In vitro and in vivo characterization of pharmaceutical nanocarriers used for drug delivery

Research Advances of Engineered Exosomes as Drug Delivery Carrier

Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles secreted by living cells that have similar membrane composition to parental cells and carry a variety of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Therefore, exosomes have certain biological activities and play an important role in intercellular communication. On the basis of its potential as a carrier for drug delivery systems, exosomes have been engineered to compensate for the shortage of natural exosomes through various engineering strategies for improving drug delivery efficiency, enhancing targeting to tissues and organs, and extending the circulating half-life of exosomes. This review focuses on the engineered exosomes loading drugs through different strategies, discussions on exosome surface modification strategies, and summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of different strategies. In addition, this review provides an overview of the recent applications of engineered exosomes in a number of refractory and relapsable diseases. This review has the potential to provide a reference for further research and development of engineered exosomes.

The gut microbiome meets nanomaterials: exposure and interplay with graphene nanoparticles

Graphene-based nanoparticles are widely applied in many technology and science sectors, raising concerns about potential health risks. Emerging evidence suggests that graphene-based nanomaterials may interact with microorganisms, both pathogens and commensal bacteria, that dwell in the gut. This review aims to demonstrate the current state of knowledge on the interplay between graphene nanomaterials and the gut microbiome. In this study, we briefly overview nanomaterials, their usage and the characteristics of graphene-based nanoparticles. We present and discuss experimental data from in vitro studies, screening tests on small animals and rodent experiments related to exposure and the effects of graphene nanoparticles on gut microbiota. With this in mind, we highlight the reported crosstalk between graphene nanostructures, the gut microbial community and the host immune system in order to shed light on the perspective to bear on the biological interactions. The studies show that graphene-based material exposure is dosage and time-dependent, and different derivatives present various effects on host bacteria cells. Moreover, the route of graphene exposure might influence a shift in the gut microbiota composition, including the alteration of functions and diversity and abundance of specific phyla or genera. However, the mechanism of graphene-based nanomaterials' influence on gut microbiota is poorly understood. Accordingly, this review emphasises the importance of studies needed to establish the most desirable synthesis methods, types of derivatives, properties, and safety aspects mainly related to the routes of exposure and dosages of graphene-based nanomaterials.

Oral Administration of Platinum Nanoparticles with SOD/CAT Cascade Catalytic Activity to Alleviate Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a refractory chronic inflammatory disease involving the colon and rectum, falling under the category of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in local tissues has been identified as a crucial contributor to the escalation of inflammatory responses. Therefore, eliminating ROS in the inflamed colon is a promising approach to treating UC. Nanomaterials with intrinsic enzyme-like activities (nanozymes) have shown significant therapeutic potential in UC. In this study, we found that platinum nanoparticles (Pt NPs) exhibited remarkable superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) cascade catalytic activities, as well as effective hydroxyl radical (•OH) scavenging ability. The in vitro experiments showed that Pt NPs could eliminate excessive ROS to protect cells against oxidative stress. In the colitis model, oral administration of Pt NPs (loaded in chitosan/alginate hydrogel) could significantly alleviate UC, including reducing the colon length, the damaged epithelium, and the infiltration of inflammatory cells. Without appreciable systemic toxicity, Pt NPs represent a novel therapeutic approach to UC and are expected to achieve long-term inflammatory remission.

Astaxanthin-loaded polylactic acid-glycolic acid nanoparticles ameliorate ulcerative colitis through antioxidant effects

Introduction

Astaxanthin (AST) is a type of carotenoid with strong antioxidant effects. However, the development and use of AST are limited by its water insolubility and low bioavailability. This study aims to investigate whether AST@PLGA can inhibit UC and reveal its possible mechanism.

Methods

We tested the particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of AST@PLGA. Then, the in vitro release and antioxidant capacity of AST@PLGA were tested. Finally, the mouse model of colitis was established and SOD, MDA, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and P38 as well as ERK were detected from mice.

Results

Particle size, polydispersity index and zeta potential of AST @PLGA were 66.78 ± 0.64 nm, 0.247 and -9.8 ± 0.53 mV, respectively, and were stable within 14 days. Then, it was observed that the AST@PLGA nanoparticles not only maintained the effect of AST but also had a sustained release effect. Experiments in mice showed that AST@PLGA effectively reduced MDA, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels and increased SOD levels. AST@PLGA also downregulated the protein expression of P38 and ERK. The results showed the positive protective effect of AST@PLGA in inhibiting acute colitis.

Discussion

AST@PLGA nanoparticles have good stability and alleviating effect in colitis, which could be functional foods in the future.

Quality-by-Design Approach for Investigating the Efficacy of Tacrolimus and Hyaluronic Acid-Loaded Ethosomal Gel in Dermal Management of Psoriasis: In Vitro, Ex Vivo, and In Vivo Evaluation

Psoriasis is an auto-immune condition with high keratinocyte hyperproliferation due to lower p53 and p22 levels. Tacrolimus, an immune suppressor, is considered one of the most effective drugs in suppressing psoriasis. Systematic administration of tacrolimus often leads to challenging side effects, namely increased infection risk, renal toxicity, neurological symptoms such as tremors and headaches, gastrointestinal disturbances, hypertension, skin-related problems, etc. To address this, a nanocarrier-based formulation of tacrolimus along with inclusion of hyaluronic acid was developed. The optimization and formulation of ethosomes via the ethanol injection technique were done based on the Box-Behnken experimental design. The results revealed hyaluronic acid-based tacrolimus ethosomes (HA-TAC-ETH) had nanometric vesicle size (315.7 ± 2.2 nm), polydispersity index (PDI) (0.472 ± 0.07), and high entrapment efficiency (88.3 ± 2.52%). The findings of drug release and skin permeation showed sustained drug release with increased dermal flux and enhancement ratio. The effectiveness of HA-TAC-ETH was confirmed in an imiquimod (5%)-prompted psoriasis model. The skin irritation score and Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) score indicated that HA-TAC-ETH gel has validated a decline in the entire factors (erythema, edema, and thickness) in the imiquimod-induced psoriasis model in contrast with TAC-ETH gel and TAC ointment. The fabricated HA-TAC-ETH opt gel proved to be safe and effective in in vivo studies and could be employed to treat psoriasis further.

Recent Strategies for Cancer Therapy: Polymer Nanoparticles Carrying Medicinally Important Phytochemicals and Their Cellular Targets

Cancer is a leading cause of death in the world today. In addition to the side effects of the chemotherapeutic drugs used to treat cancer, the development of resistance to the drugs renders the existing drugs ineffective. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop novel anticancer agents. Medicinally important phytochemicals such as curcumin, naringenin, quercetin, epigallocatechin gallate, thymoquinone, kaempferol, resveratrol, genistein, and apigenin have some drawbacks, including low solubility in water, stability and bioavailability issues, despite having significant anticancer effects. Encapsulation of these natural compounds into polymer nanoparticles (NPs) is a novel technology that could overcome these constraints. In comparison to the free compounds, phytochemicals loaded into nanoparticles have greater activity and bioavailability against many cancer types. In this review, we describe the preparation and characterization of natural phytochemical-loaded polymer NP formulations with significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, their in vitro and in vivo anticancer activities, as well as their possible cellular targets.

A dual drug-loaded peptide system with morphological transformation prolongs drug retention and inhibits breast cancer growth

The treatment of breast cancer relies heavily on chemotherapy, but chemotherapy is limited by the disadvantages of poor targeting, susceptibility to extracellular matrix (ECM) interference and a short duration of action in tumor cells. To address these limitations, we developed an amphipathic peptide containing an RGD motif, Pep1, that encapsulated paclitaxel (PTX) and losartan potassium (LP) to form the drug-loaded peptide PL/Pep1. PL/Pep1 self-assembled into spherical nanoparticles (NPs) under normal physiological conditions and transformed into aggregates containing short nanofibers at acidic pH. The RGD peptide facilitated tumor targeting and the aggregates prolonged drug retention in the tumor, which allowed more drug to reach and accumulate in the tumor tissue to promote apoptosis and remodel the tumor microenvironment. The results of in vitro and in vivo experiments confirmed the superiority of PL/Pep1 in terms of targeting, prolonged retention and facilitated penetration for antitumor therapy. In conclusion, amphipathic peptides as coloaded drug carriers are a new platform and strategy for breast cancer chemotherapy.

Progressing nanotechnology to improve targeted cancer treatment: overcoming hurdles in its clinical implementation

The use of nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the detection and treatment of cancer. Developments in protein engineering and materials science have led to the emergence of new nanoscale targeting techniques, which offer renewed hope for cancer patients. While several nanocarriers for medicinal purposes have been approved for human trials, only a few have been authorized for clinical use in targeting cancer cells. In this review, we analyze some of the authorized formulations and discuss the challenges of translating findings from the lab to the clinic. This study highlights the various nanocarriers and compounds that can be used for selective tumor targeting and the inherent difficulties in cancer therapy. Nanotechnology provides a promising platform for improving cancer detection and treatment in the future, but further research is needed to overcome the current limitations in clinical translation.

Lyophilization of Nanoparticles, Does It Really Work? Overview of the Current Status and Challenges

Nanoparticles are being increasingly used as drug delivery systems to enhance the delivery to and uptake by target cells and to reduce off-target toxicity of free drugs. However, although the advantages of nanoparticles as drug carriers are clear, there are still some limitations, especially in maintaining their long-term stability. Lyophilization, also known as freeze-drying, has been heavily investigated as a solution to this problem. This strategy has been shown to be effective in increasing both the long-term stability of nanoparticles and the shelf life of the drug product. However, the process is still in need of improvement in several aspects, such as the process parameters, formulation factors, and characterization techniques. This review summarizes the advantages and limitations of nanoparticles for the treatment of disease, advantages and limitations, and the status of the lyophilization of nanoparticles for therapeutic use and provides insight into both the advantages and the limitations.

Multifunctional Near-Infrared Dye IR-817 Encapsulated in Albumin Nanoparticles for Enhanced Imaging and Photothermal Therapy in Melanoma

Background

Near-infrared cyanine dyes have high sensitivity and spatial resolution imaging capabilities, but they also have unavoidable drawbacks such as photobleaching, low water solubility, fluorescence quenching, and toxic side effects. As an effective biologic drug carrier, albumin combines with cyanine dyes to form albumin@dye nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can alleviate the aforementioned issues and are widely used in tumor imaging and photothermal therapy.

Methods

Herein, a newly synthesized near-infrared dye IR-817 was combined with bovine serum albumin (BSA) to create BSA@IR-817 nanoparticles. Through the detection of fluorescence emission and absorption, the optimal concentration and ratio of BSA and IR-817 were determined. Subsequently, dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used for the physical characterization of the BSA@IR-817 nanoparticles. Finally, in vitro and in vivo experiments were conducted to assess the fluorescence imaging and photothermal therapeutic potential of BSA@IR-817 nanoparticles.

Results

IR-817 was adsorbed onto the BSA carrier by covalent conjugation and supramolecular encapsulation, resulting in the formation of dispersed, homogeneous, and stable nanoparticles with a particle size range of 120-220 nm. BSA@IR-817 not only improved the poor water solubility, fluorescence quenching, and toxic side effects of IR-817 but also enhanced the absorption and fluorescence emission peaks in the near-infrared region, as well as the fluorescence in the visible spectrum. In addition, BSA@IR-817 combined with laser 808 irradiation was able to convert light energy into heat energy with temperatures exceeding 50 °C. By creating a mouse model of subcutaneous melanoma, it was discovered that the tumor inhibition rate of BSA@IR-817 was greater than 99% after laser irradiation and that it achieved nearly complete tumor ablation without causing significant toxicity.

Conclusion

Our research, therefore, proposes the use of safe and effective photothermal nanoparticles for the imaging, diagnosis, and treatment of melanoma, and offers a promising strategy for future biomedical applications.

Synthesis and characterization of biological macromolecules double emulsion based on carboxymethylcellulose/gelatin hydrogel incorporated with ZIF-8 as metal organic frameworks for sustained anti-cancer drug release

The field of nanotechnology has introduced novel prospects for drug delivery systems, which have the potential to supplant conventional chemotherapy with reduced adverse effects. Despite being a promising porous material, ZIF-8, a metal-organic framework, tends to agglomerate in water, which limits its applicability. In order to resolve this problem, we added ZIF-8 to hydrogels consisting of gelatin and carboxymethylcellulose. This improved their mechanical strength and stability while avoiding aggregation. We utilized double emulsions with the hydrogels' biological macromolecules to construct drug carriers with enhanced control over drug release. The nanocarriers were subjected to various analytical techniques for characterization, such as Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), zeta potential, and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The findings of our study revealed that the mean size of the produced nanocarriers were 250 nm, and their zeta potential was -40.1 mV, which suggests favorable stability. The synthesized nanocarriers were found to exhibit cytotoxicity towards cancer cells, as evidenced by the results of MTT assays and flow cytometry tests. The cell viability percentage was determined to be 55 % for the prepared nanomedicine versus 70 % for the free drug. In summary, our study illustrates that the integration of ZIF-8 into hydrogels produces drug delivery systems with improved characteristics. Furthermore, the prepared nanocarriers exhibit potential for future investigation and advancement.

Size-Dependent Polymeric Nanoparticle Distribution in a Static versus Dynamic Microfluidic Blood Vessel Model: Implications for Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely investigated in the nanomedicine field. One of the main challenges is to accurately predict the NP distribution and fate after administration. Microfluidic platforms acquired huge importance as tools to model the in vivo environment. In this study, we leveraged a microfluidic platform to produce FITC-labeled poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-block-poly(ethylene glycol) (PLGA-PEG) NPs with defined sizes of 30, 50, and 70 nm. The study aimed to compare the ability of NPs with differences of 20 nm in size to cross an endothelial barrier using static (Transwell inserts) and dynamic (microfluidic perfusion device) in vitro models. Our results evidence a size-dependent NP crossing in both models (30 > 50 > 70 nm) and highlight the bias deriving from the static model, which does not involve shear stresses. The permeation of each NP size was significantly higher in the static system than in the dynamic model at the earliest stages. However, it gradually decreased to levels comparable with those of the dynamic model. Overall, this work highlights clear differences in NP distribution over time in static versus dynamic conditions and distinct size-dependent patterns. These findings reinforce the need for accurate in vitro screening models that allow for more accurate predictions of in vivo performance.

Carboplatin-loaded ultradeformable vesicles for the management of endometrial cancer: in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Aim: Present research work aimed to explore intravaginal route for the drug delivery for treatment of endometrial cancer (EC). Material & methods: Carboplatin (CBP)-loaded ultradeformable vesicle (CBP-UDV) was prepared and characterized for in vitro quality attributes and evaluated for its efficacy in rabbits using ultrasound imaging after intravaginal administration. Results & conclusion: The results showed that the formulation capable of carrying and localizing drug in uterus for prolonged period assisted by first uterine pass effect. Ultrasound imaging of the EC-induced rabbit model before and after treatment with CBP-UDV showed considerable regression in the EC tumor mass. The findings serve as the basis of successful utilization of the intravaginal route for management of EC by designing the formulation which can improve patient compliance.

Nanocarrier Drug Conjugates Exhibit Potent Anti-Naegleria fowleri and Anti-Balamuthia mandrillaris Properties

Given the opportunity and access, pathogenic protists (Balamuthia mandrillaris and Naegleria fowleri) can produce fatal infections involving the central nervous system. In the absence of effective treatments, there is a need to either develop new antimicrobials or enhance the efficacy of existing compounds. Nanocarriers as drug delivery systems are gaining increasing attention in the treatment of parasitic infections. In this study, novel nanocarriers conjugated with amphotericin B and curcumin were evaluated for anti-amoebic efficacy against B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri. The results showed that nanocarrier conjugated amphotericin B exhibited enhanced cidal properties against both amoebae tested compared with the drug alone. Similarly, nanocarrier conjugated curcumin exhibited up to 75% cidal effects versus approx. 50% cidal effects for curcumin alone. Cytopathogenicity assays revealed that the pre-treatment of both parasites with nanoformulated-drugs reduced parasite-mediated host cellular death compared with the drugs alone. Importantly, the cytotoxic effects of amphotericin B on human cells alone were reduced when conjugated with nanocarriers. These are promising findings and further suggest the need to explore nanocarriers as a means to deliver medicine against parasitic infections.

Nanofibers in Ocular Drug Targeting and Tissue Engineering: Their Importance, Advantages, Advances, and Future Perspectives

Nanofibers are frequently encountered in daily life as a modern material with a wide range of applications. The important advantages of production techniques, such as being easy, cost effective, and industrially applicable are important factors in the preference for nanofibers. Nanofibers, which have a broad scope of use in the field of health, are preferred both in drug delivery systems and tissue engineering. Due to the biocompatible materials used in their construction, they are also frequently preferred in ocular applications. The fact that they have a long drug release time as a drug delivery system and have been used in corneal tissue studies, which have been successfully developed in tissue engineering, stand out as important advantages of nanofibers. This review examines nanofibers, their production techniques and general information, nanofiber-based ocular drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering concepts in detail.

Qbd-Based Approach to Optimize Niosomal Gel of Levosulpiride for Transdermal Drug Delivery

Poor aqueous solubility besides extensive hepatic first effect significantly decreases the oral absorption of levosulpiride, which in turn minimizes its therapeutic effectiveness. Niosomes have been extensively investigated as a transdermal vesicular nanocarrier to increase the delivery of low permeable compounds into and across the skin. This research work was to design, develop and optimize levosulpiride-loaded niosomal gel and to evaluate its prospects for transdermal delivery. The Box-Behnken design was used to optimize niosomes by analyzing the impact of three factors (cholesterol; X1, Span 40; X2, and sonication time; X3) on the responses (particle size, Y1, and entrapment efficiency, Y2). Optimized formulation (NC) was incorporated into gel and evaluated for pharmaceutical properties, drug release study, ex vivo permeation, and in vivo absorption. The design experiment data suggest that all three independent variables influence both response variables significantly (p < 0.01). Pharmaceutical characteristics of NC vesicles showed the absence of drug excipient interaction, nanosize (~102.2 nm), narrow distribution (~0.218), adequate zeta potential (−49.9 mV), and spherical shape, which are suitable for transdermal therapy. The levosulpiride release rates varied significantly (p < 0.01) between niosomal gel formulation and control. Greater flux (p < 0.01) was observed with levosulpiride-loaded niosomal gel than with control gel formulation. Indeed, the drug plasma profile of niosomal gel was significantly higher (p < 0.005), with ~3 folds higher Cmax and greater bioavailability (~500% higher; p < 0.0001) than its counterpart. Overall, these findings imply that the use of an optimized niosomal gel formulation can increase the therapeutic efficacy of levosulpiride and may represent a promising alternative to conventional therapy.

Synthetic beidellite clay as nanocarrier for delivery of antitumor oxindolimine-metal complexes

Studies on the immobilization of oxindolimine‑copper(II) or zinc(II) complexes [ML] in synthetic beidellite (BDL) clay were developed to obtain a suitable inorganic carrier capable of promoting the modified-release of metallopharmaceuticals. Previous investigations have shown that the studied metal complexes are promising antitumor agents, targeting DNA, mitochondria, and some proteins. They can bind to DNA, causing oxidative damage via formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In mitochondria they lead to a decrease in membrane potential, acting as decoupling agents, and therefore efficiently inducing apoptosis. Additionally, they inhibit human topoisomerase IB and cyclin dependent kinases, proteins involved in the cell cycle. BDL clays in the sodium form were synthesized under hydrothermal conditions and characterized by a set of physicochemical techniques while the BDL-[ML] hybrid materials were prepared by ion exchange method. The characterization of pristine clay and the obtained hybrids were performed by Infrared, Raman, electron paramagnetic resonance and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopies, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, specific surface area, zeta potential and surface ionic charge measurements. The [ML] release assays under the same cell incubation conditions were performed monitoring metals by X-ray fluorescence. The BDL-[CuL] hybrid materials were stable and able to derail tumor HeLa cells, with corresponding IC₅₀ values in the 0.11-0.41 mg mL^-1 range. By contrast, the analogous hybrid samples of zinc(II) and the pristine BDL proved to be non-toxic facing the same cells. These results indicate a promising possibility of using synthetic beidellite as a carrier of such antitumor metal complexes.

Functionalized lipid-based drug delivery nanosystems for the treatment of human infectious diseases

Infectious diseases are still public health problems. Microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and parasites are the main causing agents related to these diseases. In this context, the search for new effective strategies in prevention and/or treatment is considered essential, since current drugs often have side effects or end up, causing microbial resistance, making it a serious health problem. As an alternative to these limitations, nanotechnology has been widely used. The use of lipid-based drug delivery nanosystems (DDNs) has some advantages, such as biocompatibility, low toxicity, controlled release, the ability to carry both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, in addition to be easel scalable. Besides, as an improvement, studies involving the conjugation of signalling molecules on the surfaces of these nanocarriers can allow the target of certain tissues or cells. Thus, this review summarizes the performance of functionalized lipid-based DDNs for the treatment of infectious diseases caused by viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.

The effects of epirubicin-loaded Boc-L-Diphenylalanine peptide nanoparticles on cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in non-small cell lung cancer cells

Peptides, which are important components of the human body, appear in different chemistry applications. Perhaps the most important of these applications is the use of these structures in drug delivery systems due to their biocompatibility properties. Diphenylalanine (FF) peptide-based systems, which are part of the ß-amyloid polypeptide sequence and are known as the smallest dipeptide group, are particularly preferred due to their biocompatible nature, thermal stability, high ionic strength in water in new targeted drug systems. Epirubicin, the epimer of doxorubicin, is utilized in treating lung cancer. The side effects and the applied doses of epirubicin are being tried to be reduced. Therefore, in this study, epirubicin-loaded tert-butyloxycarbonyl protected diphenylalanine (Boc)-FF particles were synthesized and characterized and the effects of these peptides on cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, oxidative stress and apoptosis on non-small cell lung cancer cells (NSCLC) (A549) were evaluated. According to the results of the study, it was determined that epirubicin-loaded Boc-FF dipeptides significantly reduced the viability, oxidative stress, and increased DNA damage and apoptosis in the cells. The study suggests that epirubicin-loaded Boc-FF particles can be used as an alternative drug carrier for NSCLC treatment due to their physiological, chemical, and biological activity.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Delivery of Natural Bioactive Agents: Recent Advances and Challenges

In the last few decades, several natural bioactive agents have been widely utilized in the treatment and prevention of many diseases owing to their unique and versatile therapeutic effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and neuroprotective action. However, their poor aqueous solubility, poor bioavailability, low GIT stability, extensive metabolism as well as short duration of action are the most shortfalls hampering their biomedical/pharmaceutical applications. Different drug delivery platforms have developed in this regard, and a captivating tool of this has been the fabrication of nanocarriers. In particular, polymeric nanoparticles were reported to offer proficient delivery of various natural bioactive agents with good entrapment potential and stability, an efficiently controlled release, improved bioavailability, and fascinating therapeutic efficacy. In addition, surface decoration and polymer functionalization have opened the door to improving the characteristics of polymeric nanoparticles and alleviating the reported toxicity. Herein, a review of the state of knowledge on polymeric nanoparticles loaded with natural bioactive agents is presented. The review focuses on frequently used polymeric materials and their corresponding methods of fabrication, the needs of such systems for natural bioactive agents, polymeric nanoparticles loaded with natural bioactive agents in the literature, and the potential role of polymer functionalization, hybrid systems, and stimuli-responsive systems in overcoming most of the system drawbacks. This exploration may offer a thorough idea of viewing the polymeric nanoparticles as a potential candidate for the delivery of natural bioactive agents as well as the challenges and the combating tools used to overcome any hurdles.

Assessing the in vitro toxicity of airborne (nano)particles to the human respiratory system: from basic to advanced models

Several studies have been conducted to address the potential adverse health risks attributed to exposure to nanoscale materials. While in vivo studies are fundamental for identifying the relationship between dose and occurrence of adverse effects, in vitro model systems provide important information regarding the mechanism(s) of action at the molecular level. With a special focus on exposure to inhaled (nano)particulate material toxicity assessment, this review provides an overview of the available human respiratory models and exposure systems for in vitro testing, advantages, limitations, and existing investigations using models of different complexity. A brief overview of the human respiratory system, pathway and fate of inhaled (nano)particles is also presented.

The Effect of Curcumin-Loaded Glucan Nanoparticles on Immune Cells: Size as a Critical Quality Attribute

Curcumin is known for its multiple health benefits, largely due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. It has been extensively studied as a therapeutic agent, however, it does not have good clinical efficacy due to its poor water solubility and bioavailability. Despite accepting the encapsulation of this compound in polymeric particles as one of the most promising strategies to increase its therapeutic value, these nanoparticles have fallen short of expectations due to a lack of assessment of their possible adverse effects on the immune system. Therefore, in this work, we report on a new method to encapsulate curcumin into glucan nanoparticles and their effects on cells of the immune system were evaluated. Two different-sized curcumin-loaded glucan NPs (GluCur 100 and GluCur 380) were produced, each with an encapsulation efficiency close to 100%, and were characterized regarding their size distribution, surface properties, and morphology. The results revealed the greatest hemolytic effect and cytotoxicity for the smallest particles (100 nm) tested in human PBMCs and RAW 264.7 cells. Although GluCur 380 NPs showed a weaker ROS production, they were able to inhibit the production of NO by macrophages. Furthermore, we found that the coagulation time was not affected by both sized-particles as well as platelet function. Additionally, both nanoparticles induced lymphocyte proliferation and TNF-α secretion by Mo-DCs. In conclusion, this report emphasizes the importance of the immunotoxicity assessment and how this is dependent on the intrinsic properties of nanomaterials, hopefully contributing to increasing the safety of nanomedicines.

Evaluating effect of salt leaching method on release and swelling rate of metformin nanoparticles loaded-chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol porous composite

In this study, salt leaching (SL) technique was used to prepare a chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol (CS/PVA) polymeric composite in order to load metformin nanoparticles (METNPs). Sodium chloride was added to the CS/PVA (0.5:0.1) composite to create a porous hydrogel using the SL technique. METNPs were then prepared by water/oil (w/o) method and loaded into the hydrogel structure. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis confirmed that >80 % of the METNPs were in the range of 10 nm. As a result, encapsulation increased due to the increase in surface-to-volume ratio. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results confirmed that creating porosity in the polymer composition by the SL method led to increased CS/PVA polymer chain mobility. The drug encapsulation increased due to more porosity, and the release in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) was according to the controlled diffusion kinetics. Furthermore, the drug release from CS/PVA composite was anomalous carrier type that could be attributed to the addition of salt. However, due to the increase the amount of PVA and the creation of a monotonous composite structure, encapsulation of drug decreased, which is in accordance with the polymer relaxation mechanism.

Constructing a drug release model by central composite design to investigate the interaction between drugs and temperature-sensitive controlled release nanoparticles

To study the release behavior of a thermosensitive controlled release drug delivery system and construct a predictable mathematical model of drug release, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-Allylamine) (P(NIPA-AL17)) and ploy(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) were functionalized on the surface of hollow mesoporous carbon nanoparticles (HMCNs) through layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly to construct a photothermal responsive controlled release system. A five-level four-factorial central composite design (CCD) was performed to investigate the relationship between four independent variables including drug loading (A), number of polymer layers (B), temperature (C) and vibration rate of the shaker (D), and three dependent response variables, including cumulative release over 1 h (Y₁), cumulative release over 24 h (Y₂) and the release rate constant k (Y₃). The CCD results indicate that A and C significantly affect Y₁ (P < 0.05). C significantly affects Y₂ (P < 0.05). A and B is found to affect Y₃ (P < 0.05) significantly. When C is below 39 °C, Y₁ and Y₂ decrease with the increase of A and B, and when C is above 39 °C, they increase with the increase of A and B; Y₃ decreases as A and B increase; and D shows the least or even no influence on Y₁, Y₂ and Y₃. The constructed predictable mathematical model will provide a scientific reference for the further development and application of photothermal responsive controlled-release preparations.

Synthetic star shaped tetra-tailed biocompatible supramolecular amphiphile as an efficient nanocarrier for Amphotericin B

Macrocycle-based amphiphiles are capable of self-assembling into multidimensional nano-architecture with defined dimensions for various applications. Herein we report the synthesis, physio-chemical characterizations and oral drug delivery profiling of resorcinarene-based amphiphilic supramolecular macrocycle. The macrocycle was synthesized in two-step reaction and characterized using ¹H NMR, Mass spectrometry and IR spectroscopic techniques. The synthesized macrocycle was assessed for vesicles formation, checked for biocompatibility and then Amphotericin B (Amp-B) was entrapped in macrocycle-based vesicles. The drug loaded vesicles were characterized for shape, size, homogeneity, drug entrapment, surface charge, in-vitro release profile and stability. Amp-B loaded macrocycle based vesicles were examined in rabbits for in-vivo bioavailability and compared with plan drug suspension. The synthesized macrocycle was non-toxic in normal mouse fibroblast cells, compatible with blood and safe in mice. The drug loaded macrocycle based vesicles appeared spherical with 279.4 nm size and - 12.2 mV zeta potential loading 85.45 % drug. The drug loaded vesicles storage stability for 30 days and gastric fluid stability for 1 h were it retained nearly 90 % drug at 30th day and 83.79 % drug at 1 h in gastric fluid. Oral bioavailability of Amp-B in rabbits was markedly enhanced when delivered in synthesized macrocycle based vesicles in comparison with plan drug suspension. Results of this study indicate that the synthesized star shaped tetra-tailed supramolecular amphiphile could be used as an efficient nanocarrier for enhancing oral bioavailability of drugs with solubility and bioavailability issues like Amp-B.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Peculiar Strategy to Deliver Bio-Proactive Molecules

BACKGROUND

Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) provide numerous benefits compared to conventional dosage forms. Poor aqueous solubility, low bioavailability, frequent dosing, and particular hydrophilic lipophilic character of the drug are the biological factors associated with the traditional systems leading to the development of SLNs.

OBJECTIVE

For improving the solubility profile, enhancing the bioavailability, and attaining the best possible therapeutic effect of lipid inclined or aqueous inclined drug, formulating solid lipid nanoparticles is the best choice.

METHODS

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) have been projected as a colloidal carrier system with a size of 50-1,000 nm, collectively combining the benefits of other colloidal systems like liposomes, emulsions, etc., for delivering the drug at the target site. High absorption, high stability, and efficient drug packing enhance the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the packed drug.

RESULT

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles can be developed in different dosage forms and administered via routes such as nasal, rectal, oral, topical, vaginal, ocular, and parenteral. They have higher physicochemical stability and the batch size can be easily scaled up at a low cost. Lipophilic as well as hydrophilic drugs can be easily incorporated into solid lipid nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION

In this manuscript, the authors have reviewed different aspects of solid lipid nanoparticles, major principles behind mechanism methods, recent patents, applications, and therapeutic potentials of solid lipid nanoparticles.

Nanocapsules: An Emerging Drug Delivery System

BACKGROUND

Controlled drug release and site-specific delivery of drugs make nanocapsules the most approbative drug delivery system for various kinds of drugs, bioactive, protein, and peptide compounds. Nanocapsules (NCs) are spherical shape microscopic shells consisting of a core (solid or liquid) in which the drug is positioned in a cavity enclosed by a distinctive polymeric membrane.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the present patent study is to elaborate on various formulation techniques and methods of nanocapsules (NCs). The review also spotlights various biomedical applications as well as on the patents of NCs to date.

METHODS

The review was extracted from the searches performed using various search engines such as PubMed, Google Patents, Medline, Google Scholars, etc. In order to emphasize the importance of NCs, some published patents of NCs have also been reported in the review.

RESULTS

NCs are tiny magical shells having incredible reproducibility. Various techniques can be used to formulate NCs. The pharmaceutical performance of the formulated NCs can be judged by evaluating their shape, size, entrapment efficiency, loading capacity, etc., using different analytical techniques. Their main applications are found in the field of agrochemicals, genetic manipulation, cosmetics, hygiene items, strategic distribution of drugs to tumors, nanocapsule bandages to combat infection, and radiotherapy.

CONCLUSION

In the present review, our team made a deliberate effort to summarize the recent advances in the field of NCs and focus on new patents related to the implementation of NCs delivery systems in the area of some life-threatening disorders like diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases.

Natural Compounds in Liposomal Nanoformulations of Potential Clinical Application in Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant neoplasm in adults among all CNS gliomas, with the 5-year survival rate being as low as 5%. Among nanocarriers, liposomal nanoformulations are considered as a promising tool for precise drug delivery. The herein presented study demonstrates the possibility of encapsulating four selected natural compounds (curcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin, acteoside, and orientin) and their mixtures in cationic liposomal nanoformulation composed of two lipid types (DOTAP:POPC). In order to determine the physicochemical properties of the new drug carriers, specific measurements, including particle size, Zeta Potential, and PDI index, were applied. In addition, NMR and EPR studies were carried out for a more in-depth characterization of nanoparticles. Within biological research, the prepared formulations were evaluated on T98G and U-138 MG glioblastoma cell lines in vitro, as well as on a non-cancerous human lung fibroblast cell line (MRC-5) using the MTT test to determine their potential as anticancer agents. The highest activity was exhibited by liposome-entrapped acteoside towards the T98G cell line with IC50 equal 2.9 ± 0.9 µM after 24 hours of incubation. Noteworthy, curcumin and orientin mixture in liposomal formulation exhibited a synergistic effect against GBM. Moreover, the impact on the expression of apoptosis-associated proteins (p53 and Caspase-3) of acteoside as well as curcumin and orientin mixture, as the most potent agents, was assessed, showing nearly 40% increase as compared to control U-138 MG and T98G cells. It should be emphasized that a new and alternative method of extrusion of the studied liposomes was developed.

Comparative Colloidal Stability of Commercial Amphotericin B Nanoformulations Using Dynamic and Static Multiple Light Scattering Techniques

Background

Amphotericin B (AmB) nanoformulations have been widely used for the treatment of invasive fungal infections in clinical practice, all of which are lyophilized solid dosage forms that improve storage stability. The colloidal stability of reconstituted lyophilized nanoparticles in an injection medium is a critical quality attribute that directly affects their safety and efficacy during clinical use.

Methods

In the present study, the colloidal stability of commercial AmB nanoformulations, including AmB cholesteryl sulfate complex (AmB-CSC) and AmB liposome (AmB-Lipo), was evaluated using the dynamic (DLS) and static multiple light scattering (SMLS) techniques.

Results

Compared to the DLS technique, the SMLS technique allows for a more objective and accurate evaluation of the colloidal stability of AmB nanoformulations. The results obtained using the SMLS technique demonstrated that AmB-CSC and AmB-Lipo exhibited excellent colloidal stability in both sterile water and 5% dextrose injection. The disk-like structure of the AmB-CSC nanoparticles more readily adsorbed serum proteins to form protein corona compared to the spherical structure of AmB-Lipo after incubation with serum. Additionally, AmB-CSC and AmB-Lipo can significantly reduce the in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo nephrotoxicity of AmB, which may be attributed to the good colloidal stability and the improved pharmacokinetic profiles of AmB nanoformulations.

Conclusion

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to compare the colloidal stability of commercial AmB nanoformulations. These findings will provide useful information not only to inform the clinical use of available AmB nanoformulations but also for improving the design and conduct of translational research on novel AmB nanomedicines.

A novel nanotechnological mucoadhesive and fast-dissolving film for vaginal delivery of clotrimazole: design, characterization, and in vitro antifungal action

Pullulan (PUL) films containing pomegranate seed oil and Eudragit^® RS100 nanocapsules loaded with clotrimazole (CTZ-NC-PUL) were developed to treat vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). Our findings showed that the nanocapsule average diameter was around 163 ± 4 nm, with polydispersity index values of up to 0.1 ± 0.01 and positively charged zeta potential (+ 43.5 ± 0.7 mV). The pH was in the acid range (5.14 ± 0.12) and encapsulation efficiency was around 99.6%; CTZ nanoencapsulation promoted higher homogeneity values for the film (91%), and the stability studies displayed no changes in the drug content after 120 days for the CTZ-NC-PUL under refrigerated conditions. All formulations were considered non-irritant, and CTZ-NC-PUL promoted a controlled release of the drug (60% in 24 h) compared to CTZ-PUL (100% in 8 h). The permeation results corroborate the drug release, where higher CTZ amounts were found in the mucosa and receptor medium for CTZ-PUL (21.02 and 4.46 μg/cm²). The films were fast dissolving (10 min), and CTZ-NC-PUL presented higher mucoadhesive properties; the antifungal activity against Candida albicans was maintained, and the in vitro efficacy of the film was proved. In conclusion, CTZ-NC-PUL formulation was considered promising and suitable for vaginal application against candida-related infections.

Self-assembled multifunctional nanotheranostics against circulating tumor clusters in metastatic breast cancer

Circulating tumor clusters (CTC) disseminating from the primary tumor are responsible for secondary tumor formation where the conventional treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy does not prevent the metastasis at locally advanced stage of breast cancer. In this study, a smart nanotheranostic system has been developed to track and eliminate the CTCs before it can colonize at a new site, which would reduce metastatic progression and increase the five-year survival rate of the breast cancer patients. Targeted multiresponsive (magnetic hyperthermia and pH) nanomicelles incorporated with NIR fluorescent superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles were developed based on self-assembly for dual modal imaging and dual toxicity for spontaneous killing of CTCs in blood stream. A heterogenous tumor clusters model was developed to mimic the CTCs isolated from breast cancer patients. The nanotheranostic system was further evaluated for the targeting property, drug release kinetics, hyperthermia and cytotoxicity against developed CTC model in vitro. In vivo model in BALB/c mice equivalent to stage III and IV human metastatic breast cancer was developed to evaluate the biodistribution and therapeutic efficacy of micellar nanotheranostic system. Reduced CTCs in blood stream and low distant organ metastasis after treatment with the nanotheranostic system demonstrates its potential to capture and kill the CTCs that minimize the secondary tumor formation at distant sites.

An efficient and broadly applicable method for transient transformation of plants using vertically aligned carbon nanofiber arrays

Transient transformation in plants is a useful process for evaluating gene function. However, there is a scarcity of minimally perturbing methods for gene delivery that can be used on multiple organs, plant species, and non-excised tissues. We pioneered and demonstrated the use of vertically aligned carbon nanofiber (VACNF) arrays to efficiently perform transient transformation of different tissues with DNA constructs in multiple plant species. The VACNFs permeabilize plant tissue transiently to allow molecules into cells without causing a detectable stress response. We successfully delivered DNA into leaves, roots and fruit of five plant species (Arabidopsis, poplar, lettuce, Nicotiana benthamiana, and tomato) and confirmed accumulation of the encoded fluorescent proteins by confocal microscopy. Using this system, it is possible to transiently transform plant cells with both small and large plasmids. The method is successful for species recalcitrant to Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. VACNFs provide simple, reliable means of DNA delivery into a variety of plant organs and species.

Theophylline-Loaded Pectin/Chitosan Hydrochloride Submicron Particles Prepared by Spray Drying with a Continuous Feeding Ultrasonic Atomizer

Pectin/chitosan hydrochloride (CHC) particles containing theophylline were prepared by a spray-drying apparatus coupled with a continuous feeding ultrasonic atomizer and a heating column. The formation of the submicron particles was investigated at various compositions of pectin solutions added with a chitosan hydrochloride or calcium chloride solution as a crosslinking agent. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images showed the pectin/chitosan hydrochloride particles had spherical and smooth surfaces. Depending on the feeding concentrations, the produced particles had diameters in the range of 300 to 800 nm with a narrow size distribution. Furthermore, the theophylline (TH)-loaded pectin/CHC particles were also prepared by the same apparatus. The TH release from the submicron particles in phosphate-buffered saline at 37 °C was monitored in real-time by a UV-Visible spectrophotometer. The Ritger-Peppas model could well describe the TH release profiles. All the diffusional exponents (n) of the release systems were greater than 0.7; thus, the transport mechanism was not a simple Fickian diffusion. Particularly, the n value was 1.14 for the TH-loaded particles at a pectin/CHC weight ratio of 5/2, which was very close to the zero-order drug delivery (n = 1). Therefore, the constant drug-release rate could be achieved by using the spray-dried pectin/CHC particles as the drug carrier.

Recent Reports on Polysaccharide-Based Materials for Drug Delivery

Polysaccharides constitute one of the most important families of biopolymers. Natural polysaccharide-based drug delivery systems are of constant interest to the scientific community due to their unique properties: biocompatibility, non-toxicity, biodegradability, and high availability. These promising biomaterials protect sensitive active agents and provide their controlled release in targeted sites. The application of natural polysaccharides as drug delivery systems is also intensively developed by Polish scientists. The present review focuses on case studies from the last few years authored or co-authored by research centers in Poland. A particular emphasis was placed on the diversity of the formulations in terms of the active substance carried, the drug delivery route, the composition of the material, and its preparation method.

Locust Bean Gum Nano-Based Hydrogel for Vaginal Delivery of Diphenyl Diselenide in the Treatment of Trichomoniasis: Formulation Characterization and In Vitro Biological Evaluation

Trichomoniasis is the most common nonviral sexually transmitted infection in the world, but its available therapies present low efficacy and high toxicity. Diphenyl diselenide (PhSe₂) is a pharmacologically active organic selenium compound; however, its clinical use is hindered by its lipophilicity and toxicity. Nanocarriers are an interesting approach to overcome the limitations associated with this compound. This study designed and evaluated a vaginal hydrogel containing PhSe₂-loaded Eudragit^® RS100 and coconut oil nanocapsules for the treatment of trichomoniasis. Nanocapsules presented particle sizes in the nanometric range, positive zeta potential, a compound content close to the theoretical value, and high encapsulation efficiency. The nanoencapsulation maintained the anti-Trichomonas vaginalis action of the compound while improving the scavenger action in a DPPH assay. The hydrogels were prepared by thickening nanocapsule suspensions with locust bean gum (3%). The semisolids maintained the nanometric size of the particles and the PhSe₂ content at around the initial concentration (1.0 mg/g). They also displayed non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic behavior and a highly mucoadhesive property. The chorioallantoic membrane method indicated the absence of hemorrhage, coagulation, or lysis. The compound, from both non-encapsulated and nano-based hydrogel delivery systems, remained on the surface of the bovine vaginal mucosa. Therefore, the formulations displayed the intended properties and could be a promising alternative for the treatment of trichomoniasis.

Nanoformulations - Insights Towards Characterization Techniques

BACKGROUND

Drug-loaded novel nanoformulations are gaining importance due to their versatile properties compared to conventional pharmaceutical formulations. Nanomaterials, apart from their multifactorial benefits, have a wider scope in the prevention, treatment, and diagnosis of cancer. Understanding the chemistry of drug-loaded nano-formulations to elicit its behaviour both at molecular and systemic levels is critical in the present scenario. Drug-loaded nanoformulations are controlled by their size, shape, surface chemistry, and release behavior. The major pharmaceutical drug loaded nanocarriers reported for anticancer drug delivery for the treatment of various forms of cancers such as lung cancer, liver cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, etc include nanoparticles, nanospheres, nanodispersions, nanocapsules, nanomicelles, cubosomes, nanoemulsions, liposomes and niosomes. The major objectives in designing anticancer drug-loaded nanoformulations are to manage the particle size/morphology correlating with the drug release to fulfil the specific objectives. Hence, nano characterizations are very critical both at in vitro and in vivo levels.

OBJECTIVE

The main objective of this review paper is to summarise the major characterization techniques used for the characterization of drug-loaded nanoformulations. Even though information on characterization techniques of various nano-formulations is available in the literature, it is scattered. The proposed review will provide a comprehensive understanding of nanocharacterization techniques.

CONCLUSION

To conclude, the proposed review will provide insights towards the different nano characterization techniques along with their recent updates, such as particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, in vitro release studies (chromatographic HPLC, HPTLC, and LC-MS/MS analysis), EPR analysis, X-ray diffraction analysis, thermal analysis, rheometric, morphological analysis etc. Additionally, the challenges encountered by the nano characterization techniques will also be discussed.

Advanced Research in Cellular Pharmacokinetics and its Cutting-edge Technologies

Pharmacokinetics (PK), as a significant part of pharmacology, runs through the overall process of the preclinical and clinical research on drugs and plays a significant role in determining the material basis of efficacy and mechanism research. However, due to the limitations of classical PK, cellular PK was put forward and developed rapidly. Many novel and original technologies have been innovatively applied to cellular PK research, thereby providing powerful technical support. As a novel field of PK research, cellular PK expands the research object and enriches the theoretical framework of PK. It provides a new perspective for elucidating the mechanism of drug action and the dynamic process of drug in the body. Furthermore, it provides a scientific basis and guiding significance for the development of new drugs and clinical rational drug use. Cellular PK can explain the dynamic process of certain drugs (e.g., antineoplastic drugs and antibiotics) and the disposition kinetics characteristics in some specific tissues (e.g., brain and tumor) in a clearer and more accurate manner. It is a beneficial supplement and the perfection of traditional PK. In the future, traditional and cellular PKs will complement each other well and improve into an all-around research system in drug developments. Briefly, this paper reviews the conceptual development of cellular PK and key associated technologies, explores its main functions and applications, and looks forward to the important pioneering significance and promising value for the development of PK.

Preparation and characterization of vaccarin, hypaphorine and chitosan nanoparticles and their promoting effects on chronic wounds healing

Chronic wounds have become an important factor hindering human health, affecting tens of millions of people worldwide, especially diabetic wounds. Based on the antibacterial properties of chitosan, the angiogenesis promoting effect of vaccarin (VAC) and the anti-inflammatory effect of hypaphorine (HYP), nanoparticles with high bioavailability were prepared. VAC, HYP and chitosan nanoparticles (VAC + HYP-NPS) were used to the treatment of chronic wounds. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images showed the nanoparticles were spherical. ZetaPALS showed the potential of nanoparticles were -12.8 ± 5.53 mV and the size were 166.8 ± 29.95 nm. Methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay showed that VAC + HYP-NPS had no toxicity and the biocompatibility was satisfactory. In the treatment of chronic wounds in diabetic rats, VAC + HYP-NPS significantly promoted the re-epithelialization of chronic wounds and accelerated the healing of chronic wounds. In the process of chronic wounds healing, VAC + HYP-NPS played the antibacterial effect of chitosan, the angiogenic effect of VAC and the anti-inflammatory effect of HYP, and finally promoted the chronic wounds healing. Overall, the developed VAC + HYP-NPS have potential application in chronic wounds healing. In view of the complexity of the causes of chronic wounds, multi-target drug administration may be an effective way to treat chronic wounds.

Nano-based formulations as an approach for providing a novel identity for organoselenium compounds

The organoselenium compounds belong to a class of synthetic molecules that displays a remarkable spectrum of promising pharmacological properties. Despite the huge amount of preclinical data that supports a bright outlook for organoselenium compounds, some toxicity issues and physicochemical limitations delay the development of more advanced studies. Currently, several scientific reports demonstrated that the association of nanotechnology has emerged as an alternative to improve solubility and safety issues of these molecules as well as enhance pharmacological properties. Therefore, our main objective was to address studies that reported the development and biological evaluations of nano-based formulations to synthetic organoselenium compounds incorporation by constructing an integrative literature review. The data survey was performed using the Science Direct, PubMed, Web of Science, and SCOPUS online databases, covering studies that were published from January 2011 up to October 2021. In the last decade, there has been an exponential growth in research regarding the incorporation of synthetic organoselenium compounds into distinct nanocarrier systems such as nanocapsules, nanoemulsions, micelles, and others, reinforcing that the association of such molecules and nanotechnology is a promising alliance. The reports investigated many nanosystems containing selenium organic molecules intending oral, intravenous, and cutaneous applications. Besides that, these systems were evaluated in a variety of in vitro techniques and in vivo models, concerning their pharmacological potential, biodistribution profile, and safety. In summary, the findings indicate that the production of nano-based formulations containing organoselenium compounds either improved physicochemical and biological properties or minimize toxicological issues of compounds.

Recent Advances in Nano-Formulations for Skin Wound Repair Applications

Skin injuries caused by accidents and acute or chronic diseases place a heavy burden on patients and health care systems. Current treatments mainly depend on preventing infection, debridement, and hemostasis and on supplementing growth factors, but patients will still have scar tissue proliferation or difficulty healing and other problems after treatment. Conventional treatment usually focuses on a single factor or process of wound repair and often ignores the influence of the wound pathological microenvironment on the final healing effect. Therefore, it is of substantial research value to develop multifunctional therapeutic methods that can actively regulate the wound microenvironment and reduce the oxidative stress level at the wound site to promote the repair of skin wounds. In recent years, various bioactive nanomaterials have shown great potential in tissue repair and regeneration due to their properties, including their unique surface interface effect, small size effect, enzyme activity and quantum effect. This review summarizes the mechanisms underlying skin wound repair and the defects in traditional treatment methods. We focus on analyzing the advantages of different types of nanomaterials and comment on their toxicity and side effects when used for skin wound repair.

A Review on the Delivery of Plant-Based Antidiabetic Agents Using Nanocarriers: Current Status and Their Role in Combatting Hyperglycaemia

Diabetes mellitus is a prevalent metabolic syndrome that is associated with high blood glucose levels. The number of diabetic patients is increasing every year and the total number of cases is expected to reach more than 600 million worldwide by 2045. Modern antidiabetic drugs alleviate hyperglycaemia and complications that are caused by high blood glucose levels. However, due to the side effects of these drugs, plant extracts and bioactive compounds with antidiabetic properties have been gaining attention as alternative treatments for diabetes. Natural products are biocompatible, cheaper and expected to cause fewer side effects than the current antidiabetic drugs. In this review, various nanocarrier systems are discussed, such as liposomes, niosomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles. These systems have been applied to overcome the limitations of the current drugs and simultaneously improve the efficacy of plant-based antidiabetic drugs. The main challenges in the formulation of plant-based nanocarriers are the loading capacity of the plant extracts and the stability of the carriers. A brief review of lipid nanocarriers and the amphipathic properties of phospholipids and liposomes that encapsulate hydrophilic, hydrophobic and amphiphilic drugs is also described. A special emphasis is placed on metallic nanoparticles, with their advantages and associated complications being reported to highlight their effectiveness for treating hyperglycaemia. The present review could be an interesting paper for researchers who are working in the field of using plant extract-loaded nanoparticles as antidiabetic therapies.

Zein-Stabilized Nanospheres as Nanocarriers for Boosting the Aphrodisiac Activity of Icariin: Response Surface Optimization and In Vivo Assessment

Icariin (ICA), a main active compound of the Epimedium genus, is used as an aphrodisiac in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Despite its therapeutic efficacy, ICA displays reduced oral absorption, and therefore, low bioavailability hindered its clinical application. Implementing nanotechnology in the field of formulation has been a focus to improve the efficacy of ICA. In this regard, polymeric nanoparticles find a potential application as drug delivery systems. A nanosphere formula was designed, aiming to improve the drug's efficacy. The proposed ICA nanosphere formula (tocozeinolate) was optimized using D-optimal response surface design. The concentrations of ICA (X1), D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS, X2), zein (X3), and sodium deoxycholate (SDC, X4) expressed as percentages were investigated as quantitative independent variables. As per the experimental design, 23 formulations were developed, which were investigated for particle size (PS, nm), zeta potential (ZP, mV), and entrapment efficiency (EE, %) as response parameters. Numerical optimization and desirability approach were employed to predict the optimized variable levels that, upon combination, could result in minimized size and maximized zeta potential and ICA entrapment. The optimized ICA-tocozeinolate nanospheres showed a particle size of 224.45 nm, zeta potential of 0.961 mV, and drug entrapment of 65.29% that coincide well with the predicted values. The optimized ICA-tocozeinolate nanospheres were evaluated for sexual behavior in Wistar male rats compared to raw ICA at equivalent doses (20 mg/kg). In vivo assessment results showed significant sexual behavior enhancement by the optimized formulation, as evidenced by decreased average time of both mount latency (ML) and ejaculation latency (EL) to almost half those of raw ICA. Additionally, intromission latency (IL) time was reduced by 41% compared to the raw ICA. These results highlighted the potential of the proposed ICA-tocozeinolate nanospheres as a promising platform for improving the delivery and efficacy of therapeutic agents.

Nanomedicines: A Focus on Nanomaterials as Drug Delivery System with Current Trends and Future Advancement

The rapid advancement of nanomedicine presents novel alternatives that have the potential to transform health care. Targeted drug delivery as well as the synthesis of nanocarriers is a growing discipline that has been intensively researched to reduce the complexity of present medicines in a variety of diseases and to develop new treatment and diagnostic techniques. There are several designed nanomaterials used as a delivery system such as liposomes, micelles, dendrimers, polymers, carbon-based materials, and many other substances, which deliver the drug moiety directly into its targeted body area reducing toxic effect of conventional drug delivery, thus reducing the amount of drug required for therapeutic efficacy and offering many more advantages. Currently, these are used in many applications, including cancer treatment, imaging contrast agents, and biomarker detection and so on. This review provides a comprehensive update in the field of targeted nano-based drug delivery systems, by conducting a thorough examination of the drug synthesis, types, targets, and application of nanomedicines in improving the therapeutic efficiency.

Trends in the Design and Evaluation of Polymeric Nanocarriers: The In Vitro Nano-Bio Interactions

Different types of natural and synthetic polymeric nanocarriers are being tested for diverse biomedical applications ranging from drug/gene delivery vehicles to imaging probes. The development of such innovative nanoparticulate systems (NPs) should include in the very beginning of their conception a comprehensive evaluation of the nano-bio interactions. Specifically, intrinsic physicochemical properties as size, surface charge and shape may have an impact on cellular uptake, intracellular trafficking, exocytosis and cyto- or genocompatibility. Those properties can be tuned for effectiveness purposes such as targeting intracellular organelles, but at the same time inducing unforeseen adverse nanotoxicological effects. Further, those properties may change due to the adsorption of biological components (e.g. proteins) with a tremendous impact on the cellular response. The evaluation of these NPs is highly challenging and has produced some controversial results. Future research work should focus on the standardization of analytical or computational methodologies, aiming the identification of toxicity trends and the generation of a useful meta-analysis database on polymeric nanocarriers.This chapter covers all the aforementioned aspects, emphasizing the importance of the in vitro cellular studies in the first stages of polymeric nanocarriers development.