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Amaral T, Sinnberg T, Meier F, Krepler C, Levesque M, Niessner H, Garbe C. MAPK pathway in melanoma part II—secondary and adaptive resistance mechanisms to BRAF inhibition. Eur J Cancer 2017; 73:93-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2016.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Abstract
Metastatic melanoma is associated with poor outcome and is largely refractory to the historic standard of care. In recent years, the development of targeted small-molecule inhibitors and immunotherapy has revolutionised the care and improved the overall survival of these patients. Therapies targeting BRAF and MEK to block the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway were the first to show unprecedented clinical responses. Following these encouraging results, antibodies targeting immune checkpoint inhibition molecules cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death (PD)-1, and PD-ligand1(PD-L1) demonstrated sustained tumour regression in a significant subset of patients by enabling an anti-tumour immunologic response. Despite these landmark changes in practice, the majority of patients are either intrinsically resistant or rapidly acquire resistance to MAPK pathway inhibitors and immune checkpoint blockade treatment. The lack of response can be driven by mutations and non-mutational events in tumour cells, as well as by changes in the surrounding tumour microenvironment. Common resistance mechanisms bypass the dependence of tumour cells on initial MAPK pathway driver mutations during targeted therapy, and permit evasion of the host immune system to allow melanoma growth and survival following immunotherapy. This highlights the requirement for personalised treatment regimens that take into account patient-specific genetic and immunologic characteristics. Here we review the mechanisms by which melanomas display intrinsic resistance or acquire resistance to targeted therapy and immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Winder
- Skin Cancer and Ageing, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, The University of Manchester, Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M20 4BX, UK
| | - Amaya Virós
- Skin Cancer and Ageing, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, The University of Manchester, Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M20 4BX, UK. .,Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK.
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53
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Smith MP, Wellbrock C. Molecular Pathways: Maintaining MAPK Inhibitor Sensitivity by Targeting Nonmutational Tolerance. Clin Cancer Res 2016; 22:5966-5970. [PMID: 27797970 PMCID: PMC5300098 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-16-0954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Targeting hyperactive MAPK signaling has proven to be an effective treatment for a variety of different cancers. Responses to the BRAF inhibitors vemurafenib and dabrafenib and the MEK inhibitors trametinib and cobimetinib are, however, transient, and complete remission is rarely observed; rather, outgrowth of resistant clones within progressed tumors appears inevitable. These resistant tumors display great heterogeneity, which poses a major challenge to any salvage therapy. Recent focus has, therefore, been on the early dynamics of inhibitor response during tumor regression. During this time, cells can persist in an adapted tolerant state, which results in a phase of nonmutational drug tolerance. In this article, we discuss how inhibition of the MAPK pathway leads to an adaptive rewiring that evolves from the relief of immediate negative feedback loops to short-term gene expression changes and adaptation of intracellular signaling. Tolerance can also be mediated by external signaling from the tumor microenvironment, which itself adapts upon treatment and the selection for cells with an innate drug-tolerant phenotype. In preclinical models, combination treatment with receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhibitors (lapatinib and dasatinib), histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors (vorinostat and entinostat), or drugs targeting cancer-specific mechanisms (nelfinavir in melanoma) can overcome this early tolerance. A better understanding of how nonmutational tolerance is created and supported may hold the key to better combinational strategies that maintain drug sensitivity. Clin Cancer Res; 22(24); 5966-70. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Smith
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Claudia Wellbrock
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.
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54
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Arozarena I, Smith MP, Wellbrock C. Targeting MITF in the tolerance-phase. Oncotarget 2016; 7:54094-54095. [PMID: 27528022 PMCID: PMC5342328 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.9423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Claudia Wellbrock
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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55
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Wellbrock C, Arozarena I. The Complexity of the ERK/MAP-Kinase Pathway and the Treatment of Melanoma Skin Cancer. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016; 4:33. [PMID: 27200346 PMCID: PMC4846800 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The central role played by the ERK/MAPK pathway downstream of RAS in human neoplasias is best exemplified in the context of melanoma skin cancer. Signaling through the MAPK pathway is crucial for the proliferation of melanocytes, the healthy pigment cells that give rise to melanoma. However, hyper-activation of the MAPK-pathway is found in over 90% of melanomas with approximately 50% of all patients displaying mutations in the kinase BRAF, and approximately 28% of all patients harboring mutations in the MAPK-pathway up-stream regulator NRAS. This finding has led to the development of BRAF and MEK inhibitors whose application in the clinic has shown unprecedented survival responses. Unfortunately the responses to MAPK pathway inhibitors are transient with most patients progressing within a year and a median progression free survival of 7-10 months. The disease progression is due to the development of drug-resistance based on various mechanisms, many of them involving a rewiring of the MAPK pathway. In this article we will review the complexity of MAPK signaling in melanocytic cells as well as the mechanisms of action of different MAPK-pathway inhibitors and their correlation with clinical response. We will reflect on mechanisms of innate and acquired resistance that limit patient's response, with a focus on the MAPK signaling network. Because of the resurgence of antibody-based immune-therapies there is a growing feeling of failure in the targeted therapy camp. However, recent studies have revealed new windows of therapeutic opportunity for melanoma sufferers treated with drugs targeting the MAPK pathway, and these opportunities will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Wellbrock
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of ManchesterManchester, UK
| | - Imanol Arozarena
- School of Applied Sciences, University of HuddersfieldHuddersfield, UK
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56
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Smith MP, Brunton H, Rowling EJ, Ferguson J, Arozarena I, Miskolczi Z, Lee JL, Girotti MR, Marais R, Levesque MP, Dummer R, Frederick DT, Flaherty KT, Cooper ZA, Wargo JA, Wellbrock C. Inhibiting Drivers of Non-mutational Drug Tolerance Is a Salvage Strategy for Targeted Melanoma Therapy. Cancer Cell 2016; 29:270-284. [PMID: 26977879 PMCID: PMC4796027 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Once melanomas have progressed with acquired resistance to mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-targeted therapy, mutational heterogeneity presents a major challenge. We therefore examined the therapy phase before acquired resistance had developed and discovered the melanoma survival oncogene MITF as a driver of an early non-mutational and reversible drug-tolerance state, which is induced by PAX3-mediated upregulation of MITF. A drug-repositioning screen identified the HIV1-protease inhibitor nelfinavir as potent suppressor of PAX3 and MITF expression. Nelfinavir profoundly sensitizes BRAF and NRAS mutant melanoma cells to MAPK-pathway inhibitors. Moreover, nelfinavir is effective in BRAF and NRAS mutant melanoma cells isolated from patients progressed on MAPK inhibitor (MAPKi) therapy and in BRAF/NRAS/PTEN mutant tumors. We demonstrate that inhibiting a driver of MAPKi-induced drug tolerance could improve current approaches of targeted melanoma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Smith
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Holly Brunton
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Emily J Rowling
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Jennifer Ferguson
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Imanol Arozarena
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Zsofia Miskolczi
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Jessica L Lee
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Maria R Girotti
- Molecular Oncology Group, CRUK Manchester Institute for Cancer Research, Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M20 4BX, UK
| | - Richard Marais
- Molecular Oncology Group, CRUK Manchester Institute for Cancer Research, Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M20 4BX, UK
| | - Mitchell P Levesque
- Department of Dermatology, UniversitätsSpital Zürich, University of Zürich, Gloriastrasse 31, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reinhard Dummer
- Department of Dermatology, UniversitätsSpital Zürich, University of Zürich, Gloriastrasse 31, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dennie T Frederick
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114-2696, USA
| | - Keith T Flaherty
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114-2696, USA
| | - Zachary A Cooper
- Divison of Surgical Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1400 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jennifer A Wargo
- Divison of Surgical Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1400 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Claudia Wellbrock
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
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57
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Overcoming MITF-conferred drug resistance through dual AURKA/MAPK targeting in human melanoma cells. Cell Death Dis 2016; 7:e2135. [PMID: 26962685 PMCID: PMC4823922 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2015.369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Revised: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
MITF (microphthalmia-associated transcription factor) is a frequently amplified lineage-specific oncogene in human melanoma, whose role in intrinsic drug resistance has not been systematically investigated. Utilizing chemical inhibitors for major signaling pathways/cellular processes, we witness MITF as an elicitor of intrinsic drug resistance. To search kinase(s) targets able to bypass MITF-conferred drug resistance, we employed a multi-kinase inhibitor-directed chemical proteomics-based differential affinity screen in human melanocytes carrying ectopic MITF overexpression. A subsequent methodical interrogation informed mitotic Ser/Thr kinase Aurora Kinase A (AURKA) as a crucial regulator of melanoma cell proliferation and migration, independent of the underlying molecular alterations, including TP53 functional status and MITF levels. Crucially, assessing the efficacy of investigational AURKA inhibitor MLN8237, we pre-emptively witness the procurement of a molecular program consistent with acquired drug resistance. This involved induction of multiple MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) signaling pathway components and their downstream proliferation effectors (Cyclin D1 and c-JUN) and apoptotic regulators (MITF and Bcl-2). A concomitant AURKA/BRAF and AURKA/MEK targeting overcame MAPK signaling activation-associated resistance signature in BRAF- and NRAS-mutated melanomas, respectively, and elicited heightened anti-proliferative activity and apoptotic cell death. These findings reveal a previously unreported MAPK signaling-mediated mechanism of immediate resistance to AURKA inhibitors. These findings could bear significant implications for the application and the success of anti-AURKA approaches that have already entered phase-II clinical trials for human melanoma.
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58
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Menon DR, Schaider H. Microenvironment-Driven Resistance to BRAF Inhibition Comes of Age. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135:2923-2925. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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59
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Iyengar PV, Jaynes P, Rodon L, Lama D, Law KP, Lim YP, Verma C, Seoane J, Eichhorn PJA. USP15 regulates SMURF2 kinetics through C-lobe mediated deubiquitination. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14733. [PMID: 26435193 PMCID: PMC4593006 DOI: 10.1038/srep14733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitin modification of the TGF-β pathway components is emerging as a key mechanism of TGF-β pathway regulation. To limit TGF-β responses, TGF-β signaling is regulated through a negative feedback loop whereby the E3 ligase SMURF2 targets the TGF-β receptor (TβR) complex for ubiquitin-mediated degradation. Counteracting this process, a number of deubiquitinating (DUBs) enzymes have recently been identified that deubiquitinate and stabilize the TβR. However the precise mechanism by which these DUBs act on TβR function remains poorly defined. Here, we demonstrate that apart from targeting the TβR complex directly, USP15 also deubiquitinates SMURF2 resulting in enhanced TβR stability and downstream pathway activation. Through proteomic analysis, we show that USP15 modulates the ubiquitination of Lys734, a residue required for SMURF2 catalytic activity. Our results show that SMURF2 is a critical target of USP15 in the TGF-β pathway and may also explain how USP15 and SMURF2 target multiple complementary protein complexes in other pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick Jaynes
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, 117599, Singapore
| | - Laura Rodon
- Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology (VHIO), Vall d'Hebron University Hospital, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Dilraj Lama
- Bioinformatics Institute (A*STAR), 30 Biopolis Street, 07-01 Matrix, 138671, Singapore
| | - Kai Pong Law
- Deparment of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yoon Pin Lim
- Deparment of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chandra Verma
- Bioinformatics Institute (A*STAR), 30 Biopolis Street, 07-01 Matrix, 138671, Singapore.,Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 117543, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore
| | - Joan Seoane
- Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology (VHIO), Vall d'Hebron University Hospital, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pieter Johan Adam Eichhorn
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, 117599, Singapore.,Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117597, Singapore
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60
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Ji Z, Erin Chen Y, Kumar R, Taylor M, Jenny Njauw CN, Miao B, Frederick DT, Wargo JA, Flaherty KT, Jönsson G, Tsao H. MITF Modulates Therapeutic Resistance through EGFR Signaling. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135:1863-1872. [PMID: 25789707 PMCID: PMC4466007 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Response to targeted therapies varies significantly despite shared oncogenic mutations. Nowhere is this more apparent than in BRAF (V600E)-mutated melanomas where initial drug response can be striking and yet relapse is commonplace. Resistance to BRAF inhibitors have been attributed to the activation of various receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), although the underlying mechanisms have been largely uncharacterized. Here, we found that EGFR-induced vemurafenib resistance is ligand dependent. We employed whole-genome expression analysis and discovered that vemurafenib resistance correlated with the loss of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), along with its melanocyte lineage program, and with the activation of EGFR signaling. An inverse relationship between MITF, vemurafenib resistance, and EGFR was then observed in patient samples of recurrent melanoma and was conserved across melanoma cell lines and patients' tumor specimens. Functional studies revealed that MITF depletion activated EGFR signaling and consequently recapitulated the resistance phenotype. In contrast, forced expression of MITF in melanoma and colon cancer cells inhibited EGFR and conferred sensitivity to BRAF/MEK inhibitors. These findings indicate that an "autocrine drug resistance loop" is suppressed by melanocyte lineage signal(s), such as MITF. This resistance loop modulates drug response and could explain the unique sensitivity of melanomas to BRAF inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyu Ji
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine/Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Yiyin Erin Chen
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine/Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Raj Kumar
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine/Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael Taylor
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine/Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ching-Ni Jenny Njauw
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine/Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Benchun Miao
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine/Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Dennie T Frederick
- MGH Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jennifer A Wargo
- Surgical Oncology and Genomic Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Keith T Flaherty
- MGH Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Göran Jönsson
- Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Hensin Tsao
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine/Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA; MGH Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
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61
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Wellbrock C, Arozarena I. Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor in melanoma development and MAP-kinase pathway targeted therapy. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2015; 28:390-406. [PMID: 25818589 PMCID: PMC4692100 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Malignant melanoma is a neoplasm of melanocytes, and the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is essential for the existence of melanocytes. MITF's relevance for this cell lineage is maintained in melanoma, where it is an important regulator of survival and balances melanoma cell proliferation with terminal differentiation (pigmentation). The MITF gene is amplified in ~20% of melanomas and MITF mutation can predispose to melanoma development. Furthermore, the regulation of MITF expression and function is strongly linked to the BRAF/MEK/ERK/MAP-kinase (MAPK) pathway, which is deregulated in >90% of melanomas and central target of current therapies. MITF expression in melanoma is heterogeneous, and recent findings highlight the relevance of this heterogeneity for the response of melanoma to MAPK pathway targeting drugs, as well as for MITF's role in melanoma progression. This review aims to provide an updated overview on the regulation of MITF function and plasticity in melanoma with a focus on its link to MAPK signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Wellbrock
- Manchester Cancer Research CentreWellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix ResearchFaculty of Life SciencesThe University of ManchesterManchesterUK
| | - Imanol Arozarena
- Manchester Cancer Research CentreWellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix ResearchFaculty of Life SciencesThe University of ManchesterManchesterUK
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62
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Erice O, Smith MP, White R, Goicoechea I, Barriuso J, Jones C, Margison GP, Acosta JC, Wellbrock C, Arozarena I. MGMT Expression Predicts PARP-Mediated Resistance to Temozolomide. Mol Cancer Ther 2015; 14:1236-46. [PMID: 25777962 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-14-0810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma and other solid cancers are frequently resistant to chemotherapies based on DNA alkylating agents such as dacarbazine and temozolomide. As a consequence, clinical responses are generally poor. Such resistance is partly due to the ability of cancer cells to use a variety of DNA repair enzymes to maintain cell viability. Particularly, the expression of MGMT has been linked to temozolomide resistance, but cotargeting MGMT has proven difficult due to dose-limiting toxicities. Here, we show that the MGMT-mediated resistance of cancer cells is profoundly dependent on the DNA repair enzyme PARP. Both in vitro and in vivo, we observe that MGMT-positive cancer cells strongly respond to the combination of temozolomide and PARP inhibitors (PARPi), whereas MGMT-deficient cells do not. In melanoma cells, temozolomide induced an antiproliferative senescent response, which was greatly enhanced by PARPi in MGMT-positive cells. In summary, we provide compelling evidence to suggest that the stratification of patients with cancer upon the MGMT status would enhance the success of combination treatments using temozolomide and PARPi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oihane Erice
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P Smith
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel White
- Edinburgh Cancer Research UK Centre and MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ibai Goicoechea
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Jorge Barriuso
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Jones
- Divisions of Molecular Pathology and Cancer Therapeutics, Institute of Cancer Research, Sutton, United Kingdom
| | - Geoffrey P Margison
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, The University of Manchester, Stopford Building, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Juan C Acosta
- Edinburgh Cancer Research UK Centre and MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Claudia Wellbrock
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, United Kingdom.
| | - Imanol Arozarena
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, United Kingdom.
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63
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King JW, Nathan PD. Role of the MEK inhibitor trametinib in the treatment of metastatic melanoma. Future Oncol 2015; 10:1559-70. [PMID: 25145427 DOI: 10.2217/fon.14.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately 50% of patients with cutaneous metastatic melanoma harbor a somatic BRAF mutation. BRAF inhibitors are now established in the treatment paradigm of BRAF mutant melanoma, following the approval of vemurafenib by the US FDA in 2011. The vast majority of patients obtain some degree of tumor shrinkage with oral BRAF inhibitors, and responses are often rapid. However, resistance inevitably develops, with a median progression-free survival of 5-7 months. The oral MEK inhibitor trametinib has also shown activity in BRAF mutant melanoma in Phase III trials. We review the rationale for treating BRAF mutant melanoma with trametinib, as single-agent therapy and in combination with BRAF inhibitors, as well as the clinical data to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy W King
- Mount Vernon Cancer Centre, Rickmansworth Road, Northwood, Middlesex, UK
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64
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BRAF inhibitor resistance mediated by the AKT pathway in an oncogenic BRAF mouse melanoma model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:E536-45. [PMID: 25624498 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1418163112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BRAF (v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B) inhibitors elicit a transient anti-tumor response in ∼ 80% of BRAF(V600)-mutant melanoma patients that almost uniformly precedes the emergence of resistance. Here we used a mouse model of melanoma in which melanocyte-specific expression of Braf(V618E) (analogous to the human BRAF(V600E) mutation) led to the development of skin hyperpigmentation and nevi, as well as melanoma formation with incomplete penetrance. Sleeping Beauty insertional mutagenesis in this model led to accelerated and fully penetrant melanomagenesis and synchronous tumor formation. Treatment of Braf(V618E) transposon mice with the BRAF inhibitor PLX4720 resulted in tumor regression followed by relapse. Analysis of transposon insertions identified eight genes including Braf, Mitf, and ERas (ES-cell expressed Ras) as candidate resistance genes. Expression of ERAS in human melanoma cell lines conferred resistance to PLX4720 and induced hyperphosphorylation of AKT (v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1), a phenotype reverted by combinatorial treatment with PLX4720 and the AKT inhibitor MK2206. We show that ERAS expression elicits a prosurvival signal associated with phosphorylation/inactivation of BAD, and that the resistance of hepatocyte growth factor-treated human melanoma cells to PLX4720 can be reverted by treatment with the BAD-like BH3 mimetic ABT-737. Thus, we define a role for the AKT/BAD pathway in resistance to BRAF inhibition and illustrate an in vivo approach for finding drug resistance genes.
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65
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Barriuso J, Nagaraju R, Hurlstone A. Zebrafish: a new companion for translational research in oncology. Clin Cancer Res 2015; 21:969-75. [PMID: 25573382 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-14-2921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In an era of high-throughput "omic" technologies, the unprecedented amount of data that can be generated presents a significant opportunity but simultaneously an even greater challenge for oncologists trying to provide personalized treatment. Classically, preclinical testing of new targets and identification of active compounds against those targets have entailed the extensive use of established human cell lines, as well as genetically modified mouse tumor models. Patient-derived xenografts in zebrafish may in the near future provide a platform for selecting an appropriate personalized therapy and together with zebrafish transgenic tumor models represent an alternative vehicle for drug development. The zebrafish is readily genetically modified. The transparency of zebrafish embryos and the recent development of pigment-deficient zebrafish afford researchers the valuable capacity to observe directly cancer formation and progression in a live vertebrate host. The zebrafish is amenable to transplantation assays that test the serial passage of fluorescently labeled tumor cells as well as their capacity to disseminate and/or metastasize. Progress achieved to date in genetic engineering and xenotransplantation will establish the zebrafish as one of the most versatile animal models for cancer research. A model organism that can be used in transgenesis, transplantation assays, single-cell functional assays, and in vivo imaging studies make zebrafish a natural companion for mice in translational oncology research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Barriuso
- Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.
| | - Raghavendar Nagaraju
- Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Hurlstone
- Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.
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Müller J, Krijgsman O, Tsoi J, Robert L, Hugo W, Song C, Kong X, Possik PA, Cornelissen-Steijger PDM, Geukes Foppen MH, Kemper K, Goding CR, McDermott U, Blank C, Haanen J, Graeber TG, Ribas A, Lo RS, Peeper DS. Low MITF/AXL ratio predicts early resistance to multiple targeted drugs in melanoma. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5712. [PMID: 25502142 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 430] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 10/30/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased expression of the Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) contributes to melanoma progression and resistance to BRAF pathway inhibition. Here we show that the lack of MITF is associated with more severe resistance to a range of inhibitors, while its presence is required for robust drug responses. Both in primary and acquired resistance, MITF levels inversely correlate with the expression of several activated receptor tyrosine kinases, most frequently AXL. The MITF-low/AXL-high/drug-resistance phenotype is common among mutant BRAF and NRAS melanoma cell lines. The dichotomous behaviour of MITF in drug response is corroborated in vemurafenib-resistant biopsies, including MITF-high and -low clones in a relapsed patient. Furthermore, drug cocktails containing AXL inhibitor enhance melanoma cell elimination by BRAF or ERK inhibition. Our results demonstrate that a low MITF/AXL ratio predicts early resistance to multiple targeted drugs, and warrant clinical validation of AXL inhibitors to combat resistance of BRAF and NRAS mutant MITF-low melanomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Müller
- Division of Molecular Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Oscar Krijgsman
- Division of Molecular Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jennifer Tsoi
- Division of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-1750, USA
| | - Lidia Robert
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-7227, USA
| | - Willy Hugo
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-7227, USA
| | - Chunying Song
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-7227, USA
| | - Xiangju Kong
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-7227, USA
| | - Patricia A Possik
- Division of Molecular Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marnix H Geukes Foppen
- Division of Medical Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kristel Kemper
- Division of Molecular Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Colin R Goding
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Headington, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Ultan McDermott
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Christian Blank
- Division of Medical Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John Haanen
- Division of Medical Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas G Graeber
- 1] Division of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-1750, USA [2] UCLA Metabolomics Center, Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, California Nanosystems Institute, UCLA, 570 Westwood Plaza, Building 114, Los Angeles, California 90095-7227, USA [3] Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center (JCCC), 8-684 Factor Building, Los Angeles, California 90095-1781, USA
| | - Antoni Ribas
- 1] Division of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-1750, USA [2] Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-7227, USA [3] Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center (JCCC), 8-684 Factor Building, Los Angeles, California 90095-1781, USA
| | - Roger S Lo
- 1] Division of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-1750, USA [2] Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90095-7227, USA [3] Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center (JCCC), 8-684 Factor Building, Los Angeles, California 90095-1781, USA
| | - Daniel S Peeper
- Division of Molecular Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Garrisi VM, Strippoli S, De Summa S, Pinto R, Perrone A, Guida G, Azzariti A, Guida M, Stefania T. Proteomic profile and in silico analysis in metastatic melanoma with and without BRAF mutation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e112025. [PMID: 25437182 PMCID: PMC4249853 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Selective inhibitors of BRAF, vemurafenib and dabrafenib are the standard of care for metastatic melanoma patients with BRAF V600, while chemotherapy continued to be widely used in BRAF wild type patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS In order to discover novel candidate biomarkers predictive to treatment, serum of 39 metastatic melanoma vemurafenib (n = 19) or chemotherapy (n = 20) treated patients at baseline, at disease control and at progression, were analyzed using SELDI-TOF technology. In silico analysis was used to identify more significant peaks. RESULTS In patients with different BRAF status, we found 5 peptides significantly deregulated, with the down-regulation of the m/z 9176 peak strongly associated with BRAF mutation. At baseline as predictive biomarkers we identified 2 peptides - m/z 6411, 4075 - as significantly up-regulated in responders to chemotherapy and 4 peaks - m/z 5900, 12544, 49124 and 11724 - significantly up-regulated in longer vs shorter responders to vemurafenib. After response, 3 peptides (m/z 4658, 18639, and 9307) resulted significantly down regulated while 3 peptides m/z 9292, 7765 and 9176 appeared up-regulated respectively in chemotherapy and vemurafenib responder patients. In vemurafenib treated patients, 16 peaks appeared deregulated at progression compared to baseline time. In silico analysis identified proteins involved in invasiveness (SLAIN1) and resistance (ABCC12) as well as in the pathway of detoxification (NQO1) and apoptosis (RBM10, TOX3, MTEFD1, TSPO2). Proteins associated with the modulation of neuronal plasticity (RIN1) and regulatory activity factors of gene transcription (KLF17, ZBTB44) were also highlighted. CONCLUSION Our exploratory study highlighted some factors that deserve to be further investigated in order to provide a framework for improving melanoma treatment management through the development of biomarkers which could act as the strongest surrogates of the key biological events in stage IV melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito Michele Garrisi
- National Cancer Research Centre, Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II”, Bari, Italy
| | - Sabino Strippoli
- National Cancer Research Centre, Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II”, Bari, Italy
| | - Simona De Summa
- National Cancer Research Centre, Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II”, Bari, Italy
| | - Rosamaria Pinto
- National Cancer Research Centre, Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II”, Bari, Italy
| | - Antonella Perrone
- National Cancer Research Centre, Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II”, Bari, Italy
| | - Gabriella Guida
- Dept. of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Amalia Azzariti
- National Cancer Research Centre, Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II”, Bari, Italy
| | - Michele Guida
- National Cancer Research Centre, Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II”, Bari, Italy
| | - Tommasi Stefania
- National Cancer Research Centre, Istituto Tumori “Giovanni Paolo II”, Bari, Italy
- * E-mail:
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68
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Hartman ML, Czyz M. MITF in melanoma: mechanisms behind its expression and activity. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 72:1249-60. [PMID: 25433395 PMCID: PMC4363485 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1791-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
MITF (microphthalmia-associated transcription factor) represents a melanocytic lineage-specific transcription factor whose role is profoundly extended in malignant melanoma. Over the last few years, the function of MITF has been tightly connected to plasticity of melanoma cells. MITF participates in executing diverse melanoma phenotypes defined by distinct gene expression profiles. Mutation-dependent alterations in MITF expression and activity have been found in a relatively small subset of melanomas. MITF activity is rather modulated by its upstream activators and suppressors operating on transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational levels. These regulatory mechanisms also include epigenetic and microenvironmental signals. Several transcription factors and signaling pathways involved in the regulation of MITF expression and/or activity such as the Wnt/β-catenin pathway are broadly utilized by various types of tumors, whereas others, e.g., BRAFV600E/ERK1/2 are more specific for melanoma. Furthermore, the MITF activity can be affected by the availability of transcriptional co-partners that are often redirected by MITF from their own canonical signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss the complexity of a multilevel regulation of MITF expression and activity that underlies distinct context-related phenotypes of melanoma and might explain diverse responses of melanoma patients to currently used therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz L Hartman
- Department of Molecular Biology of Cancer, Medical University of Lodz, 6/8 Mazowiecka Street, 92-215, Lodz, Poland
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69
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Bentley VL, Veinotte CJ, Corkery DP, Pinder JB, LeBlanc MA, Bedard K, Weng AP, Berman JN, Dellaire G. Focused chemical genomics using zebrafish xenotransplantation as a pre-clinical therapeutic platform for T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Haematologica 2014; 100:70-6. [PMID: 25281505 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2014.110742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer therapeutics is evolving to precision medicine, with the goal of matching targeted compounds with molecular aberrations underlying a patient's cancer. While murine models offer a pre-clinical tool, associated costs and time are not compatible with actionable patient-directed interventions. Using the paradigm of T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, a high-risk disease with defined molecular underpinnings, we developed a zebrafish human cancer xenotransplantation model to inform therapeutic decisions. Using a focused chemical genomic approach, we demonstrate that xenografted cell lines harboring mutations in the NOTCH1 and PI3K/AKT pathways respond concordantly to their targeted therapies, patient-derived T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia can be successfully engrafted in zebrafish and specific drug responses can be quantitatively determined. Using this approach, we identified a mutation sensitive to γ-secretase inhibition in a xenograft from a child with T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, confirmed by Sanger sequencing and validated as a gain-of-function NOTCH1 mutation. The zebrafish xenotransplantation platform provides a novel cost-effective means of tailoring leukemia therapy in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dale P Corkery
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS
| | | | | | | | - Andrew P Weng
- Terry Fox Laboratory, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, BC
| | - Jason N Berman
- IWK Health Centre, Halifax, NS Pediatrics and Microbiology & Immunology Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Graham Dellaire
- Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS
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Smith MP, Sanchez-Laorden B, O’Brien K, Brunton H, Ferguson J, Young H, Dhomen N, Flaherty KT, Frederick DT, Cooper ZA, Wargo JA, Marais R, Wellbrock C. The immune microenvironment confers resistance to MAPK pathway inhibitors through macrophage-derived TNFα. Cancer Discov 2014; 4:1214-1229. [PMID: 25256614 PMCID: PMC4184867 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8290.cd-13-1007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Recently, the rationale for combining targeted therapy with immunotherapy has come to light, but our understanding of the immune response during MAPK pathway inhibitor treatment is limited. We discovered that the immune microenvironment can act as a source of resistance to MAPK pathway-targeted therapy, and moreover during treatment this source becomes reinforced. In particular, we identified macrophage-derived TNFα as a crucial melanoma growth factor that provides resistance to MAPK pathway inhibitors through the lineage transcription factor MITF (microphthalmia transcription factor). Most strikingly, in BRAF-mutant melanomas of patients and BRAF(V600E) melanoma allografts, MAPK pathway inhibitors increased the number of tumor-associated macrophages, and TNFα and MITF expression. Inhibiting TNFα signaling with IκB kinase inhibitors profoundly enhanced the efficacy of MAPK pathway inhibitors by targeting not only the melanoma cells but also the microenvironment. In summary, we identify the immune microenvironment as a novel source of resistance and reveal a new strategy to improve the efficacy of targeted therapy in melanoma. SIGNIFICANCE This study identifies the immune microenvironment as a source of resistance to MAPK pathway inhibitors through macrophage-derived TNFα, and reveals that in patients on treatment this source becomes reinforced. Inhibiting IκB kinase enhances the efficacy of MAPK pathway inhibitors, which identifies this approach as a potential novel strategy to improve targeted therapy in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P. Smith
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Center for Cell Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Berta Sanchez-Laorden
- Division of Cancer Biology, The Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, 237 Fulham Road, SW3 6JB, UK
- Molecular Oncology Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, The University of Manchester, Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M20 4BX, UK
| | - Kate O’Brien
- Division of Cancer Biology, The Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, 237 Fulham Road, SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Holly Brunton
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Center for Cell Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Jennifer Ferguson
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Center for Cell Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Helen Young
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Center for Cell Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Nathalie Dhomen
- Division of Cancer Biology, The Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, 237 Fulham Road, SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Keith T. Flaherty
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit St, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Dennie T. Frederick
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit St, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zachary A. Cooper
- Divison of Surgical Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jennifer A. Wargo
- Divison of Surgical Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Richard Marais
- Division of Cancer Biology, The Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, 237 Fulham Road, SW3 6JB, UK
- Molecular Oncology Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, The University of Manchester, Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M20 4BX, UK
| | - Claudia Wellbrock
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Center for Cell Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
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71
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Pro-survival role of MITF in melanoma. J Invest Dermatol 2014; 135:352-358. [PMID: 25142731 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2014.319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma is a therapy-resistant skin cancer due to numerous mechanisms supporting cell survival. Although components of melanoma cytoprotective mechanisms are overexpressed in many types of tumors, some of their regulators are characteristic for melanoma. Several genes mediating pro-survival functions have been identified as direct targets of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), a melanocyte-specific modulator also recognized as a lineage addiction oncogene in melanoma. BRAF(V600E) and other proteins deregulated in melanoma influence MITF expression and activity, or they are the partners of MITF in melanoma response to radiotherapy and chemotherapeutics. In this review, the pro-survival activity of MITF is discussed.
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Choi H, Jin SH, Han MH, Lee J, Ahn S, Seong M, Choi H, Han J, Cho EG, Lee TR, Noh M. Human melanocytes form a PAX3-expressing melanocyte cluster on Matrigel by the cell migration process. J Dermatol Sci 2014; 76:60-6. [PMID: 25128984 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The interactions between human epidermal melanocytes and their cellular microenvironment are important in the regulation of human melanocyte functions or in their malignant transformation into melanoma. Although the basement membrane extracellular matrix (BM-ECM) is one of major melanocyte microenvironments, the effects of BM-ECM on the human melanocyte functions are not fully explained at a molecular level. OBJECTIVE This study was aimed to characterize the molecular and cellular interactions between normal human melanocytes (NHMs) and BM-ECM. METHODS We investigated cell culture models of normal human melanocytes or melanoma cells on three-dimensional (3D) Matrigel to understand the roles of the basement membrane microenvironment in human melanocyte functions. Melanogenesis and melanobast biomarker expression in both primary human melanocytes and melanoma cells on 3D Matrigel were evaluated. RESULTS We found that NHMs migrated and formed reversible paired box 3 (PAX3) expressing cell clusters on three-dimensional (3D) Matrigel. The melanogenesis was significantly decreased in the PAX3 expressing cell cluster. The expression profile of PAX3, SOX10, and MITF in the melanocyte cluster on 3D Matrigel was similar to that of melanoblasts. Interestingly, PAX3 and SOX10 showed an inverse expression profile in NHMs, whereas the inverse expression pattern of PAX3 and SOX10 was disrupted in melanoma MNT1 and WM266-4 cells. CONCLUSION The human melanocyte culture on 3D Matrigel provides an alternative model system to study functions of human melanoblasts. In addition, this system will contribute to the elucidation of PAX3-related tumorigenic mechanisms to understand human melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunjung Choi
- Bioscience Research Institute, AmorePacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin, Gyeonggi-do 446-729, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Hee Jin
- College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Natural Products Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi Hwa Han
- College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Natural Products Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinyoung Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Seyeon Ahn
- College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Minjeong Seong
- College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Choi
- Bioscience Research Institute, AmorePacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin, Gyeonggi-do 446-729, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiyeon Han
- Bioscience Research Institute, AmorePacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin, Gyeonggi-do 446-729, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Gyung Cho
- Bioscience Research Institute, AmorePacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin, Gyeonggi-do 446-729, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Ryong Lee
- Bioscience Research Institute, AmorePacific Corporation R&D Center, Yongin, Gyeonggi-do 446-729, Republic of Korea.
| | - Minsoo Noh
- College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Natural Products Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea.
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Abstract
The serine threonine kinases BRAF and MEK [MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/ERK (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase) kinase] are major regulators of the ERK/MAPK pathway, which is deregulated in the majority of melanomas. Targeting BRAF is an effective therapy for advanced melanoma, but patients progress due to the development of resistance. This 'acquired resistance' is thought to be based on a minority of tumour cell populations that are resistant and will eventually re-establish tumour growth even in the presence of drug. In particular, mutations, amplifications or overexpression of genes encoding regulators of the MAPK pathway can confer this resistance, because it allows the melanoma cells to bypass inhibitor action by stimulating ERK activation through alternative routes. Furthermore, there are mechanisms that produce resistance by enhancing the tolerance of melanoma cells to the cytotoxic effects of the drug. These compensatory mechanisms can activate survival signals in the melanoma cells without reactivating ERK. Besides these cell-autonomous resistance mechanisms, stromal fibroblasts in the tumour microenvironment have been identified as a potential source of resistance, because these cells can produce growth factors that reactivate ERK through paracrine signalling. Understanding and further identifying mechanisms of resistance is crucial for the future treatment of advanced melanoma, because this can inform the design of improved therapies with more durable responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Wellbrock
- *Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Wellcome Trust Center for Cell Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, U.K
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Holderfield M, Deuker MM, McCormick F, McMahon M. Targeting RAF kinases for cancer therapy: BRAF-mutated melanoma and beyond. Nat Rev Cancer 2014; 14:455-67. [PMID: 24957944 PMCID: PMC4250230 DOI: 10.1038/nrc3760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 586] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The identification of mutationally activated BRAF in many cancers altered our conception of the part played by the RAF family of protein kinases in oncogenesis. In this Review, we describe the development of BRAF inhibitors and the results that have emerged from their analysis in both the laboratory and the clinic. We discuss the spectrum of RAF mutations in human cancer and the complex interplay between the tissue of origin and the response to RAF inhibition. Finally, we enumerate mechanisms of resistance to BRAF inhibition that have been characterized and postulate how strategies of RAF pathway inhibition may be extended in scope to benefit not only the thousands of patients who are diagnosed annually with BRAF-mutated metastatic melanoma but also the larger patient population with malignancies harbouring mutationally activated RAF genes that are ineffectively treated with the current generation of BRAF kinase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Frank McCormick
- Corresponding Authors: Frank McCormick & Martin McMahon, Diller Family Cancer Research Bldg., 1450 Third Street, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA, &
| | - Martin McMahon
- Corresponding Authors: Frank McCormick & Martin McMahon, Diller Family Cancer Research Bldg., 1450 Third Street, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA, &
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Sun B, Kawahara M, Nagamune T. Modeling tandem AAG8-MEK inhibition in melanoma cells. Cancer Med 2014; 3:710-8. [PMID: 24634165 PMCID: PMC4101763 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Revised: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance presents a challenge to the treatment of cancer patients, especially for melanomas, most of which are caused by the hyperactivation of MAPK signaling pathway. Innate or acquired drug-resistant relapse calls for the investigation of the resistant mechanisms and new anti-cancer drugs to provide implications for the ultimate goal of curative therapy. Aging-associated gene 8 (AAG8, encoded by the SIGMAR1 gene) is a chaperone protein profoundly elaborated in neurology. However, roles of AAG8 in carcinogenesis remain unclear. Herein, we discover AAG8 antagonists as new MEK inhibitors in melanoma cells and propose a novel drug combination strategy for melanoma therapy by presenting the experimental evidences. We report that specific antagonism of AAG8, efficiently suppresses melanoma cell growth and migration through, at least in part, the inactivation of the RAS-CRAF-MEK signaling pathway. We further demonstrate that melanoma cells that are resistant to AAG8 antagonist harbor refractory CRAF-MEK activity. MEK acts as a central mediator for anti-cancer effects and also for the resistance mechanism, leading to our proposal of tandem AAG8-MEK inhibition in melanoma cells. Combination of AAG8 antagonist and very low concentration of a MEK inhibitor synergistically restricts the growth of drug-resistant cells. These data collectively pinpoint AAG8 as a potential target and delineate a promising drug combination strategy for melanoma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Sun
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, University of TokyoTokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kawahara
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, University of TokyoTokyo, Japan
| | - Teruyuki Nagamune
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, University of TokyoTokyo, Japan
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, University of TokyoTokyo, Japan
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Pan Y, Li R, Meng JL, Mao HT, Zhang Y, Zhang J. Smurf2 negatively modulates RIG-I-dependent antiviral response by targeting VISA/MAVS for ubiquitination and degradation. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2014; 192:4758-64. [PMID: 24729608 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
VISA (also known as MAVS, Cardif, IPS-1) is the essential adaptor protein for virus-induced activation of IFN regulatory factors 3 and 7 and production of type I IFNs. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms for VISA will provide detailed insights into the positive or negative regulation of innate immune responses. In this study, we identified Smad ubiquitin regulatory factor (Smurf) 2, one of the Smad ubiquitin regulator factor proteins, as an important negative regulator of virus-triggered type I IFN signaling, which targets at the VISA level. Overexpression of Smurf2 inhibits virus-induced IFN-β and IFN-stimulated response element activation. The E3 ligase defective mutant Smurf2/C716A loses the ability to suppress virus-induced type I IFN signaling, suggesting that the negative regulation is dependent on the ubiquitin E3 ligase activity of Smurf2. Further studies demonstrated that Smurf2 interacted with VISA and targeted VISA for K48-linked ubiquitination, which promoted the degradation of VISA. Consistently, knockout or knockdown of Smurf2 expression therefore promoted antiviral signaling, which was correlated with the increase in protein stability of VISA. Our findings suggest that Smurf2 is an important nonredundant negative regulator of virus-triggered type I IFN signaling by targeting VISA for K48-linked ubiquitination and degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Pan
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology (Ministry of Health), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, People's Republic of China
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Shtivelman E, Davies MA, Hwu P, Yang J, Lotem M, Oren M, Flaherty KT, Fisher DE. Pathways and therapeutic targets in melanoma. Oncotarget 2014; 5:1701-52. [PMID: 24743024 PMCID: PMC4039128 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.1892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This review aims to summarize the current knowledge of molecular pathways and their clinical relevance in melanoma. Metastatic melanoma was a grim diagnosis, but in recent years tremendous advances have been made in treatments. Chemotherapy provided little benefit in these patients, but development of targeted and new immune approaches made radical changes in prognosis. This would not have happened without remarkable advances in understanding the biology of disease and tremendous progress in the genomic (and other "omics") scale analyses of tumors. The big problems facing the field are no longer focused exclusively on the development of new treatment modalities, though this is a very busy area of clinical research. The focus shifted now to understanding and overcoming resistance to targeted therapies, and understanding the underlying causes of the heterogeneous responses to immune therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Patrick Hwu
- University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - James Yang
- National Cancer Institute, NIH, Washington DC, USA
| | - Michal Lotem
- Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Moshe Oren
- The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | | | - David E. Fisher
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA, USA
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78
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Hartman ML, Talar B, Noman MZ, Gajos-Michniewicz A, Chouaib S, Czyz M. Gene expression profiling identifies microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) and Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) as regulators of microenvironment-driven alterations in melanoma phenotype. PLoS One 2014; 9:e95157. [PMID: 24733089 PMCID: PMC3986414 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The diversity of functional phenotypes observed within a tumor does not exclusively result from intratumoral genetic heterogeneity but also from the response of cancer cells to the microenvironment. We have previously demonstrated that the morphological and functional phenotypes of melanoma can be dynamically altered upon external stimuli. FINDINGS In the present study, transcriptome profiles were generated to explore the molecules governing phenotypes of melanospheres grown in the bFGF(+)EGF(+) serum-free cultures and monolayers maintained in the serum-containing medium. Higher expression levels of MITF-dependent genes that are responsible for differentiation, e.g., TYR and MLANA, and stemness-related genes, e.g., ALDH1A1, were detected in melanospheres. These results were supported by the observation that the melanospheres contained more pigmented cells and cells exerting the self-renewal capacity than the monolayers. In addition, the expression of the anti-apoptotic, MITF-dependent genes e.g., BCL2A1 was also higher in the melanospheres. The enhanced activity of MITF in melanospheres, as illustrated by the increased expression of 74 MITF-dependent genes, identified MITF as a central transcriptional regulator in melanospheres. Importantly, several genes including MITF-dependent ones were expressed in melanospheres and original tumors at similar levels. The reduced MITF level in monolayers might be partially explained by suppression of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and DKK1, a secreted inhibitor of this pathway, was highly up-regulated in monolayers in comparison to melanospheres and original tumors. Furthermore, the silencing of DKK1 in monolayers increased the percentage of cells with self-renewing capacity. CONCLUSIONS Our study indicates that melanospheres can be used to unravel the molecular pathways that sustain intratumoral phenotypic heterogeneity. Melanospheres directly derived from tumor specimens more accurately mirrored the morphology and gene expression profiles of the original tumors compared to monolayers. Therefore, melanospheres represent a relevant preclinical tool to study new anticancer treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz L. Hartman
- Department of Molecular Biology of Cancer, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Beata Talar
- Department of Molecular Biology of Cancer, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | | | | | - Salem Chouaib
- Unité INSERM U753, Institut de Cancérologie Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
| | - Malgorzata Czyz
- Department of Molecular Biology of Cancer, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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79
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An H, Krist DT, Statsyuk AV. Crosstalk between kinases and Nedd4 family ubiquitin ligases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 10:1643-57. [DOI: 10.1039/c3mb70572b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the interplay between kinase and E3 ligase signaling pathways will allow better understanding of therapeutically relevant pathways and the design of small molecule therapeutics targeting these pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heeseon An
- Department of Chemistry
- Northwestern University
- Evanston, USA
| | - David T. Krist
- Department of Chemistry
- Northwestern University
- Evanston, USA
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80
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A melanocyte lineage program confers resistance to MAP kinase pathway inhibition. Nature 2013; 504:138-42. [PMID: 24185007 PMCID: PMC4098832 DOI: 10.1038/nature12688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 353] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BRAFV600E-mutant malignant melanomas depend on RAF/MEK/ERK (MAPK) signaling for tumor cell growth1. RAF and MEK inhibitors show remarkable clinical efficacy in BRAFV600E melanoma2, 3; however, resistance to these agents remains a formidable challenge2, 4. Global characterization of resistance mechanisms may inform the development of more effective therapeutic combinations. Here, we performed systematic gain-of-function resistance studies by expressing >15,500 genes individually in a BRAFV600E melanoma cell line treated with RAF, MEK, ERK, or combined RAF/MEK inhibitors. These studies revealed a cyclic AMP-dependent melanocytic signaling network not previously associated with drug resistance, including G-protein coupled receptors, adenyl cyclase, protein kinase A and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB). Preliminary analysis of biopsies from BRAFV600E melanoma patients revealed that phosphorylated (active) CREB was suppressed by RAF/MEK-inhibition but restored in relapsing tumors. Expression of transcription factors activated downstream of MAP kinase and cAMP pathways also conferred resistance, including c-FOS, NR4A1, NR4A2 and MITF. Combined treatment with MAP kinase pathway and histone deacetylase inhibitors suppressed MITF expression and cAMP-mediated resistance. Collectively, these data suggest that oncogenic dysregulation of a melanocyte lineage dependency can cause resistance to RAF/MEK/ERK inhibition, which may be overcome by combining signaling- and chromatin-directed therapeutics.
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81
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Dye DE, Medic S, Ziman M, Coombe DR. Melanoma biomolecules: independently identified but functionally intertwined. Front Oncol 2013; 3:252. [PMID: 24069584 PMCID: PMC3781348 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2013.00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2013] [Accepted: 09/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The majority of patients diagnosed with melanoma present with thin lesions and generally these patients have a good prognosis. However, 5% of patients with early melanoma (<1 mm thick) will have recurrence and die within 10 years, despite no evidence of local or metastatic spread at the time of diagnosis. Thus, there is a need for additional prognostic markers to help identify those patients that may be at risk of recurrent disease. Many studies and several meta-analyses have compared gene and protein expression in melanocytes, naevi, primary, and metastatic melanoma in an attempt to find informative prognostic markers for these patients. However, although a large number of putative biomarkers have been described, few of these molecules are informative when used in isolation. The best approach is likely to involve a combination of molecules. We believe one approach could be to analyze the expression of a group of interacting proteins that regulate different aspects of the metastatic pathway. This is because a primary lesion expressing proteins involved in multiple stages of metastasis may be more likely to lead to secondary disease than one that does not. This review focuses on five putative biomarkers – melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM), galectin-3 (gal-3), matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4), and paired box 3 (PAX3). The goal is to provide context around what is known about the contribution of these biomarkers to melanoma biology and metastasis. Although each of these molecules have been independently identified as likely biomarkers, it is clear from our analyses that each are closely linked with each other, with intertwined roles in melanoma biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle E Dye
- School of Biomedical Science & Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health, Curtin University , Perth, WA , Australia
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82
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McNeil EM, Ritchie AM, Melton DW. The toxicity of nitrofuran compounds on melanoma and neuroblastoma cells is enhanced by Olaparib and ameliorated by melanin pigment. DNA Repair (Amst) 2013; 12:1000-6. [PMID: 24070777 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2013.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Revised: 08/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nitrofurans are commonly used for the treatment of trypanosomal diseases including Chagas disease. More recently, following the fortuitous discovery that nifurtimox was clinically active against neuroblastoma, nitrofuran compounds are being investigated for activity against cancer. Herein, we show that nitrofuran compounds are similarly potent to human malignant melanoma and neuroblastoma cells. Furthermore, a recently discovered nitrofuran compound, NFN1, was 50- to 175-fold more potent than nifurtimox against human melanoma and neuroblastoma cell lines. As nitrofuran compounds are known to act as pro-drugs, producing DNA-damaging reactive intermediates upon activation, we investigated the DNA repair pathways involved. We show that, contrary to research in Escherichia coli, the Nucleotide Excision Repair pathway is not required to repair nitrofuran-induced DNA damage in mammalian cells. Instead, we show that inhibiting repair of single-strand DNA breaks with the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor, Olaparib, enhances nitrofuran toxicity in melanoma and neuroblastoma cells. We propose that this is due to mammalian cells utilising Type 2 nitroreductases for nitrofuran activation producing Reactive Oxygen Species which cause DNA damage that is repaired by the Single Strand Break Repair and/or Base Excision Repair pathways, whereas in bacteria and trypanosomes, Type 1 nitroreductases are also utilised resulting in different DNA lesions. In addition we show that, consistent with Reactive Oxygen Species being formed upon nitrofuran activation and the ability of melanin to absorb Reactive Oxygen Species, production of melanin in melanoma cells offers some protection from NFN1- and hydrogen peroxide-induced toxicity. Our data suggest that combinations of Olaparib and nitrofuran compounds may be advantageous for the treatment of melanoma and neuroblastoma, but that the protection offered to melanoma cells by their melanin pigment must be taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewan M McNeil
- MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK
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