How are T(H)2-type immune responses initiated and amplified?

Novel mechanistic insights underlying fungal allergic inflammation

The worldwide prevalence of asthma and allergic disorders (allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, food allergy) has been steadily rising in recent decades. It is now estimated that up to 20% of the global population is afflicted by an allergic disease, with increasing incidence rates in both high- and low-income countries. The World Allergy Organization estimates that the total economic burden of asthma and allergic rhinitis alone is approximately $21 billion per year. While allergic stimuli are a complex and heterogenous class of inputs including parasites, pollens, food antigens, drugs, and metals, it has become clear that fungi are major drivers of allergic disease, with estimates that fungal sensitization occurs in 20-30% of atopic individuals and up to 80% of asthma patients. Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms that can be found throughout the world in high abundance in both indoor and outdoor environments. Understanding how and why fungi act as triggers of allergic type 2 inflammation will be crucial for combating this important health problem. In recent years, there have been significant advances in our understanding of fungi-induced type 2 immunity, however there is still much we don't understand, including why fungi have a tendency to induce allergic reactions in the first place. Here, we will discuss how fungi trigger type 2 immune responses and posit why this response has been evolutionarily selected for induction during fungal encounter.

Regulation of cardiac fibroblasts by lymphocytes after a myocardial infarction: playing in the major league

Cardiac fibrosis is a pathological condition characterized by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components within the myocardium, which can lead to impaired cardiac function and heart failure. Studies have shown that lymphocytes including B and T cells play important roles in the development and progression of cardiac fibrosis after a myocardial infarction. In this review, we focus on the regulation of cardiac fibrosis by lymphocyte subsets, with a particular emphasis on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and their effects on fibroblasts and cardiac remodeling. We also highlight areas for further exploration of the interactions between T cells and fibroblasts necessary for understanding and treating cardiac fibrosis and heart failure.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Metformin Treatment in Pregnant Women With PCOS

CONTEXT

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder associated with low-grade systemic inflammation and increased risk of pregnancy complications. Metformin treatment reduces the risk of late miscarriage and preterm birth in pregnant women with PCOS. Whether the protective effect of metformin involves immunological changes has not been determined.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of metformin on the maternal immunological status in women with PCOS.

METHODS

A post-hoc analysis was performed of two randomized controlled trials, PregMet and PregMet2, including longitudinal maternal serum samples from 615 women with PCOS. Women were randomized to metformin or placebo from first trimester to delivery. Twenty-two cytokines and C-reactive protein were measured in serum sampled at gestational weeks 5 to 12, 19, 32, and 36.

RESULTS

Metformin treatment was associated with higher serum levels of several multifunctional cytokines throughout pregnancy, with the strongest effect on eotaxin (P < .001), interleukin-17 (P = .03), and basic fibroblast growth factor (P = .04). Assessment of the combined cytokine development confirmed the impact of metformin on half of the 22 cytokines. The immunomodulating effect of metformin was more potent in normal weight and overweight women than in obese women. Moreover, normoandrogenic women had the strongest effect of metformin in early pregnancy, whereas hyperandrogenic women presented increasing effect throughout pregnancy.

CONCLUSION

It appears that metformin has immunomodulating rather than anti-inflammatory properties in pregnancy. Its effect on the serum levels of many multifunctional cytokines demonstrates robust, persisting, and body mass-dependent immune mobilization in pregnant women with PCOS.

Ontogeny of immunity and potential implications for co-infection

Immunity changes through ontogeny and can mediate facilitative and inhibitory interactions among co-infecting parasite species. In amphibians, most immune memory is not carried through metamorphosis, leading to variation in the complexity of immune responses across life stages. To test if the ontogeny of host immunity might drive interactions among co-infecting parasites, we simultaneously exposed Cuban treefrogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis) to a fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobaditis, Bd) and a nematode (Aplectana hamatospicula) at tadpole, metamorphic and post-metamorphic life stages. We measured metrics of host immunity, host health and parasite abundance. We predicted facilitative interactions between co-infecting parasites as the different immune responses hosts mount to combat these infectious are energetically challenging to mount simultaneously. We found ontogenetic differences in IgY levels and cellular immunity but no evidence that metamorphic frogs were more immunosuppressed than tadpoles. There was also little evidence that these parasites facilitated one another and no evidence that A. hamatospicula infection altered host immunity or health. However, Bd, which is known to be immunosuppressive, decreased immunity in metamorphic frogs. This made metamorphic frogs both less resistant and less tolerant of Bd infection than the other life stages. These findings indicate that changes in immunity altered host responses to parasite exposures throughout ontogeny. This article is part of the theme issue 'Amphibian immunity: stress, disease and ecoimmunology'.

Neuroprotective protein ADNP-dependent histone remodeling complex promotes T helper 2 immune cell differentiation

Type 2 immune responses are critical in tissue homeostasis, anti-helminth immunity, and allergy. T helper 2 (Th2) cells produce interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and IL-13 from the type 2 gene cluster under regulation by transcription factors (TFs) including GATA3. To better understand transcriptional regulation of Th2 cell differentiation, we performed CRISPR-Cas9 screens targeting 1,131 TFs. We discovered that activity-dependent neuroprotector homeobox protein (ADNP) was indispensable for immune reactions to allergen. Mechanistically, ADNP performed a previously unappreciated role in gene activation, forming a critical bridge in the transition from pioneer TFs to chromatin remodeling by recruiting the helicase CHD4 and ATPase BRG1. Although GATA3 and AP-1 bound the type 2 cytokine locus in the absence of ADNP, they were unable to initiate histone acetylation or DNA accessibility, resulting in highly impaired type 2 cytokine expression. Our results demonstrate an important role for ADNP in promoting immune cell specialization.

Janus kinase inhibitors in autoimmune bullous diseases

Autoimmune bullous disease (AIBD) is a severe skin disorder caused by autoantibodies that target intercellular or cell-matrix adhesion proteins. Currently, the preferred treatment for AIBD involves the use of glucocorticoids or traditional immunosuppressants. Additionally, the utilization of biological agents such as rituximab, omalizumab, and dupilumab is on the rise. However, effectively managing AIBD remains a challenge. The Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway has been implicated in various inflammatory diseases. In recent years, a range of drugs known as JAK inhibitors, which target this pathway, have been developed. Several studies have explored the efficacy and safety of JAK inhibitors for treating AIBD. Consequently, this review begins by examining the role of the JAK/STAT pathway in AIBD, summarizing the application of different JAK inhibitors in AIBD treatment, and emphasizing the importance of disease management in treating AIBD with JAK inhibitors. Furthermore, it highlights the need for a better understanding of the JAK/STAT pathway's role in AIBD, as well as the effectiveness and safety of JAK inhibitors for treating this disease.

Sequence variant affects GCSAML splicing, mast cell specific proteins, and risk of urticaria

Urticaria is a skin disorder characterized by outbreaks of raised pruritic wheals. In order to identify sequence variants associated with urticaria, we performed a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies for urticaria with a total of 40,694 cases and 1,230,001 controls from Iceland, the UK, Finland, and Japan. We also performed transcriptome- and proteome-wide analyses in Iceland and the UK. We found nine sequence variants at nine loci associating with urticaria. The variants are at genes participating in type 2 immune responses and/or mast cell biology (CBLB, FCER1A, GCSAML, STAT6, TPSD1, ZFPM1), the innate immunity (C4), and NF-κB signaling. The most significant association was observed for the splice-donor variant rs56043070[A] (hg38: chr1:247556467) in GCSAML (MAF = 6.6%, OR = 1.24 (95%CI: 1.20-1.28), P-value = 3.6 × 10^-44). We assessed the effects of the variants on transcripts, and levels of proteins relevant to urticaria pathophysiology. Our results emphasize the role of type 2 immune response and mast cell activation in the pathogenesis of urticaria. Our findings may point to an IgE-independent urticaria pathway that could help address unmet clinical need.

Prolonged T cell - DC macro-clustering within lymph node microenvironments initiates Th2 cell differentiation in a site-specific manner

Formation of T helper 2 (Th2) responses has been attributed to low-grade T cell stimulation, yet how large-scale polyclonal Th2 responses are generated in vivo remains unclear. Here, we used quantitative imaging to investigate early Th2 differentiation within lymph nodes (LNs) following cutaneous allergen administration. Contrary to current models, Th2 differentiation was associated with enhanced T cell activation and extensive integrin-dependent 'macro-clustering' at the T-B border, which also contrasted clustering behavior seen during Th1 differentiation. Unexpectedly, formation of Th2 macro-clusters within LNs was highly dependent on the site of skin sensitization. Differences between sites were driven by divergent activation states of migratory cDC2 from different dermal tissues, with enhanced costimulatory molecule expression by cDC2 in Th2-generating LNs promoting T cell macro-clustering and cytokine sensing. Thus, generation of dedicated priming micro-environments through enhanced costimulatory molecule signaling initiates the generation of Th2 responses in vivo and occurs in a skin site-specific manner.

Serum cytokine profiles predict outcomes of chronic hepatitis B patients discontinuing entecavir or tenofovir therapy

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Distinct hepatitis relapse has been observed after discontinuing entecavir (ETV) or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) therapy in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients. End-of-therapy (EOT) serum cytokines were compared and used for outcome prediction.

METHODS

A total of 80 non-cirrhotic CHB patients in a tertiary medical center in Taiwan who discontinued ETV (n = 51) or TDF (n = 29) therapy after fulfilling the APASL guidelines were prospectively enrolled. Serum cytokines were measured at EOT and 3rd month afterwards. Multivariable analysis was performed to predict virological relapse (VR, HBV DNA >2000 IU/mL), clinical relapse (CR, VR and alanine aminotransferase > 2-fold upper limit of normal) and hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) seroclearance.

RESULTS

Compared with TDF group, ETV stoppers had greater interleukin 5 (IL-5), IL-12 p70, IL-13, IL-17 A and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) (all P < 0.05) at EOT. Older age, TDF use, higher EOT HBsAg and IL-18 (Hazard ratio [HR], 1.01; 95% CI, 1.00-1.02) levels at EOT predicted VR, while older age, higher EOT HBsAg and IL-7 (HR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.00-1.56) levels predicted CR. In TDF stoppers, higher IL-7 (HR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.05-1.60) and IL-18 (HR, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.00-1.04) levels predicted VR, while IL-7 (HR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.08-1.65) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) (HR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.02-1.14) levels predicted CR. A lower EOT HBsAg level was associated with HBsAg seroclearance.

CONCLUSION

Distinct cytokine profiles were observed after stopping ETV or TDF. Higher EOT IL-7, IL-18, and IFN-gamma could be probable predictors for VR and CR in patients discontinuing NA therapies.

Armored modified vaccinia Ankara in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy relies on unleashing the patient´s immune system against tumor cells. Cancer vaccines aim to stimulate both the innate and adaptive arms of immunity to achieve durable clinical responses. Some roadblocks for a successful cancer vaccine in the clinic include the tumor antigen of choice, the adjuvants employed to strengthen antitumor-specific immune responses, and the risks associated with enhancing immune-related adverse effects in patients. Modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) belongs to the family of poxviruses and is a versatile vaccine platform that combines several attributes crucial for cancer therapy. First, MVA is an excellent inducer of innate immune responses leading to type I interferon secretion and induction of T helper cell type 1 (Th1) immune responses. Second, it elicits robust and durable humoral and cellular immunity against vector-encoded heterologous antigens. Third, MVA has enormous genomic flexibility, which allows for the expression of multiple antigenic and costimulatory entities. And fourth, its replication deficit in human cells ensures a excellent safety profile. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of how MVA induces innate and adaptive immune responses. Furthermore, we will give an overview of the tumor-associated antigens and immunomodulatory molecules that have been used to armor MVA and describe their clinical use. Finally, the route of MVA immunization and its impact on therapeutic efficacy depending on the immunomodulatory molecules expressed will be discussed.

Depletion of Mcpip1 in murine myeloid cells results in intestinal dysbiosis followed by allergic inflammation

MCPIP1 (called also Regnase-1) is a negative regulator of inflammation. Knockout of the Zc3h12a gene, encoding Mcpip1 in cells of myeloid origin (Mcpip1^MKO), has a pathological effect on many organs. The aim of this study was to comprehensively analyze pathological changes in the skin caused by Mcpip1 deficiency in phagocytes with an emphasis on its molecular mechanism associated with microbiome dysbiosis. Mcpip1^MKO mice exhibited spontaneous wound formation on the skin. On a molecular level, the Th2-type immune response was predominantly characterized by an increase in Il5 and Il13 transcript levels, as well as eosinophil and mast cell infiltration. Irritation by DNFB led to a more severe skin contact allergy in Mcpip1^MKO mice. Allergic reactions on the skin were strongly influenced by gut dysbiosis and enhanced systemic dissemination of bacteria. This process was followed by activation of the C/EBP pathway in peripheral macrophages, leading to local changes in the cytokine microenvironment that promoted the Th2 response. A reduced bacterial load inhibited allergic inflammation, indicating the role of intestinal dysbiosis in the development of skin diseases. Our results clearly show that MCPIP1 in phagocytes is an essential negative regulator that controls the gut-skin axis.

Reactive oxygen species formation and its effect on CD4+ T cell-mediated inflammation

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced both enzymatically and non-enzymatically in vivo. Physiological concentrations of ROS act as signaling molecules that participate in various physiological and pathophysiological activities and play an important role in basic metabolic functions. Diseases related to metabolic disorders may be affected by changes in redox balance. This review details the common generation pathways of intracellular ROS and discusses the damage to physiological functions when the ROS concentration is too high to reach an oxidative stress state. We also summarize the main features and energy metabolism of CD4+ T-cell activation and differentiation and the effects of ROS produced during the oxidative metabolism of CD4+ T cells. Because the current treatment for autoimmune diseases damages other immune responses and functional cells in the body, inhibiting the activation and differentiation of autoreactive T cells by targeting oxidative metabolism or ROS production without damaging systemic immune function is a promising treatment option. Therefore, exploring the relationship between T-cell energy metabolism and ROS and the T-cell differentiation process provides theoretical support for discovering effective treatments for T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.

Recombinant BoHV-5 glycoprotein (rgD5) elicits long-lasting protective immunity in cattle

BoHV-5 is a worldwide distributed pathogen usually associated with a lethal neurological disease in dairy and beef cattle resulting in important economic losses due to the cattle industry. Using recombinant gD5, we evaluated the long-duration humoral immunity of the recombinant vaccines in a cattle model. Here we report that two doses of intramuscular immunization, particularly with the rgD5ISA vaccine, induce long-lasting antibody responses. Recombinant gD5 antigen elicited tightly mRNA transcription of the Bcl6 and the chemokine receptor CXCR5 which mediate memory B cells and long-lived plasma cells in germinal centers. In addition, using an in-house indirect ELISA we observed higher and earlier responses of rgD5-specific IgG antibody and the upregulation of mRNA transcription of IL2, IL4, IL10, IL15, and IFN-γ in rgD5 vaccinated cattle, indicating a mixed immune response. We further show that rgD5 immunization protects against both BoHV -1 and -5. Our findings indicate that the rgD5-based vaccine represents an effective vaccine strategy to induce an efficient control of herpesviruses.

Effect of gamma-irradiated honey bee venom on gene expression of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in mice

In this study, the effect of gamma-irradiated honey bee venom (doses of 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 kGy, volume of 0.1 ml and concentration of 0.2 mg/ml) was evaluated on the reduction of allergen compounds and the gene expression of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in mice. Hence, edema activity induced by the bee venom irradiated at 4, 6, and 8 kGy was reduced, compared with the control group and that irradiated at 2 kGy. In contrast, the paw edema induced by the bee venom irradiated at 8 kGy increased, compared with 4 and 6 kGy. At all the time periods, there was a significant decrease in the gene expression of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and interleukin 10 (IL-10) in the bee venoms irradiated at 4, 6, and 8 kGy, compared with the control group and that irradiated at 2 kGy. In contrast, there was an increase in the gene expression of IFN-γ and IL-6 in the bee venom irradiated at 8 kGy, compared with those irradiated at 4 and 6 kGy. Therefore, gamma irradiation at 4 and 6 kGy reduced the gene expression of cytokines at each time period by decreasing the allergen compounds of honey bee venom.

Atherosclerosis and Inflammation: Insights from the Theory of General Pathological Processes

Recent advances have greatly improved our understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind atherosclerosis pathogenesis. However, there is still a need to systematize this data from a general pathology perspective, particularly with regard to atherogenesis patterns in the context of both canonical and non-classical inflammation types. In this review, we analyze various typical phenomena and outcomes of cellular pro-inflammatory stress in atherosclerosis, as well as the role of endothelial dysfunction in local and systemic manifestations of low-grade inflammation. We also present the features of immune mechanisms in the development of productive inflammation in stable and unstable plaques, along with their similarities and differences compared to canonical inflammation. There are numerous factors that act as inducers of the inflammatory process in atherosclerosis, including vascular endothelium aging, metabolic dysfunctions, autoimmune, and in some cases, infectious damage factors. Life-critical complications of atherosclerosis, such as cardiogenic shock and severe strokes, are associated with the development of acute systemic hyperinflammation. Additionally, critical atherosclerotic ischemia of the lower extremities induces paracoagulation and the development of chronic systemic inflammation. Conversely, sepsis, other critical conditions, and severe systemic chronic diseases contribute to atherogenesis. In summary, atherosclerosis can be characterized as an independent form of inflammation, sharing similarities but also having fundamental differences from low-grade inflammation and various variants of canonical inflammation (classic vasculitis).

Colonization with ubiquitous protist Blastocystis ST1 ameliorates DSS-induced colitis and promotes beneficial microbiota and immune outcomes

Blastocystis is a species complex that exhibits extensive genetic diversity, evidenced by its classification into several genetically distinct subtypes (ST). Although several studies have shown the relationships between a specific subtype and gut microbiota, there is no study to show the effect of the ubiquitous Blastocystis ST1 on the gut microbiota and host health. Here, we show that Blastocystis ST1 colonization increased the proportion of beneficial bacteria Alloprevotella and Akkermansia, and induced Th2 and Treg cell responses in normal healthy mice. ST1-colonized mice showed decreases in the severity of DSS-induced colitis when compared to non-colonized mice. Furthermore, mice transplanted with ST1-altered gut microbiota were refractory to dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis via induction of Treg cells and elevated short-chain fat acid (SCFA) production. Our results suggest that colonization with Blastocystis ST1, one of the most common subtypes in humans, exerts beneficial effects on host health through modulating the gut microbiota and adaptive immune responses.

Mast cells-fetal mast cells crosstalk with maternal interfaces during pregnancy: Friend or foe?

Mast cells (MC) are hematopoietic immune cells that play a major role during allergic reactions in adults by releasing a myriad of vasoactive and inflammatory mediators. MC seed all vascularized tissues and are most prominent in organs with a barrier function such as skin, lungs, and intestines. These secreted molecules cause mild symptoms such as localized itchiness and sneezing to life-threatening symptoms (i.e., anaphylactic shock). Presently, despite the extensive research on Th2-mediated immune responses in allergic diseases in adults, we are still unable to determine the mechanisms of the role of MC in developing pediatric allergic (PA) disorders. In this review, we will summarize the most recent findings on the origin of MC and discuss the underappreciated contribution of MC in the sensitization phase to maternal antibodies during pregnancy in allergic reactions and other diseases such as infectious diseases. Then, we will lay out potential MC-dependent therapeutic strategies to be considered in future investigations to understand the remaining gaps in MC research for a better quality of life for these young patients.

BRD4-PRC2 represses transcription of T-helper 2-specific negative regulators during T-cell differentiation

BRD4 is a well-recognized transcriptional activator, but how it regulates gene transcriptional repression in a cell type-specific manner has remained elusive. In this study, we report that BRD4 works with Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) to repress transcriptional expression of the T-helper 2 (Th2)-negative regulators Foxp3 and E3-ubiqutin ligase Fbxw7 during lineage-specific differentiation of Th2 cells from mouse primary naïve CD4+ T cells. Brd4 binds to the lysine-acetylated-EED subunit of the PRC2 complex via its second bromodomain (BD2) to facilitate histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) at target gene loci and thereby transcriptional repression. We found that Foxp3 represses transcription of Th2-specific transcription factor Gata3, while Fbxw7 promotes its ubiquitination-directed protein degradation. BRD4-mediated repression of Foxp3 and Fbxw7 in turn promotes BRD4- and Gata3-mediated transcriptional activation of Th2 cytokines including Il4, Il5, and Il13. Chemical inhibition of the BRD4 BD2 induces transcriptional de-repression of Foxp3 and Fbxw7, and thus transcriptional downregulation of Il4, Il5, and Il13, resulting in inhibition of Th2 cell lineage differentiation. Our study presents a previously unappreciated mechanism of BRD4's role in orchestrating a Th2-specific transcriptional program that coordinates gene repression and activation, and safeguards cell lineage differentiation.

GWAS and genetic and phenotypic correlations of plasma metabolites with complete blood count traits in healthy young pigs reveal implications for pig immune response

Introduction: In this study estimated genetic and phenotypic correlations between fifteen complete blood count (CBC) traits and thirty-three heritable plasma metabolites in young healthy nursery pigs. In addition, it provided an opportunity to identify candidate genes associated with variation in metabolite concentration and their potential association with immune response, disease resilience, and production traits.

Methods: The blood samples were collected from healthy young pigs and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) was used to quantify plasma metabolites. CBC was determined using the ADVIA® 2120i Hematology System. Genetic correlations of metabolite with CBC traits and single step genome-wide association study (ssGWAS) were estimated using the BLUPF90 programs.

Results: Results showed low phenotypic correlation estimates between plasma metabolites and CBC traits. The highest phenotypic correlation was observed between lactic acid and plasma basophil concentration (0.36 ± 0.04; p &lt; 0.05). Several significant genetic correlations were found between metabolites and CBC traits. The plasma concentration of proline was genetically positively correlated with hemoglobin concentration (0.94 ± 0.03; p &lt; 0.05) and L-tyrosine was negatively correlated with mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH; −0.92 ± 0.74; p &lt; 0.05). The genomic regions identified in this study only explained a small percentage of the genetic variance of metabolites levels that were genetically correlated with CBC, resilience, and production traits.

Discussion: The results of this systems approach suggest that several plasma metabolite phenotypes are phenotypically and genetically correlated with CBC traits, suggesting that they may be potential genetic indicators of immune response following disease challenge. Genomic analysis revealed genes and pathways that might interact to modulate CBC, resilience, and production traits.

Role and Potential of Different T Helper Cell Subsets in Adoptive Cell Therapy

Historically, CD8⁺ T cells have been considered the most relevant effector cells involved in the immune response against tumors and have therefore been the focus of most cancer immunotherapy approaches. However, CD4⁺ T cells and their secreted factors also play a crucial role in the tumor microenvironment and can orchestrate both pro- and antitumoral immune responses. Depending on the cytokine milieu to which they are exposed, CD4⁺ T cells can differentiate into several phenotypically different subsets with very divergent effects on tumor progression. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge about the role of the different T helper subsets in the immune system, with special emphasis on their implication in antitumoral immune responses. Furthermore, we also summarize therapeutic applications of each subset and its associated cytokines in the adoptive cell therapy of cancer.

IL-4/13 expressing CD3γ/δ+ T cells regulate mucosal immunity in response to Flavobacterium columnare infection in grass carp

Interleukin (IL) 4 and 13 are signature cytokines orchestrating Th2 immune response. Teleost fish have two homologs, termed IL-4/13A and IL-4/13B, and have been functionally characterized. However, what cells express IL-4/13A and IL-4/13B has not been investigated in fish. In this work, the recombinant IL-4/13A and IL-4/13B proteins of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) were produced in the Escherichia coli (E. coli) cells and purified. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the recombinant CiIL-4/13A and CiIL-4/13B proteins were prepared and characterized. Western blotting analysis showed that the CiIL-4/13A and CiIL-4/13B mAbs could specifically recognize the recombinant proteins expressed in the E. coli cells and HEK293T cells and did not cross-react with each other. Confocal microscopy revealed that the CiIL-4/13A⁺ and CiIL-4/13B⁺ cells were present in the gills, intestine and spleen and could be upregulated in fish infected with Flavobacterium columnare (F. columnare). Interestingly, the cells expressing CiIL-4/13A and CiIL-4/13B were mostly CD3γ/δ⁺ cells. The CD3γ/δ⁺/IL-4/13A⁺ and CD3γ/δ⁺/IL-4/13B⁺ cells were significantly upregulated in the gill filaments and the intestinal mucosa after F. columnare infection. Our results imply that the CD3γ/δ⁺/IL-4/13A⁺ and CD3γ/δ⁺/IL-4/13B⁺ cells are important for homeostasis and the regulation of mucosal immunity.

Preliminary Findings of Elevated Inflammatory Plasma Cytokines in Children with Autism Who Have Co-Morbid Gastrointestinal Symptoms

Autism spectrum disorder (AU) is present in approximately 2% of the population and is often associated with co-morbidities that can impact quality of life. One of the most common co-morbidities in autism is the presence of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms consisting of irregular bowel habits such as constipation, diarrhea, or alternating bowel habit. Evidence of immune infiltration and immune activation has been shown in the ileum and colon of children with AU with GI symptoms. Moreover, immune dysfunction is a contributing factor in many GI diseases, and we hypothesize that it would be more apparent in children with AU that exhibit GI symptoms than those who do not present with GI symptoms. The aim of this preliminary study was to determine whether there are altered cytokine levels in plasma in children with AU with GI symptoms compared with children with AU without GI symptoms, typically developing (TD) children with GI symptoms and TD children without GI symptoms, from the same population-based cohort. Plasma cytokine levels were assessed by multiplex assays. No differences in plasma cytokines were observed in TD controls with or without GI symptoms; however, many innate (IL-1α, TNFα, GM-CSF, IFNα) and adaptive cytokines (IL-4, IL-13, IL-12p70) were increased in AU children with GI symptoms compared with children with AU with no GI symptoms. The mucosal relevant cytokine IL-15 was increased in AU with GI symptoms compared with all groups. In contrast, the regulatory cytokine IL-10, was reduced in AU with GI symptoms and may suggest an imbalance in pro-inflammatory/regulatory signals. These data suggest that children with AU and GI symptoms have an imbalance in their immune response that is evident in their circulating plasma cytokine levels. A finding that could point to potential therapeutic and/or monitoring strategies for GI issues in AU.

No Association Between Interleukin 6 and Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase Polymorphisms and Dengue Infection: A Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

Dengue is a life-threatening disease. The factors that lead to severe cases are not completely understood. The host immune system is involved in the response to infections and plays an important role in dengue infection. IL-6 and iNOS are components of the immune system and genetic polymorphisms in these genes may be involved in dengue virus infection. The study aimed to investigate the association of genetic polymorphisms in the IL6 and iNOS genes and dengue.

METHODS

We performed a case-control study using 60 dengue-infected individuals and 119 healthy controls. Polymorphisms in the IL6 (T15A) and iNOS (-1173CT) genes were amplified by Real-Time PCR. Statistical analyses were performed using BioEstat 5.0.

RESULTS

We identified that the frequency of T/A genotype of IL6 was higher in dengue fever patients and C/T genotype of iNOS was higher in dengue hemorrhagic fever patients, however, no association was found between these polymorphisms and dengue.

CONCLUSION

Polymorphisms in iNOS and IL6 were not associated with dengue infection.

Probiotics in dermatological and cosmetic products – application and efficiency

The term “probiotics” has first been used in 1907 by Elie Metchnikoff. Since then, probiotics have been part of research not only in regards of digestive health, but also inflammatory diseases. Lately, there has been an increased interest of probiotic’s effects in skincare. The management of atopic dermatitis, acne, psoriasis, photo aging, skin cancer, intimate care, oral care, wound healing is getting harder each passing day, due to increased antibiotic resistance and other side effects of conventional therapy. Therefore, new ingredients have been investigated and probiotics have been proved to be effective in treating various skin conditions. This review aims to evaluate the scientific evidence on topical and oral probiotics, and to evaluate the efficacy of cosmetic and dermatological products containing probiotics. Many studies have shown that skin and gut microbiome alterations have an important role in skin health. Although this is a new topic in dermatology and cosmetology, there have been some promising results in lots of research studies that the use of probiotics in cosmetic products may help improve the patient’s outcome. While oral probiotics have been shown to promote gut health, which influences the host immune system and helps treat different skin diseases, the mechanism of action of topical probiotics is not yet fully understood. Although the number of commercial probiotic cosmetic products released in the market is increasing and most of the studies have not shown any serious side effect of probiotics, further studies, in larger and heterogeneous groups are needed.

Type 2 and type 17 effector cells are increased in the duodenal mucosa but not peripheral blood of patients with functional dyspepsia

Background

Functional dyspepsia is characterised by chronic symptoms of post-prandial distress or epigastric pain not associated with defined structural pathology. Increased peripheral gut-homing T cells have been previously identified in patients. To date, it is unknown if these T cells were antigen-experienced, or if a specific phenotype was associated with FD.

Objective

This study aimed to characterise T cell populations in the blood and duodenal mucosa of FD patients that may be implicated in disease pathophysiology.

Methods

We identified duodenal T cell populations from 23 controls and 49 Rome III FD patients by flow cytometry using a surface marker antibody panel. We also analysed T cell populations in peripheral blood from 37 controls and 61 patients. Where available, we examined the number of duodenal eosinophils in patients and controls.

Results

There was a shift in the duodenal T helper cell balance in FD patients compared to controls. For example, patients had increased duodenal mucosal Th2 populations in the effector (13.03 ± 16.11, 19.84 ± 15.51, p=0.038), central memory (23.75 ± 18.97, 37.52 ± 17.51, p=0.007) and effector memory (9.80±10.50 vs 20.53±14.15, p=0.001) populations. Th17 populations were also increased in the effector (31.74±24.73 vs 45.57±23.75, p=0.03) and effector memory (11.95±8.42 vs 18.44±15.63, p=0.027) subsets. Peripheral T cell populations were unchanged between FD and control.

Conclusion

Our findings identify an association between lymphocyte populations and FD, specifically a Th2 and Th17 signature in the duodenal mucosa. The presence of effector and memory cells suggest that the microinflammation in FD is antigen driven.

Advances in Current Drugs and Formulations for the Management of Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory skin disease with a complex pathophysiology. Treatment of AD remains challenging owing to the presence of a wide spectrum of clinical phenotypes and limited response to existing therapies. However, recent genetic, immunological, and pathophysiological insights into the disease mechanism resulted in the invention of novel therapeutic drug candidates. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current therapies and assesses various novel drug delivery strategies currently under clinical investigation. Further, this review majorly emphasizes on various topical treatments including emollient therapies, barrier repair agents, topical corticosteroids (TCS), phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitors, calcineurin inhibitors, and Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway inhibitors. It also discusses biological and systemic therapies, upcoming treatments based on ongoing clinical trials. Additionally, this review scrutinized the use of pharmaceutical inactive ingredients in the approved topical dosage forms for AD treatment.

Effects of adult Ascaris suum and their antigens (total and trans-cuticular excretory-secretory antigen, cuticular somatic antigen) on intestinal nutrient transport in vivo

Ascaris suum constitutes a major problem in commercial pig farming worldwide. Lower weight gains in infected pigs probably result from impaired nutrient absorption. This study investigated intestinal nutrient transport in 4 groups of 6 pigs each, which were inoculated with 30 living adult A. suum, or antigen fractions consisting of (1) total excretory–secretory (ES) antigens of adult worms, (2) ES antigens secreted exclusively from the parasites' body surface (trans-cuticular ES) and (3) cuticular somatic antigens of A. suum, compared to placebo-treated controls. Three days after inoculation into the gastrointestinal tract, glucose, alanine and glycyl-l-glutamine transport was measured in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum using Ussing chambers. Transcription of relevant genes [sodium glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1), glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1), GLUT2, hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (Hif1α), interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-13, signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6), peptide transporter 1 (PepT1)] and expression of transport proteins [SGLT1, phosphorylated SGLT1, GLUT2, Na+/K+-ATPase, amino acid transporter A (ASCT1), PepT1] were studied. Although no significant functional changes were noted after exposure to adult A. suum, a significant downregulation of jejunal GLUT1, STAT6, Hif1α and PepT1 transcription as well as ileal GLUT2 and PepT1 expression indicates a negative impact of infection on transport physiology. Therefore, the exposure period of 3 days may have been insufficient for functional alterations to become apparent. In contrast, A. suum antigens mainly induced an upregulation of transport processes and an increase in transcription of relevant genes in the duodenum and jejunum, possibly as a compensatory reaction after a transient downregulation. In the ileum, a consistent pattern of downregulation was observed in all inoculated groups, in line with the hypothesis of impaired nutrient transport.

An αvβ3 integrin checkpoint is critical for efficient TH2 cell cytokine polarization and potentiation of antigen-specific immunity

Naive CD4+ T lymphocytes initially undergo antigen-specific activation to promote a broad-spectrum response before adopting bespoke cytokine expression profiles shaped by intercellular microenvironmental cues, resulting in pathogen-focused modular cytokine responses. Interleukin (IL)-4-induced Gata3 upregulation is important for the helper type 2 T cell (TH2 cell) polarization associated with anti-helminth immunity and misdirected allergic inflammation. Whether additional microenvironmental factors participate is unclear. Using whole mouse-genome CRISPR-Cas9 screens, we discovered a previously unappreciated role for αvβ3 integrin in TH2 cell differentiation. Low-level αvβ3 expression by naive CD4+ T cells contributed to pan-T cell activation by promoting T-T cell clustering and IL-2/CD25/STAT5 signaling. Subsequently, IL-4/Gata3-induced selective upregulation of αvβ3 licensed intercellular αvβ3-Thy1 interactions among TH2 cells, enhanced mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, supported differentiation and promoted IL-5/IL-13 production. In mice, αvβ3 was required for efficient, allergen-driven, antigen-specific lung TH2 cell responses. Thus, αvβ3-expressing TH2 cells form multicellular factories to propagate and amplify TH2 cell responses.

Breaking down the complex pathophysiology of eosinophilic esophagitis

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic and progressive immune-mediated disease of the esophagus associated with antigen-driven type 2 inflammation and symptoms of esophageal dysfunction. Our understanding of EoE pathophysiology has evolved since its initial recognition more than 20 years ago and has translated into diagnostic and novel therapeutic approaches that are affecting patient care. The mechanisms underlying disease development and progression are influenced by diverse factors, such as genetics, age, allergic comorbidities, and allergen exposures. Central to EoE pathophysiology is a dysregulated feed-forward cycle that develops between the esophageal epithelium and the immune system. Allergen-induced, type 2-biased immune activation by the esophageal epithelium propagates a cycle of impaired mucosal barrier integrity and allergic inflammation, eventually leading to tissue remodeling and progressive organ dysfunction. Herein, we review the current understanding of fundamental pathophysiological mechanisms contributing to EoE pathogenesis.

Gata3 ZsG and Gata3 ZsG-fl: Novel murine Gata3 reporter alleles for identifying and studying Th2 cells and ILC2s in vivo

T helper-2 (Th2) cells and type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) play crucial roles during type 2 immune responses; the transcription factor GATA3 is essential for the differentiation and functions of these cell types. It has been demonstrated that GATA3 is critical for maintaining Th2 and ILC2 phenotype in vitro; GATA3 not only positively regulates type 2 lymphocyte-associated genes, it also negatively regulates many genes associated with other lineages. However, such functions cannot be easily verified in vivo because the expression of the markers for identifying Th2 and ILC2s depends on GATA3. Thus, whether Th2 cells and ILC2s disappear after Gata3 deletion or these Gata3-deleted "Th2 cells" or "ILC2s" acquire an alternative lineage fate is unknown. In this study, we generated novel GATA3 reporter mouse strains carrying the Gata3 ZsG or Gata3 ZsG-fl allele. This was achieved by inserting a ZsGreen-T2A cassette at the translation initiation site of either the wild type Gata3 allele or the modified Gata3 allele which carries two loxP sites flanking the exon 4. ZsGreen faithfully reflected the endogenous GATA3 protein expression in Th2 cells and ILC2s both in vitro and in vivo. These reporter mice also allowed us to visualize Th2 cells and ILC2s in vivo. An inducible Gata3 deletion system was created by crossing Gata3 ZsG-fl/fl mice with a tamoxifen-inducible Cre. Continuous expression of ZsGreen even after the Gata3 exon 4 deletion was noted, which allows us to isolate and monitor GATA3-deficient "Th2" cells and "ILC2s" during in vivo immune responses. Our results not only indicated that functional GATA3 is dispensable for regulating its own expression in mature type 2 lymphocytes, but also revealed that GATA3-deficient "ILC2s" might be much more stable in vivo than in vitro. Overall, the generation of these novel GATA3 reporters will provide valuable research tools to the scientific community in investigating type 2 immune responses in vivo.

Potential Allergenicity Response to Moringa oleifera Leaf Proteins in BALB/c Mice

The reported association of Moringa oleifera seeds and allergic disease clinically resembling occupational asthma in cosmetic manufacturing workers has resultedin the need to identify such components in the manufacturing process. However, Moringa oleifera leaves from the same plant, an important food ingredient, have limited immunotoxicity data. This study aimed to determine if Moringa oleifera leafproteins (MLP) can elicit allergic responses in BALB/c mice. The BALB/c mice were sensitized twice and challenged 10 times to evaluate the potential allergenicityof MLP in vivo. The results showed increased levels of mast cells, total and specific IgE and IgG, severe signs of systemic anaphylaxis, and reduced body temperature compared with controls. The sensitized mice serum observed enhanced levels of histamine and Th-related cytokine release. Compared with the control group, increased levels of interleukins IL-4, IL-9, and IL-17A and enhanced expression and secretion of normal T cells were found in the culture supernatant of splenocytes treated with MLP.This study suggeststhat MLPcanelicit allergic responses; this providesmore comprehensive guidance for identifying new allergen candidates and developing hypoallergenic MLP products.

Deciphering the role of DOCK8 in tumorigenesis by regulating immunity and the application of nanotechnology in DOCK8 deficiency therapy

The dedicator of cytokinesis 8 (DOCK8) immunodeficiency syndrome is a severe immune disorder and characterized by serum IgE levels elevation, fungal and viral infections, dermatitis and food allergies. It was well known that DOCK8 is crucial for the survival and function of multiple immune related cells. However, the critical role of DOCK8 on tumorigenesis through regulating immunity is poorly investigated. Accumulating evidences indicated that DOCK8 could affect tumorigenesis by regulating the immunity through immune cells, including NK cells, T cells, B cells and dendritic cells. Here, we summarized and discussed the critical role of DOCK8 in cytoskeleton reconstruction, CD4+ T cell differentiation, immune synaptic formation, tumor immune infiltration, tumor immune surveillance and tumorigenesis. Furthermore, the potential roles of nanotechnology in improving the hematopoietic stem cell transplantation-based therapy for DOCK8 deficiency diseases are also highlighted and discussed.

The Role of Noncoding RNA in Airway Allergic Diseases through Regulation of T Cell Subsets

Allergic rhinitis and asthma are common airway allergic diseases, the incidence of which has increased annually in recent years. The human body is frequently exposed to allergens and environmental irritants that trigger immune and inflammatory responses, resulting in altered gene expression. Mounting evidence suggested that epigenetic alterations were strongly associated with the progression and severity of allergic diseases. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are a class of transcribed RNA molecules that cannot be translated into polypeptides and consist of three major categories, microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). Previous studies showed that ncRNAs were involved in the physiopathological mechanisms of airway allergic diseases and contributed to their occurrence and development. This article reviews the current state of understanding of the role of noncoding RNAs in airway allergic diseases, highlights the limitations of recent studies, and outlines the prospects for further research to facilitate the clinical translation of noncoding RNAs as therapeutic targets and biomarkers.

Trifuhalol A Suppresses Allergic Inflammation through Dual Inhibition of TAK1 and MK2 Mediated by IgE and IL-33

The activation and degranulation of immune cells play a pivotal role in allergic inflammation, a pathological condition that includes anaphylaxis, pruritus, and allergic march-related diseases. In this study, trifuhalol A, a phlorotannin isolated from Agarum cribrosum, inhibited the degranulation of immune cells and the biosynthesis of IL-33 and IgE in differentiated B cells and keratinocytes, respectively. Additionally, trifuhalol A suppressed the IL-33 and IgE-mediated activation of RBL-2H3 cells through the regulation of the TAK1 and MK2 pathways. Hence, the effect of trifuhalol A on allergic inflammation was evaluated using a Compound 48/80-induced systemic anaphylaxis mouse model and a house dust mite (HDM)-induced atopic dermatitis (AD) mouse model. Trifuhalol A alleviated anaphylactic death and pruritus, which appeared as an early-phase reaction to allergic inflammation in the Compound 48/80-induced systemic anaphylaxis model. In addition, trifuhalol A improved symptoms such as itching, edema, erythema, and hyperkeratinization in HDM-induced AD mice as a late-phase reaction. Moreover, the expression of IL-33 and thymic stromal lymphopoietin, inflammatory cytokines secreted from activated keratinocytes, was significantly reduced by trifuhalol A administration, resulting in the reduced infiltration of immune cells into the skin and a reduction in the blood levels of IgE and IL-4. In summarizing the above results, these results confirm that trifuhalol A is a potential therapeutic candidate for the regulation of allergic inflammation.

Effects of carbon black nanoparticles and high humidity on the lung metabolome in Balb/c mice with established allergic asthma

In respiratory diseases, the induction of allergic asthma has gradually aroused public concerns. Co-exposures of environmental risk factors such as nanoparticles and high humidity could play important roles in the development of allergic asthma. However, the relevant researches are still lacking and the involved mechanisms, especially metabolic changes, remain unclear. We took the lead in studying the combined induction effect and underlying mechanisms of carbon black nanoparticles (CB NPs) and high humidity on allergic asthma. In this work, murine models of allergic asthma were established with ovalbumin under the single and combined exposures of 15 μg/kg CB NPs and 90% relative humidity. The two risk factors, particularly their co-exposure, exhibited adjuvant effect on airway hyperresponsiveness, remodeling, and inflammation in Balb/c mice. Untargeted metabolomics identified the potential biomarkers in lung for asthma occurrence and for asthma exacerbation caused by CB NPs and high humidity. The significantly dysregulated metabolic pathways in asthmatic mice were proposed, and the disturbed metabolic pathways under the exposures of CB NPs and/or high humidity were mainly implicated in asthma symptoms. This work sheds light on the understanding for health risks of NP pollutions and high environmental humidity and contributes to useful biomarker identification and asthma control.

The clinical significance of dupilumab-induced blood eosinophil elevation in Japanese patients with atopic dermatitis

This study aims to clarify the clinical significance of dupilumab-induced elevation of blood eosinophil in Japanese patients with atopic dermatitis (AD). Eosinophil elevation was defined as ≥ 5% increase of eosinophil percentage within one year after dupilumab initiation. Seven patients (15.7%) were shown to have eosinophil elevation, six of whom developed dupilumab-associated conjunctivitis (DAC) and were accompanied with DAC more frequently than those without eosinophil elevation, with statistically significant difference. Eosinophil percentage resolved spontaneously in all seven patients, including the one without DAC, despite the continuation of dupilumab treatment. None of the patients with eosinophil elevation had cardiac or pulmonary complications attributable to the hypereosinophilia. The patients with eosinophil elevation were all male. Furthermore, none of four patients in whom efficacy of dupilumab was < 25% showed eosinophil elevation. Childhood onset tended to be more common in patients with the elevation of eosinophil. This study suggests that most eosinophil elevation is associated with DAC, and that the eosinophil ratio is a biomarker for DAC.

IL-9 and IL-9 receptor expression in lymphocytes from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with interstitial lung disease

INTRODUCTION

IL-9, mainly produced by T helper 9 (Th9) cells, promotes allergic airway inflammation and remodeling through the interaction with its receptor (IL-9R). Th9 cells and IL-9 have also been implicated in tissue fibrosis and autoimmunity pathways. However, the role of IL-9/IL-9R in the pathogenesis of interstitial lung disease (ILD) is unknown.

AIM

To evaluate IL-9/IL-9R expression in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) lymphocytes of patients with various ILDs.

METHODS

Consecutive patients with ILD, who underwent BAL for diagnostic purposes, were studied. As control group, consecutive patients without evidence of ILD were included. Immunocytochemical staining of BALF lymphocytes for IL-9 and IL-9R was performed and evaluated by two independent readers.

RESULTS

45 patients, of them 8 had idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), 12 nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP), 10 sarcoidosis, 9 hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP), 6 cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP), and 24 controls were studied. In the ILD group, the highest BALF lymphocyte count was seen in HP followed by NSIP, COP, sarcoidosis, and IPF (p < 0.05 for HP vs IPF). The highest percentages of IL-9 and IL-9R positive lymphocytes were seen in COP. Conversely, NSIP showed the lowest rate of IL-9, and sarcoidosis the lowest rate of IL-9R positive lymphocytes. Only in NSIP, a direct correlation between IL and 9 and IL-9R positive lymphocytes was seen (r = 0.639, p = 0.025).

CONCLUSION

BALF lymphocytes IL-9 and IL-9R expression differs between various ILDs and could reflect different pathogenetic mechanisms.

Conventional and pathogenic Th2 cells in inflammation, tissue repair, and fibrosis

Type 2 helper T (Th2) cells, a subset of CD4⁺ T cells, play an important role in the host defense against pathogens and allergens by producing Th2 cytokines, such as interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and IL-13, to trigger inflammatory responses. Emerging evidence reveals that Th2 cells also contribute to the repair of injured tissues after inflammatory reactions. However, when the tissue repair process becomes chronic, excessive, or uncontrolled, pathological fibrosis is induced, leading to organ failure and death. Thus, proper control of Th2 cells is needed for complete tissue repair without the induction of fibrosis. Recently, the existence of pathogenic Th2 (Tpath2) cells has been revealed. Tpath2 cells produce large amounts of Th2 cytokines and induce type 2 inflammation when activated by antigen exposure or tissue injury. In recent studies, Tpath2 cells are suggested to play a central role in the induction of type 2 inflammation whereas the role of Tpath2 cells in tissue repair and fibrosis has been less reported in comparison to conventional Th2 cells. In this review, we discuss the roles of conventional Th2 cells and pathogenic Th2 cells in the sequence of tissue inflammation, repair, and fibrosis.

Oil-in-ionic liquid nanoemulsion-based adjuvant simultaneously enhances the stability and immune responses of inactivated foot-and-mouth disease virus

Maintaining structural integrity and enhancing stability of inactivated foot-and-mouth disease virus (iFMDV) antigen in adjuvants is crucial to ensure the vaccine potency. Unfortunately, formulation with most reported adjuvants leads to the accelerated dissociation of iFMDV into inactive pentamers. Here, an ionic liquid, i.e., choline and niacin ([Cho][Nic]), which was found to stabilize iFMDV against the acid- and thermo- induced dissociation in buffer solution, was applied to construct a novel oil-in-ionic liquid (o/IL) nanoemulsion adjuvant composed of [Cho][Nic], squalene, and Tween 80. The o/IL nanoemulsion formulated with iFMDV has a monodisperse diameter of 135.8 ± 40.4 nm. The thermostability and long-term stability of iFMDV were remarkably enhanced in o/IL nanoemulsion compared with that in the o/w emulsion without [Cho][Nic] and in the commercial Montanide ISA 206 adjuvant. The o/IL nanoemulsion exerted its adjuvant effects by improving the humoral immune responses. Immunization of o/IL nanoemulsion adjuvanted iFMDV induced specific IgG titers similar to that adjuvanted by Montanide ISA 206 and about 4-fold higher than the un-adjuvanted iFMDV, also promoted the activation of B lymphocytes and the secretion of interleukin-4 in the mice model. This [Cho][Nic]-based o/IL nanoemulsion can serve as a promising adjuvant platform for the foot-and-mouth disease vaccine.

Development of allergic asthma and changes of intestinal microbiota in mice under high humidity and/or carbon black nanoparticles

In respiratory diseases, the induction of allergic asthma is one of the hottest issues of international concern. The adjuvant effect of air pollutants including nanoparticles (NPs) has be pointed out to facilitate the occurrence and development of allergic asthma. This work studied the development of allergic asthma upon exposures of carbon black nanoparticles (CB NPs, 30-50 nm) and/or high environmental humidity (90% relative humidity). The mechanisms involved were investigated from perspectives of the activation of oxidative stress and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) pathways and the alteration in intestinal microbiota. Both high humidity and CB NPs aggravated the airway hyperreactivity, remodeling, and inflammation in Balb/c mice sensitized by ovalbumin. The co-exposure of these two risk factors exhibited adjuvant effect on the development of asthma likely through activating oxidative stress pathway and TRPV1 pathway and then facilitating type I hypersensitivity. Additionally, exposures of high humidity and/or CB NPs reduced the richness of intestinal microbes, altered microbial community composition, and weakened corresponding biological functions, which may interact with the development of asthma. The findings will add new toxicological knowledge to the health risk assessment and management of co-exposures of NPs and other risk factors in the environment.

Dynamics of Host Immune Response Development During Schistosoma mansoni Infection

Schistosomiasis is a disease of global significance, with severity and pathology directly related to how the host responds to infection. The immunological narrative of schistosomiasis has been constructed through decades of study, with researchers often focussing on isolated time points, cell types and tissue sites of interest. However, the field currently lacks a comprehensive and up-to-date understanding of the immune trajectory of schistosomiasis over infection and across multiple tissue sites. We have defined schistosome-elicited immune responses at several distinct stages of the parasite lifecycle, in three tissue sites affected by infection: the liver, spleen, and mesenteric lymph nodes. Additionally, by performing RNA-seq on the livers of schistosome infected mice, we have generated novel transcriptomic insight into the development of schistosome-associated liver pathology and fibrosis across the breadth of infection. Through depletion of CD11c+ cells during peak stages of schistosome-driven inflammation, we have revealed a critical role for CD11c+ cells in the co-ordination and regulation of Th2 inflammation during infection. Our data provide an updated and high-resolution account of how host immune responses evolve over the course of murine schistosomiasis, underscoring the significance of CD11c+ cells in dictating host immunopathology against this important helminth infection.

The kinase p38α functions in dendritic cells to regulate Th2-cell differentiation and allergic inflammation

Dendritic cells (DCs) play a critical role in controlling T helper 2 (Th2) cell-dependent diseases, but the signaling mechanism that triggers this function is not fully understood. We showed that p38α activity in DCs was decreased upon HDM stimulation and dynamically regulated by both extrinsic signals and Th2-instructive cytokines. p38α-specific deletion in cDC1s but not in cDC2s or macrophages promoted Th2 responses under HDM stimulation. Further study showed that p38α in cDC1s regulated Th2-cell differentiation by modulating the MK2−c-FOS−IL-12 axis. Importantly, crosstalk between p38α-dependent DCs and Th2 cells occurred during the sensitization phase, not the effector phase, and was conserved between mice and humans. Our results identify p38α signaling as a central pathway in DCs that integrates allergic and parasitic instructive signals with Th2-instructive cytokines from the microenvironment to regulate Th2-cell differentiation and function, and this finding may offer a novel strategy for the treatment of allergic diseases and parasitic infection.

Schnurri 3 promotes Th2 cytokine production during the late phase of T-cell antigen stimulation

Th1 and Th2 polarization is determined by the coordination of numerous factors including the affinity and strength of the antigen-receptor interaction, predominant cytokine environment, and costimulatory molecules present. Here, we show that Schnurri (SHN) proteins have distinct roles in Th1 and Th2 polarization. SHN2 was previously found to block the induction of GATA3 and Th2 differentiation. We found that, in contrast to SHN2, SHN3 is critical for IL-4 production and Th2 polarization. Strength of stimulation controls SHN2 and SHN3 expression patterns, where higher doses of antigen receptor stimulation promoted SHN3 expression and IL-4 production, along with repression of SHN2 expression. SHN3-deficient T cells showed a substantial defect in IL-4 production and expression of AP-1 components, particularly c-Jun and Jun B. This loss of early IL-4 production led to reduced GATA3 expression and impaired Th2 differentiation. Together, these findings uncover SHN3 as a novel, critical regulator of Th2 development.

Pneumococcal Δpep27 Immunization Attenuates TLRs and NLRP3 Expression and Relieves Murine Ovalbumin-Induced Allergic Rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis (AR), one of the most common inflammatory diseases, is caused by immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated reactions against inhaled allergens. AR involves mucosal inflammation driven by type 2 helper T (Th2) cells. Previously, it was shown that the Streptococcus pneumoniae pep27 mutant (Δpep27) could prevent and treat allergic asthma by reducing Th2 responses. However, the underlying mechanism of Δpep27 immunization in AR remains undetermined. Here, we investigated the role of Δpep27 immunization in the development and progression of AR and elucidated potential mechanisms. In an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced AR mice model, Δpep27 alleviated allergic symptoms (frequency of sneezing and rubbing) and reduced TLR2 and TLR4 expression, Th2 cytokines, and eosinophil infiltration in the nasal mucosa. Mechanistically, Δpep27 reduced the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the nasal mucosa by down-regulating the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway. In conclusion, Δpep27 seems to alleviate TLR signaling and NLRP3 inflammasome activation to subsequently prevent AR.

Mesenchymal stem cells exert their anti-asthmatic effects through macrophage modulation in a murine chronic asthma model

Despite numerous previous studies, the full action mechanism of the pathogenesis of asthma remains undiscovered, and the need for further investigation is increasing in order to identify more effective target molecules. Recent attempts to develop more efficacious treatments for asthma have incorporated mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-based cell therapies. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-asthmatic effects of MSCs primed with Liproxstatin-1, a potent ferroptosis inhibitor. In addition, we sought to examine the changes within macrophage populations and their characteristics in asthmatic conditions. Seven-week-old transgenic mice, constitutively overexpressing lung-specific interleukin (IL)-13, were used to simulate chronic asthma. Human umbilical cord-derived MSCs (hUC-MSCs) primed with Liproxstatin-1 were intratracheally administered four days prior to sampling. IL-13 transgenic mice demonstrated phenotypes of chronic asthma, including severe inflammation, goblet cell hyperplasia, and subepithelial fibrosis. Ly6C⁺M2 macrophages, found within the pro-inflammatory CD11c⁺CD11b⁺ macrophages, were upregulated and showed a strong correlation with lung eosinophil counts. Liproxstatin-1-primed hUC-MSCs showed enhanced ability to downregulate the activation of T helper type 2 cells compared to naïve MSCs in vitro and reduced airway inflammation, particularly Ly6C⁺M2 macrophages population, and fibrosis in vivo. In conclusion, intratracheal administration is an effective method of MSC delivery, and macrophages hold great potential as an additional therapeutic target for asthma.

Anisodamine hydrobromide ameliorates cardiac damage after resuscitation

The microcirculation is correlated with the prognosis of patients with cardiac arrest and changes after resuscitation. In the present study, the effects of anisodamine hydrobromide (AH) on microcirculation was investigated and its potential mechanisms were explored. A total of 24 pigs were randomly grouped into three groups (n=8): Sham, Saline and AH group. After pigs were anesthetized, intubated and mechanically ventilated, ventricular fibrillation was induced by electrical stimulation. After 8 min, cardiopulmonary resuscitation was given to the restoration of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). Arteriovenous blood was collected at baseline and 0, 1, 2, 4 and 6 h after ROSC to measure blood gas and cytokines. Perfused vessel density (PVD) and microvascular flow index (MFI) were measured to reflect the microcirculation. Continuous cardiac output and global ejection fraction were measured to indicate hemodynamics. Compared with Sham group, PVD and MFI in the intestines and the sublingual regions decreased significantly after resuscitation. The microcirculation recovered faster in the AH group than the SA group. The decrease of intestinal microcirculatory blood flow was closely related to the decrease of sublingual microcirculatory blood flow. The cardiac function was impaired after resuscitation, and a decrease of IFN-γ as well as IL-2 and an increase of IL-4 as well as IL-10 suggested the immune imbalance. The microcirculation changes in sublingual regions were closely related to the changes in intestines. AH could improve the immune imbalance after resuscitation and was beneficial to the recovery of cardiac function.