Core beliefs and underlying assumptions in bulimia nervosa and depression

In a pilot study, core beliefs and underlying assumptions were investigated in patients with bulimia nervosa, patients with depression and female controls, using a new self-report measure. The patients with bulimia nervosa did not differ from the patients with depression in negative self beliefs but they did differ in assumptions concerned with weight, shape and eating. Both groups of patients also differed from the female controls, with the exception of one comparison including the depressed patients. The findings support recent developments in cognitive theories of eating disorders. Treatment implications are briefly discussed.

Exposure to GB virus type C or hepatitis G virus in selected Australian adult and children populations

BACKGROUND

The epidemiology and disease association for the GB virus type C (GBV-C) or hepatitis G virus (HGV) are poorly understood.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

This study describes the exposure rates to GBV-C/HGV in diverse Australian population groups by testing for current infection and evidence of past infection with a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and an anti-E2 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Subjects included volunteer blood donors, hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV)-positive donors, children, hemodialysis patients, pregnant women attending a prenatal clinic, injecting drug users (IVDUs), and adult hemophiliacs.

RESULTS

Combined GBV-C RNA and E2 antibody prevalence was 6.5 percent (6/93) in children, 13.3 percent (75/565) in blood donors, 14 percent (14/99) in pregnant women, 22.5 percent (18/80) in hemodialysis patients, 80 percent (56/70) in anti-HCV-positive donors, 88.6 percent (31/35) in IVDUs, and 85.7 percent (54/63) in adult hemophiliacs. Children had the lowest antibody rate, 1.1 percent, whereas the rate was 10.8 percent for blood donors and rose to 45.7 percent for IVDUs, 57.1 percent for anti-HCV-positive donors, and 74.6 percent for hemophiliacs. In contrast, current infection rates were comparable for children, blood donors, and pregnant women (5.4, 2.6, and 6%, respectively), rising to 11.1 percent for hemophiliacs, 24.3 percent for anti-HCV-positive donors, and 48.6 percent for IVDUs. Ten of 12 blood donors had persistent viremia, while 2 had recent infections, 1 with apparent resolution.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to GBV-C can commence at an early age, although ongoing exposure may also occur among adults with no apparent risk factors. GBV-C RNA positivity was not associated with abnormal plasma alanine aminotransferase levels among blood donors.

Identification of stathmin as a novel substrate for p38 delta

p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) are a family of kinases that are activated by cellular stresses and inflammatory cytokines. Although there are many similarities shared by the isoforms of p38 (alpha, beta, gamma, and delta), p38 delta differs from the others in some respects such as inhibitor sensitivity and substrate specificity. Utilizing in a solution kinase assay, we identified a novel p38 delta substrate as stathmin. Stathmin is a cytoplasmic protein that was previously reported to be a substrate of several intracellular signaling kinases and has recently been linked to regulation of microtubule dynamics. p38 delta has significantly higher in vitro phosphorylating activity against stathmin than other p38 isoforms or related MAPKs. In transient expression studies, we found that in addition to different stimuli osmotic stress activates p38 delta to phosphorylate stathmin. The sites of phosphorylation were mapped to Ser-25 and Ser-38, both in vitro and in cells.

Transthoracic induction of a hiatal hernia in domestic swine

BACKGROUND

With the common performance of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication for gastroesophageal reflux disease, there is renewed interest in the pathophysiology and potential histologic consequences of hiatal hernias. However, in vivo model exists that both reliably reproduces the hiatal hernia and is amenable to subsequent laparoscopic repair.

METHODS

A transthoracic approach was used to induce a hiatal hernia surgically in female James pig (50-160 kg; n = 5).

RESULTS

Hiatal hernias were successfully induced in all pigs and verified with barium swallow, endoscopy, and/or laparoscopy. Laparoscopic reduction and Nissen fundoplication were subsequently completed on each animal on postoperative day 30. One postoperative death occurred on postoperative day 4 after thoracotomy.

CONCLUSIONS

We describe the induction of a hiatal hernia via a transthoracic approach in domestic swine. The hiatal hernia is amenable to subsequent laparoscopic repair, enabling surgeons to acquire the technical skills required to correct this defect in the laboratory. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a reproducible model of a transthoracically induced hiatal hernia that allows subsequent laparoscopic repair. We suggest that in addition to refinement of surgical skills, our model may provide new information to researchers regarding the potential indications for antireflux procedures, as well as the natural history and appropriate management of hiatal hernias.

Antibodies against the GB virus C envelope 2 protein before liver transplantation protect against GB virus C de novo infection

GB virus C (GBV-C) is a newly discovered RNA virus related to the Flaviviridae family. Although GBV-C is not yet associated with any cause of liver disease, a humoral immune response against the GBV-C envelope 2 (E2) protein has been observed. Therefore, we studied the prevalence and clinical relevance of GBV-C RNA and anti-E2 antibodies in patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT). In addition, we tested whether the prevalence of anti-E2 antibodies may protect against GBV-C infection. Of the 182 liver recipients included in this study, 117 of these were evaluated for GBV-C recurrence or de novo infection. GBV-C RNA was detected in sera or plasma using single-tube, reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, and anti-E2 antibody was detected by enzyme immunoassay (EIA). Cumulative patient and graft survival was tested by using Kaplan-Meier analysis. The independence of prognostic values was assessed by using Cox regression analysis. Before OLT, GBV-C RNA and anti-E2 were detected in 4.0% to 28.6% and 10.0% to 68.8%, respectively, of patients suffering from different forms of chronic liver diseases. GBV-C reinfection after OLT was determined in 85.7%. Of the patients without evidence of exposure to GBV-C before OLT, 30 of 65 (46.2%) became GBV-C RNA positive after OLT. None of the 38 patients who were anti-E2 antibody positive before OLT became GBV-C RNA positive after OLT. Neither patient nor graft survival was significantly affected by the presence of either GBV-C RNA or anti-E2 antibody before OLT. Our data indicate that 1) GBV-C RNA positive patients have a high risk of reinfection after OLT, and 2) the presence of anti-E2 antibodies before OLT is associated with an absence of GBV-C infection after OLT, which may indicate a protective role of anti-E2 antibodies.

GB virus C/hepatitis G virus infection: a favorable prognostic factor in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients?

To investigate a possible influence of GB virus C (GBV-C) in immunocompromised patients, the prevalences of GBV-C RNA and anti-E2 antibody in 197 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients and in 120 control blood donors were studied. GBV-C RNA was detected in 33 of 197 HIV-infected patients (16.8%) compared with 1 in 120 blood donors (0.8%) (P < .001). Previous exposure to GBV-C (anti-E2 antibody-positive) was shown in 56.8% of HIV patients and in 9% of blood donors. GBV-C viremia was not associated with hepatitis. Despite approximately equal duration of HIV infection in all subgroups, the CD4 cell counts were significantly higher in GBV-C-viremic patients (344 cells/microL) compared with exposed (259 cells/microL) and unexposed (170 cells/microL) patients (P = .017 and P < .001). Furthermore, Kaplan-Meier analysis demonstrated significantly better cumulative survival in GBV-C RNA-positive HIV-infected patients, suggesting that GBV-C might be a favorable prognostic factor in HIV disease.

Reversible expression of tryptases and chymases in the jejunal mast cells of mice infected with Trichinella spiralis

It is has been established that mouse mast cells (MCs) can reversibly alter their expression of serglycin proteoglycans and the homologous granule chymases that have been designated mouse MC protease (mMCP)-1, mMCP-2, and mMCP-5 in vivo. Nevertheless, it remained to be determined whether these immune cells could modify their expression of other chymases and the granule tryptases mMCP-6 and mMCP-7. As assessed immunohistochemically, we now show that MCs reversibly change their expression of the recently described chymase mMCP-9 and both tryptases as these cells traverse the jejunum during the amplification and regression stages of the reactive MC hyperplasia. In noninfected mice, most jejunal MCs reside in the submucosa and express mMCP-6 and mMCP-7, but not mMCP-9 or the chymase mMCP-2. During the inductive phase of the helminth-induced inflammation, when the jejunal MCs move from the submucosa to the tips of the villus, the MCs briefly express mMCP-9, cease expressing mMCP-6 and mMCP-7, and then express mMCP-2. During the recovery phase of the inflammation, jejunal MCs cease expressing mMCP-2 and then express varied combinations of mMCP-6, mMCP-7, and mMCP-9 as they move from the tips of the villus back toward the submucosa. In other model systems, mMCP-6 elicits neutrophil extravasation, and mMCP-7 regulates fibrin deposition and fibrinogen-mediated signaling events. Thus, the ability of a jejunal MC to reversibly alter its tryptase expression during an inflammatory event has important functional implications.

Bronchodilator S-nitrosothiol deficiency in asthmatic respiratory failure

BACKGROUND

Nitric oxide (NO) gas concentrations are high in the expired air of individuals with asthma, but not consistently so in the expired air of people with pneumonia. S-nitrosothiols are naturally occurring bronchodilators, the concentrations of which are raised in the airways of patients with pneumonia. Airway S-nitrosothiols have not been studied in asthma.

METHODS

Tracheal S-nitrosothiol concentrations from eight asthmatic children in respiratory failure were compared with those of 21 children undergoing elective surgery.

RESULTS

Mean S-nitrosothiol concentrations in asthmatic children were lower than in normal children (65 [SD 45] nmol/L vs 502 [SD 429] nmol/L) and did not vary with inspired oxygen concentration or airway thiol concentration.

INTERPRETATION

Severe asthma is associated with low concentrations of airway S-nitrosothiols. This is the first reported deficiency of an endogenous bronchodilator in the human asthmatic airway lining fluid. We suggest that S-nitrosothiol metabolism may be a target for the development of new asthma therapies.

Multicenter trial on mother-to-infant transmission of GBV-C virus. The Lombardy Study Group on Vertical/Perinatal Hepatitis Viruses Transmission

Evidence indicates that the GBV-C or hepatitis G virus can cause persistent infection in humans, but little is known on the importance of vertical transmission. To assess the risk of mother-to-infant transmission and the clinical outcome of infected babies, we investigated 175 anti-HCV positive mothers and followed-up their children for 3-33 months. GBV-C RNA was detected by RT-PCR and anti-E2 antibody was assayed by EIA. Thirty-four (19.4%) women were GBV-C RNA positive and transmission occurred to 21 (61.8%) babies; 20 (95.2%) acquired GBV-C alone, and one (4.8%) GBV-C and HCV. Maternal factors such as intravenous drug use, HIV coinfection, HCV-RNA positivity, and type of feeding were not correlated with GBV-C transmission. GBV-C RNA remained persistently positive in all infected babies but one baby who seroconverted to anti-E2. Seven (35%) babies with GBV-C alone developed marginally elevated ALT; the baby with HCV and GBV-C co-infection had the highest ALT peak value (664 IU/l). Seven of the 141 (5%) babies born to the GBV-C RNA negative mothers acquired HCV and six (85.7%) had abnormal ALT. The mean ALT peak value was significantly higher (P < 0.05) for babies with HCV than for those with GBV-C. None of the children with GBV-C or with HCV became icteric. GBV-C is frequently present in anti-HCV positive women. The infection is transmitted efficiently from mother to baby and rate of transmission is much higher than that for HCV. GBV-C can cause persistent infection in babies but usually without clear evidence of liver disease.

Integrin alpha 5 beta 1 expression is required for inhibition of keratinocyte migration by ganglioside GT1b

Polysialoganglioside GT1b, a keratinocyte membrane glycosphingolipid, inhibits normal keratinocyte adhesion and migration on a fibronectin matrix. The specificity of the inhibition for cells plated on a fibronectin matrix and competition of GT1b inhibition with peptide RGDS suggest that GT1b abrogates the alpha 5 beta 1/fibronectin interaction. We examined the effects of GT1b on the adhesion and migration of keratinocyte-derived cell lines and correlated GT1b responsiveness and alpha 5 beta 1 integrin expression. GT1b (5 nM) significantly inhibited migration of normal human keratinocytes, immortalized keratinocytes, and squamous cell carcinoma SCC12F2 cells on fibronectin, but not on collagen I. Concentrations as high as 5 microM had no effect on SCC13 or HaCaT cells. Likewise, GT1b inhibited fibronectin-dependent cell adhesion of normal human keratinocytes, immortalized keratinocytes, and SCC12F2 cells, but had no effect on SCC13 or HaCaT cells. Flow cytometric and Western immunoblot analysis of integrin expression showed significantly decreased alpha 5 and beta 1 integrin expression in SCC13 and HaCaT cells compared to normal keratinocytes, immortalized keratinocytes, and SCC12F2 cells. Incubation with TGF-beta 1 increased alpha 5 beta 1 integrin expression and induced responsiveness to GT1b in HaCaT cells. These data imply that GT1b "response" requires sufficient expression of alpha 5 beta 1 and further suggest that the mechanism of the inhibitory effect of GT1b involves GT1b/alpha 5 beta 1 interaction.

Induction of a selective and persistent extravasation of neutrophils into the peritoneal cavity by tryptase mouse mast cell protease 6

Recombinant mouse mast cell protease 6 (mMCP-6) was generated to study the role of this tryptase in inflammatory reactions. Seven to forty-eight hours after the i.p. injection of recombinant mMCP-6 into BALB/c, mast cell-deficient WCB6F1-Sl/Sl(d), C5-deficient, or mMCP-5-null mice, the number of neutrophils in the peritoneal cavity of each animal increased significantly by >50-fold. The failure of the closely related recombinant tryptase mMCP-7 to induce a comparable peritonitis indicates that the substrate specificities of the two tryptases are very different. Unlike most forms of acute inflammation, the mMCP-6-mediated peritonitis was relatively long lasting and neutrophil specific. Mouse MCP-6 did not induce neutrophil chemotaxis directly in an in vitro assay, but did promote chemotaxis of the leukocyte in the presence of endothelial cells. Mouse MCP-6 did not induce cultured human endothelial cells to express TNF-alpha, RANTES, IL-1alpha, or IL-6. However, the tryptase induced endothelial cells to express large amounts of IL-8 continually over a 40-h period. Neither enzymatically active mMCP-7 nor enzymatically inactive pro-mMCP-6 was able to induce endothelial cells to increase their expression of IL-8. Although the mechanism by which mMCP-6 induces neutrophil accumulation in tissues remains to be determined, the finding that mMCP-6 induces cultured human endothelial cells to selectively release large amounts of IL-8 raises the possibility that this tryptase regulates the steady state levels of neutrophil-specific chemokines in vivo during mast cell-mediated inflammatory events.

Multicenter trial on mother-to-infant transmission of GBV-C virus. The Lombardy Study Group on Vertical/Perinatal Hepatitis Viruses Transmission

Evidence indicates that the GBV-C or hepatitis G virus can cause persistent infection in humans, but little is known on the importance of vertical transmission. To assess the risk of mother-to-infant transmission and the clinical outcome of infected babies, we investigated 175 anti-HCV positive mothers and followed-up their children for 3-33 months. GBV-C RNA was detected by RT-PCR and anti-E2 antibody was assayed by EIA. Thirty-four (19.4%) women were GBV-C RNA positive and transmission occurred to 21 (61.8%) babies; 20 (95.2%) acquired GBV-C alone, and one (4.8%) GBV-C and HCV. Maternal factors such as intravenous drug use, HIV coinfection, HCV-RNA positivity, and type of feeding were not correlated with GBV-C transmission. GBV-C RNA remained persistently positive in all infected babies but one baby who seroconverted to anti-E2. Seven (35%) babies with GBV-C alone developed marginally elevated ALT; the baby with HCV and GBV-C co-infection had the highest ALT peak value (664 IU/l). Seven of the 141 (5%) babies born to the GBV-C RNA negative mothers acquired HCV and six (85.7%) had abnormal ALT. The mean ALT peak value was significantly higher (P < 0.05) for babies with HCV than for those with GBV-C. None of the children with GBV-C or with HCV became icteric. GBV-C is frequently present in anti-HCV positive women. The infection is transmitted efficiently from mother to baby and rate of transmission is much higher than that for HCV. GBV-C can cause persistent infection in babies but usually without clear evidence of liver disease.

Determination of tumor necrosis factor binding protein disulfide structure: deviation of the fourth domain structure from the TNFR/NGFR family cysteine-rich region signature

Tumor necrosis factor binding protein is a soluble molecule derived from the extracellular domain of the 55 kDa human tumor necrosis factor receptor, which can block the biological function of tumor necrosis factor by binding to the growth factor. This cysteine-rich molecule is subdivided into four domains, each containing six conserved cysteines that form three intrachain disulfide linkages known as the tumor necrosis factor receptor/nerve growth factor receptor family cysteine-rich region signature structure. In an effort to elucidate the molecular integrity of the molecule, we performed detailed analysis and searched for strategies to elucidate the complete disulfide structure of the E. coli-derived tumor necrosis factor binding protein and to determine the disulfide arrangement in the fourth domain of Chinese hamster ovary cell-derived molecule. The methods employed included various proteolytic digestions, peptide mapping, partial reduction, and assignment of disulfides by N-terminal sequencing and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry with post-source decay. The first three domains of the molecule were confirmed to have disulfide structures identical to the cysteine-rich region signature structure found in the above-mentioned receptor superfamily. The fourth domain has a different structure from the first three domains where the last four cysteines form two disulfide bonds in opposite positions.

Antibody to GBV-C second envelope glycoprotein (anti-GBV-C E2): is it a marker for immunity?

The clinical significance of GB virus C (GBV-C E2) antibody is under investigation. The prevalence rates of GBV-C RNA and antibody to GBV-C E2 glycoprotein were determined in a population of 123 Egyptian anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV)-positive patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) who had not been treated previously with interferon. Sera were tested for GBV-C RNA by the LCx assay (Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL), and for GBV-C E2 antibody by enzyme immunoassay. GBV-C RNA was present in 11.4% of patients. GBV-C E2 antibody was detected in 55.9% of GBV-C RNA-negative patients and in 2.2% of GBV-C RNA-positive patients (P = 0.006). GBV-C RNA was associated significantly with a history of schistosomiasis (relative risk [RR] = 5.83, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.99-17.14, P < 0.005) but not with parenteral risk factors. The presence of GBV-C E2 antibody was not associated with age, gender, parenteral risk factors, schistosomal infection, or HCV viremia. The HCV genotype and level of viremia were similar in GBV-C anti-E2-positive and negative patients. There was a trend toward more severe histological disease with anti-E2 seropositivity (RR = 1.45, 95% CI 0.89-2.45, P = 0.11), an association which was independent of the evidence of schistosomiasis. It is concluded that GBV-C infection is common among HCV-infected Egyptian patients with CLD due to HCV infection. A significant negative correlation between the GBV-C viremia and GBV-C E2 antibody suggests that an antibody response is associated with viral clearance. This antibody response presumably occurs spontaneously, as none of the patients had received antiviral therapy. The unexpected association between GBV-C RNA and schistosomiasis suggests that nonparenteral or occult parenteral routes of GBV-C infection are likely to be important.

Beyond the bereavement model: the significance of depression for infertility counselling

Counselling in reproductive medicine has tended to focus on bereavement theory as the primary model of understanding and practice. This has meant that the experience of infertility has principally been conceptualized as a process with definable stages, leading smoothly, in time, to resolution and acceptance. This paper suggests that, whilst this is a valuable theory of the psychological and emotional components of infertility, it is also important to consider depression as a particularly significant aspect, independent of its being seen as a stage in the mourning process. The paper outlines an understanding of depression and gives case illustrations of the significance of depression for some people with infertility problems. The evidence for the prevalence of depression amongst those with impaired fertility and the various areas of personal functioning which might be affected are considered. Cognitive therapy has come to be widely accepted as an important approach to treating depression. The theoretical and research evidence for the efficacy of cognitive therapy is discussed, and how it might be applied in the context of infertility counselling.

Operative fluoroscopy in hand and upper limb surgery. One hundred cases

We reviewed the use of a low radiation portable fluoroscopy unit in 100 patients. The most common indication was closed reduction of distal radial fractures. Fracture and joint stability were assessed on the real-time monitor and stored on videotape. Static images were stored on thermographic paper. Fluoroscopically guided joint injections and localization of implants, foreign bodies and bone tumours were performed. Fluoroscopy is a useful adjunct to arthroscopic assisted fracture reduction and other arthroscopic procedures such as distal ulnar resection. These new generation units produce superior resolution images, are easy to manoeuvre and do not require a radiographer.

Relationship between thermal dose and outcome in thermoradiotherapy treatments for superficial recurrences of breast cancer: data from a phase III trial

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was to determine whether the thermal dose delivered during hyperthermia treatments and other thermal factors correlate with outcome after combined radiation and hyperthermia of breast carcinoma recurrences. Data were from the combined hyperthermia and radiation treatment arms of four Phase III trials, which when pooled together, demonstrated a positive effect of hyperthermia.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Four Phase III trials addressing the question of whether hyperthermia could improve the local response of superficial recurrent breast cancer to radiation therapy were combined into a single analysis. Thermal dosimetry data were collected from 120 of the 148 breast cancer recurrence patients who received hyperthermia. The data were analyzed for correlations between thermal parameters as well as important clinical parameters and outcome (complete response rate, local disease free survival, time to local failure, and overall survival).

RESULTS

Five thermal parameters were tested, all associated with the low regions of the measured temperature distributions. Max(TDmin) and Sum(TDmin) were associated with complete response where TDmin is the minimum thermal dose measured by any of the tumor temperature sensors during a treatment: Max(TDmin) is the maximum of TDmin over a series of treatments. Using a categorical relationship with a cutoff of 10 min for Sum(TDmin), the complete response rate was 77% for Sum(TDmin) > 10 min and 43% for Sum(TDmin) < or = 10 min (p = 0.022, adjusted for study center and significant clinical factors). The overall complete response rate for hyperthermia and radiation was 61% compared to 41% for radiation alone. Either Max(TDmin) or Sum(TDmin) were also associated with local disease free survival, time to local failure and overall survival.

CONCLUSIONS

An earlier report of this trial demonstrated a significant benefit when hyperthermia was added to radiation in the treatment of breast cancer recurrences. The analysis of thermal factors demonstrates that parameters representative of the low end of the measured temperature distributions are associated with initial complete response rate, local disease-free survival, time to local failure and overall survival.

Obstructive jaundice in rats results in exaggerated hepatic production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and systemic and tissue tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels after endotoxin

BACKGROUND

Obstructive jaundice (OJ) predisposes patients to postoperative sepsis. We determined whether OJ led to an increased endotoxin stimulated tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production by macrophage-rich organs and whether a lack of intraluminal gut bile contributed to this increased sensitivity.

METHODS

Rats underwent laparotomy and common bile duct ligation and division (CBDL) or sham operation after they were given low-dose endotoxin or saline solution (NS). TNF-alpha levels in plasma, perfusate from the isolated perfused rat liver, and tissue from lung, spleen, and liver were measured 90 minutes later. An additional group underwent creation of a choledochal-vesical fistula and endotoxin administration.

RESULTS

The plasma TNF-alpha, liver perfusate TNF-alpha, and the tissue TNF-alpha levels in liver, lung, and spleen were significantly elevated in the CBDL + endotoxin (CBDL + ETX) group compared with the SHAM + ETX and CBDL + NS groups (p < 0.05). The choledochal-vesical fistula group after endotoxin had plasma TNF-alpha levels only 27% that of the CBDL + ETX group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

OJ sensitizes macrophage-rich organs to produce larger amounts of TNF-alpha in response to endotoxin. This sensitization is not solely due to decreased intraluminal gut bile.

Vagal activity predicts eyeblink conditioning in human subjects

A group of old (mean age 73 years) and young (mean age 19.8 years) human subjects received concomitant eyeblink and heart rate classical conditioning, in which a 1000 Hz tone was the conditioning stimulus and a corneal airpuff was the unconditioned stimulus. Fewer old than young subjects showed eyeblink conditioning and age greatly attenuated the magnitude of the brady-cardiac conditioned heart rate response. The heart rate conditioned response was also significantly smaller in the subjects who failed to show eyeblink conditioning regardless of age, suggesting a relationship between parasympathetic cardiac control and somatomotor learning. The power associated with the respiratory peak in the heart rate spectrum, which is vagal in origin, was also smaller in subjects that failed to show eyeblink conditioning, again suggesting a relationship between parasympathetic cardiac activity and motor learning.