28% and 30%, respectively), and more reported consuming their catch (88% and 82%, respectively). In all regions, most people thought that the fish were safe to eat, many believing they were "fresher" than store bought fish. Thus, most people ignored the consumption advisories in effect for these waters. Some of these people are consuming high quantities of fish and crabs, and thus are exposed to potentially deleterious levels of contaminants. In general, people failed to consider the possibility of chronic effects and did not perceive that this enjoyable, familiar pastime could be hazardous. Further, fishermen generally had great confidence in their own knowledge, which proved to be inaccurate in many cases, and often expressed distrust in the information source (government). Clearly, simply issuing consumption advisories is insufficient to promote risk-reducing behavior.

Effect of enzyme organization on the stability of Yates-Pardee pathways

Yates-Pardee-type metabolic pathways in a heterogeneous cell milieu are modeled as a system of coupled non-linear partial differential equations. A numerical solution to this system is described and some properties of such a physiological system are studied. Confinement with and without a membrane is considered and it is shown how confinement results in an increase in the stability of the metabolite concentrations. These results suggest that the enzyme organization may contribute to the stability of the cellular metabolism.

Heavy metal and selenium levels in Franklin's Gull (Larus pipixcan) parents and their eggs

Lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium, selenium, and manganese concentrations were measured in the breast feathers of 25 pairs of Franklin's Gull (Larus Pipixcan) and in their eggs from a breeding colony at Agassiz National Wildlife Refuge in Northwestern Minnesota. Metal concentrations in eggs represent metals sequestered in the egg by females at the time of egg formation; while metal concentrations in parents represent concentrations of metals in blood supply at the time of feather formation. There were no significant sexual differences in metal concentrations in feathers, assuming the male to be larger of each pair, but there were significant differences between the concentrations of metals in parents and their eggs. Eggs had significantly higher concentrations of selenium and chromium, but significantly lower concentrations of all other metals than the feathers of their parents. There were few significant correlations among metal concentrations within the egg or within the feather of females, but there were correlations for the feathers of males. Lead and cadmium in feathers were positively correlated for both males and females. Chromium concentrations in eggs were generally higher than reported in the literature. The concentrations in eggs and the feathers of females were positively correlated for mercury, and negatively correlated for chromium and manganese.

The child vulnerability scale: an instrument to measure parental perceptions of child vulnerability

Developed and validated an instrument for identifying children perceived as vulnerable. Mothers of 1,095 children, aged 4-8 years, completed interviews that included the original 12-item Child Vulnerability Scale. Eight items that correlated best with each of two major variables that contribute to vulnerability were retained in the revised scale and a cutoff score was identified for children perceived as vulnerable. The internal consistency of the revised scale was good. Using the revised scale, 10.1% of children were identified as perceived vulnerable. Children categorized as perceived vulnerable had a significant increase in behavior problems and acute medical visits. The revised Child Vulnerability Scale should be useful in providing a better understanding of the causes and effects of an important factor in child development.

Risk assessment, life history strategies, and turtles: could declines be prevented or predicted?

The process of ecological risk assessment should involve the ability to predict adverse outcomes of particular environmental contaminants or human intrusions. Ecological risk assessment generally focuses on populations, communities, and ecosystems, rather than on individual health. We explore the importance of life history strategies of aquatic turtles to their risk from environmental contaminants and other human activities using three examples: the wood turtle Clemmys insculpta, a freshwater species; the diamondback terrapin Malaclemys terrapin, a littoral species; and marine turtles as a group. These turtles are partly herbivorous and are at low or intermediate levels on the food chain, yet are particularly vulnerable due to their life history strategies of being long-lived with relatively low survival of young. They suffer a variety of natural mortality factors that include predation, starvation, and disease, as well as inundation and destruction of nesting beaches and their eggs by storms. Yet they also face a number of anthropogenic hazards, including toxic chemicals and floatables (plastics); capture for food, other products, and pets; incidental mortality in fishing gear; disturbance while nesting or moving on land; injuries or death by collision with boats; and increased predator exposure because of humans. The three turtle species (or groups of species) examined have experienced these natural and anthropogenic pressures differentially, with resultant differences in the rates of population declines. Because they are lower on the food chain than other obligate carnivores, they are less vulnerable to toxics, and to date, toxics seem a relatively inconsequential environmental risk to turtles.

Effects of varying temporal exposure to lead on behavioral development in herring gull (Larus argentatus) chicks

In humans and other animals, lead exposure in infants and young animals affects anatomic, physiologic, behavioral, and intellectual development. Yet it is largely unknown whether the effects occur gradually or are more pronounced if exposure occurs at particular stages. In this article we examine the effects of temporal differences in lead exposure on early behavioral development in herring gulls (Larus argentatus). We randomly assigned 64 1-2-day-old gull chicks to one of four treatment groups to receive a lead acetate dose at age 6 days (100 micrograms/g) or 12 days (50 or 100 micrograms/g), or to receive matched volume saline injections on the same days. Behavioral tests were performed at 2-5-day intervals to examine locomotion, balance, righting response, thermoregulation, and visual cliff. Flight behavior was examined at fledging. Results were compared with previously studied exposures at 2, 4, and 6 days of age. Righting response and balance were disrupted immediately after exposure, regardless of the timing of exposure. Thermoregulatory, visual cliff, and individual recognition behavior were more affected by exposure at 2-6 days, and there was little effect with exposure at 12 days. These results confirm the existence of critical periods for certain behaviors to lead exposure in developing herring gulls.

Heavy metal and selenium levels in feathers of herring gulls (Larus argentatus): Differences due to year, gender, and age at Captree, Long Island

The concentrations of heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, manganese) and selenium in the feathers of herring gulls (Larus argentatus) from a nesting colony at Captree, Long Island, New York were examined from 1989 to 1993 to determine if there were differences from year to year, and between males and females, adult and young, and dead versus live gulls. Variation in metal levels in regression models was explained by age (all metals), year (all except manganese), and whether the feathers were from live or dead birds (all except lead and chromium). The feathers of adults had significantly higher levels of mercury, lead and manganese than those of young, but lower levels of selenium and cadmium than those of young. Levels in down and fledgling feathers were similar for lead, cadmium and selenium, but fledgling feathers had higher levels for mercury, chromium, and manganese. There were no gender differences in metal levels for adult feathers except for lead (females had higher levels). Levels of mercury and manganese were higher in feathers of live adults whereas levels of cadmium and selenium were higher in the feathers of dead adults.

Eggshell thickness in marine birds in the New York Bight--1970s to 1990s

Maintaining eggshell thickness is critical for birds, as thin eggshells result in breakage during incubation, with subsequent hatching failure. Beginning in the 1960s, eggshell thickness has been used as a biomarker of exposure to chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, as a measure of avian population health, and as a predictor of potential reproductive failures. In this study, eggs were collected from four coastal bird species nesting in the New York Bight (Cedar Beach, NY to Barnegat Bay, NJ) in the early 1970s, early 1980s, and early 1990s, and eggshell thickness was measured. We tested the hypothesis that decreasing use of chlorinated hydrocarbons, and subsequent decreased levels of these pollutants in the New York Bight estuarine food web, should have resulted in increased eggshell thickness from the 1970s to the 1990s. Most of the variation in eggshell thickness was explained by decade and species. Eggshell thickness increased from the early 1970s (or the 1980s for some species) to the early 1990s for all four species examined: common tern (Sterna hirundo), Roseate tern (S. dougallii), least tern (S. antillarum), and black skimmer (Rynchops niger). For common terns and black skimmers, eggshell thickness increased by nearly 50% from the 1970s to the 1990s, whereas in the smallest species, the least tern, eggshell thickness increased only by 12%. In the 1990s, least terns with the smallest eggs had the thinnest eggshells, and black skimmers with larger eggs had the thickest eggshells.

A risk assessment for lead in birds

Ecotoxicologists and ecologists have examined the effects of pollutants on individuals and populations largely in terms of one or only a few effects. Yet the recent trend toward a holistic approach to ecological risk assessment suggests that a rigorous paradigm should be applied to toxicants, from hazard identification to risk characterization. Recent discussions have recognized that an up-front problem formulation phase is more critical in ecological risk assessment than it is for human health risk assessment. In this article a modified environmental health risk assessment paradigm is used to examine the risk of lead to birds. This risk analysis is largely conceptual, based on laboratory and field data, and incorporates information currently available. The model expands the hazard identification phase to create a target identification phase that includes the identification of receptors, endpoints, relationships, spatial and temporal scales, and indicators. The target identification phase is unique to the particular hazard, species, population, or community being examined. Lead can cause mortality, or can indirectly affect populations through effects on the food base, avian behavior, reproductive success, and recruitment. Lead can (1) decrease the abundance and availability of prey, (2) bioaccumulate in prey causing increased lead toxicosis in predators, or (3) increase prey availability by interfering with its hiding or escape behavior. Moreover, lower abundance of prey can lead to starvation or nutrient deficiencies, which amplify the absorption and retention of lead. Lead also causes decreases in clutch and egg size, mortality of embryos and nestlings, depression of growth, and deficits in behavior that affect survival. Lead decreases migratory behavior, and increases vulnerability to cold stress, hunters, and other predators. Research needs for evaluating the risk of lead in birds include obtaining data on (1) metal dynamics within various tissues as a function of dose and time since initial exposure, (2) low-level effects on embryos, (3) effects on chicks following fledging and in the period prior to recruitment, (4) effects on adult foraging skills and reproductive behavior, and (5) the relationship between effects from exposure in the laboratory and those from exposure in the wild. This latter point is extremely important, particularly if wild birds have other means of ridding the body of lead not available or less apparent to laboratory birds.