Peroxisomal malate dehydrogenase is not essential for photorespiration in Arabidopsis but its absence causes an increase in the stoichiometry of photorespiratory CO2 release

Reduced glutamine synthetase activity plays a role in control of photosynthetic responses to high light in barley leaves

The chloroplastic glutamine synthetase (GS, EC 6.3.1.2) activity was previously shown to be the limiting step of photorespiratory pathway. In our experiment, we examined the photosynthetic high-light responses of the GS2-mutant of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) with reduced GS activity, in comparison to wild type (WT). The biophysical methods based on slow and fast chlorophyll fluorescence induction, P700 absorbance, and gas exchange measurements were employed. Despite the GS2 plants had high basal fluorescence (F0) and low maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm), the CO2 assimilation rate, the PSII and PSI actual quantum yields were normal. On the other hand, in high light conditions the GS2 had much higher non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), caused both by enhanced capacity of energy-dependent quenching and disconnection of PSII antennae from reaction centers (RC). GS2 leaves also maintained the PSII redox poise (QA(-)/QA total) at very low level; probably this was reason why the observed photoinhibitory damage was not significantly above WT. The analysis of fast chlorophyll fluorescence induction uncovered in GS2 leaves substantially lower RC to antenna ratio (RC/ABS), low PSII/PSI ratio (confirmed by P700 records) as well as low PSII excitonic connectivity.

Enzymatic activity analysis and catalytic essential residues identification of Brucella abortus malate dehydrogenase

Malate dehydrogenase (MDH) plays important metabolic roles in bacteria. In this study, the recombinant MDH protein (His-MDH) of Brucella abortus was purified and its ability to catalyze the conversion of oxaloacetate (OAA) to L-malate (hereon referred to as MDH activity) was analyzed. Michaelis Constant (K_m) and Maximum Reaction Velocity (V_max) of the reaction were determined to be 6.45 × 10⁻³ M and 0.87 mM L⁻¹min⁻¹, respectively. In vitro studies showed that His-MDH exhibited maximal MDH activity in pH 6.0 reaction buffer at 40°C. The enzymatic activity was 100%, 60%, and 40% inhibited by Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, and Pb²⁺, respectively. In addition, six amino acids in the MDH were mutated to investigate their roles in the enzymatic activity. The results showed that the substitutions of amino acids Arg 89, Asp 149, Arg 152, His 176, or Thr 231 almost abolished the activity of His-MDH. The present study will help to understand MDH's roles in B. abortus metabolism.

Characterization of the immunogenicity and pathogenicity of malate dehydrogenase in Brucella abortus

Brucella abortus is a gram-negative, facultative intracellular pathogen that causes brucellosis, a chronic zoonotic disease resulting in abortion in pregnant cattle and undulant fever in humans. Malate dehydrogenase (MDH), a key enzyme in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, plays important metabolic roles in aerobic energy producing pathways and in malate shuttle. In this study, the MDH-encoding gene for malate dehydrogenase mdh of B. abortus S2308 was cloned, sequenced and expressed. Western blot analysis demonstrated that MDH is an immunogenic membrane-associated protein. In addition, recombinant MDH showed sero-reactivity with 30 individual bovine B. abortus-positive sera by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, indicates that MDH may be used as a candidate marker for sero-diagnosis of brucellosis. Furthermore, MDH exhibits fibronectin and plasminogen-binding ability in immunoblotting assay. Inhibition assays on HeLa cells demonstrated that rabbit anti-serum against MDH significantly reduced both bacterial adherence and invasion abilities (p < 0.05), suggesting that MDH play a role in B. abortus colonization. Our results indicated that MDH is not only an immunogenic protein, but is also related to bacterial pathogenesis and may act as a new virulent factor, which will benefit for further understanding the MDH's roles in B. abortus metabolism, pathogenesis and immunity.

Plastidial NAD-dependent malate dehydrogenase is critical for embryo development and heterotrophic metabolism in Arabidopsis

In illuminated chloroplasts, one mechanism involved in reduction-oxidation (redox) homeostasis is the malate-oxaloacetate (OAA) shuttle. Excess electrons from photosynthetic electron transport in the form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, reduced are used by NADP-dependent malate dehydrogenase (MDH) to reduce OAA to malate, thus regenerating the electron acceptor NADP. NADP-MDH is a strictly redox-regulated, light-activated enzyme that is inactive in the dark. In the dark or in nonphotosynthetic tissues, the malate-OAA shuttle was proposed to be mediated by the constitutively active plastidial NAD-specific MDH isoform (pdNAD-MDH), but evidence is scarce. Here, we reveal the critical role of pdNAD-MDH in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants. A pdnad-mdh null mutation is embryo lethal. Plants with reduced pdNAD-MDH levels by means of artificial microRNA (miR-mdh-1) are viable, but dark metabolism is altered as reflected by increased nighttime malate, starch, and glutathione levels and a reduced respiration rate. In addition, miR-mdh-1 plants exhibit strong pleiotropic effects, including dwarfism, reductions in chlorophyll levels, photosynthetic rate, and daytime carbohydrate levels, and disordered chloroplast ultrastructure, particularly in developing leaves, compared with the wild type. pdNAD-MDH deficiency in miR-mdh-1 can be functionally complemented by expression of a microRNA-insensitive pdNAD-MDH but not NADP-MDH, confirming distinct roles for NAD- and NADP-linked redox homeostasis.

Two hydroxypyruvate reductases encoded by OsHPR1 and OsHPR2 are involved in photorespiratory metabolism in rice

Mutations in the photorespiration pathway display a lethal phenotype in atmospheric air, which can be fully recovered by elevated CO2 . An exception is that mutants of peroxisomal hydroxypyruvate reductase (HPR1) do not have this phenotype, indicating the presence of cytosolic bypass in the photorespiration pathway. In this study, we constructed overexpression of the OsHPR1 gene and RNA interference plants of OsHPR1 and OsHPR2 genes in rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Zhonghua 11). Results from reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blot, and enzyme assays showed that HPR1 activity changed significantly in corresponding transgenic lines without any effect on HPR2 activity, which is the same for HPR2. However, metabolite analysis and the serine glyoxylate aminotransferase (SGAT) activity assay showed that the metabolite flux of photorespiration was disturbed in RNAi lines of both HPR genes. Furthermore, HPR1 and HPR2 proteins were located to the peroxisome and cytosol, respectively, by transient expression experiment. Double mutant hpr1 × hpr2 was generated by crossing individual mutant of hpr1 and hpr2. The phenotypes of all transgenic lines were determined in ambient air and CO2 -elevated air. The phenotype typical of photorespiration mutants was observed only where activity of both HPR1 and HPR2 were downregulated in the same line. These findings demonstrate that two hydroxypyruvate reductases encoded by OsHPR1 and OsHPR2 are involved in photorespiratory metabolism in rice.

The Arabidopsis thaliana RNA editing factor SLO2, which affects the mitochondrial electron transport chain, participates in multiple stress and hormone responses

Recently, we reported that the novel mitochondrial RNA editing factor SLO2 is essential for mitochondrial electron transport, and vital for plant growth through regulation of carbon and energy metabolism. Here, we show that mutation in SLO2 causes hypersensitivity to ABA and insensitivity to ethylene, suggesting a link with stress responses. Indeed, slo2 mutants are hypersensitive to salt and osmotic stress during the germination stage, while adult plants show increased drought and salt tolerance. Moreover, slo2 mutants are more susceptible to Botrytis cinerea infection. An increased expression of nuclear-encoded stress-responsive genes, as well as mitochondrial-encoded NAD genes of complex I and genes of the alternative respiratory pathway, was observed in slo2 mutants, further enhanced by ABA treatment. In addition, H2O2 accumulation and altered amino acid levels were recorded in slo2 mutants. We conclude that SLO2 is required for plant sensitivity to ABA, ethylene, biotic, and abiotic stress. Although two stress-related RNA editing factors were reported very recently, this study demonstrates a unique role of SLO2, and further supports a link between mitochondrial RNA editing events and stress response.

Steady-state models of photosynthesis

In the challenge to increase photosynthetic rate per leaf area mathematical models of photosynthesis can be used to help interpret gas exchange measurements made under different environmental conditions and predict underlying photosynthetic biochemistry. To do this successfully it is important to improve the modelling of temperature dependencies of CO₂ assimilation and gain better understanding of internal CO₂ diffusion limitations. Despite these shortcomings steady-state models of photosynthesis provide simple easy to use tools for thought experiments to explore photosynthetic pathway changes such as redirecting photorespiratory CO₂, inserting bicarbonate pumps into C₃ chloroplasts or inserting C₄ photosynthesis into rice. Here a number of models derived from the C₃ model by Farquhar, von Caemmerer and Berry are discussed and compared.

Investigating the role of respiration in plant salinity tolerance by analyzing mitochondrial proteomes from wheat and a salinity-tolerant Amphiploid (wheat × Lophopyrum elongatum)

The effect of salinity on mitochondrial properties was investigated by comparing the reference wheat variety Chinese Spring (CS) to a salt-tolerant amphiploid (AMP). The octoploid AMP genotype was previously generated by combining hexaploid bread wheat (CS) with the diploid wild wheatgrass adapted to salt marshes, Lophopyrum elongatum. Here we used a combination of physiological, biochemical, and proteomic analyses to explore the mitochondrial and respiratory response to salinity in these two genotypes. The AMP showed greater growth tolerance to salinity treatments and altered respiration rate in both roots and shoots. A proteomic workflow of 2D-DIGE and MALDI TOF/TOF mass spectrometry was used to compare the protein composition of isolated mitochondrial samples from roots and shoots of both genotypes, following control or salt treatment. A large set of mitochondrial proteins were identified as responsive to salinity in both genotypes, notably enzymes involved in detoxification of reactive oxygen species. Genotypic differences in mitochondrial composition were also identified, with AMP exhibiting a higher abundance of manganese superoxide dismutase, serine hydroxymethyltransferase, aconitase, malate dehydrogenase, and β-cyanoalanine synthase compared to CS. We present peptide fragmentation spectra derived from some of these AMP-specific protein spots, which could serve as biomarkers to track superior protein variants.

Co-expression analysis as tool for the discovery of transport proteins in photorespiration

Shedding light on yet uncharacterised components of photorespiration, such as transport processes required for the function of this pathway, is a prerequisite for manipulating photorespiratory fluxes and hence for decreasing photorespiratory energy loss. The ability of forward genetic screens to identify missing links is apparently limited, as indicated by the fact that little progress has been made with this approach during the past decade. The availability of large amounts of gene expression data and the growing power of bioinformatics, paired with availability of computational resources, opens new avenues to discover proteins involved in transport of photorespiratory intermediates. Co-expression analysis is a tool that compares gene expression data under hundreds of different conditions, trying to find groups of genes that show similar expression patterns across many different conditions. Genes encoding proteins that are involved in the same process are expected to be simultaneously expressed in time and space. Thus, co-expression data can aid in the discovery of novel players in a pathway, such as the transport proteins required for facilitating the transfer of intermediates between compartments during photorespiration. We here review the principles of co-expression analysis and show how this tool can be used for identification of candidate genes encoding photorespiratory transporters.

New insights into photorespiration obtained from metabolomics

Photorespiration, one of the cornerstone pathways of primary metabolism, allows plant growth in a high oxygen-containing environment. While the oxygenase reaction of Rubisco directly influences photosynthesis per se, several other processes are also affected by photorespiration, including nitrogen assimilation, respiration, amino acid metabolism, 1-C metabolism and redox metabolism, cumulating to impose a severe impact across multiple signalling pathways. Accordingly, although the plant photorespiratory cycle is complex and highly compartmentalised, little is currently known about the participating transport proteins, and relatively few of them have been properly identified. Despite its centrality, uniqueness, and mystery, the biochemistry of photorespiration has historically been quite poorly understood, in part because at least some of its enzymes and intermediates tend to be labile and of low abundance. Fortunately, the integration of molecular and genetic approaches with biochemical ones, such as metabolite profiling, is now driving rapid advances in knowledge of the key metabolic roles and connections of the enzymes and genes of the photorespiratory pathway. While these experiments have revealed a surprising complexity in the response and established connections between photorespiration and other metabolic pathways, the mechanisms behind the observed responses have still to be fully elucidated. Here we review recent progress into photorespiration and its interaction with other metabolic processes, paying particular attention to data emanating from metabolic profiling studies.

Current methods for estimating the rate of photorespiration in leaves

Photorespiration is a process that competes with photosynthesis, in which Rubisco oxygenates, instead of carboxylates, its substrate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate. The photorespiratory metabolism associated with the recovery of 3-phosphoglycerate is energetically costly and results in the release of previously fixed CO2. The ability to quantify photorespiration is gaining importance as a tool to help improve plant productivity in order to meet the increasing global food demand. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in the methods used to measure photorespiration. Current techniques are able to measure multiple aspects of photorespiration at different points along the photorespiratory C2 cycle. Six different methods used to estimate photorespiration are reviewed, and their advantages and disadvantages discussed.

Perspectives on plant photorespiratory metabolism

Being intimately intertwined with (C3) photosynthesis, photorespiration is an incredibly high flux-bearing pathway. Traditionally, the photorespiratory cycle was viewed as closed pathway to refill the Calvin-Benson cycle with organic carbon. However, given the network nature of metabolism, it hence follows that photorespiration will interact with many other pathways. In this article, we review current understanding of these interactions and attempt to define key priorities for future research, which will allow us greater fundamental comprehension of general metabolic and developmental consequences of perturbation of this crucial metabolic process.

Engineering photorespiration: current state and future possibilities

Reduction of flux through photorespiration has been viewed as a major way to improve crop carbon fixation and yield since the energy-consuming reactions associated with this pathway were discovered. This view has been supported by the biomasses increases observed in model species that expressed artificial bypass reactions to photorespiration. Here, we present an overview about the major current attempts to reduce photorespiratory losses in crop species and provide suggestions for future research priorities.

The variety of photorespiratory phenotypes - employing the current status for future research directions on photorespiration

Mutations of genes encoding for proteins within the photorespiratory core cycle and associated processes are characterised by lethality under normal air but viability under elevated CO2 conditions. This feature has been described as 'the photorespiratory phenotype' and assumed to be distinctly equal for all of these mutants. In recent years a broad collection of photorespiratory mutants has been isolated, which has allowed a comparative analysis. Distinct phenotypic features were observed when Arabidopsis thaliana mutants defective in photorespiratory enzymes were compared, and during shifts from elevated to ambient CO2 conditions. The exact reasons for the mutant-specific photorespiratory phenotypes are mostly unknown, but they indicate even more plasticity of photorespiratory metabolism. Moreover, a growing body of evidence was obtained that mutant features could be modulated by alterations of several factors, such as CO2 :O2 ratios, photoperiod, light intensity, organic carbon supply and pathogens. Hence, systematic analyses of the responses to these factors appear to be crucial to unravel mechanisms how photorespiration adapts and interacts with the whole cellular metabolism. Here we review current knowledge regarding photorespiratory mutants and propose a new level of phenotypic sub-classification. Finally, we present further questions that should be addressed in the field of photorespiration.

Primary and secondary metabolism in the sun-exposed peel and the shaded peel of apple fruit

The metabolism of carbohydrates, organic acids, amino acids and phenolics was compared between the sun-exposed peel and the shaded peel of apple fruit. Contents of sorbitol and glucose were higher in the sun-exposed peel, whereas those of sucrose and fructose were almost the same in the two peel types. This was related to lower sorbitol dehydrogenase activity and higher activities of sorbitol oxidase, neutral invertase and acid invertase in the sun-exposed peel. The lower starch content in the sun-exposed peel was related to lower sucrose synthase activity early in fruit development. Dark respiratory metabolism in the sun-exposed peel was enhanced by the high peel temperature due to high light exposure. Activities of most enzymes in respiratory metabolism were higher in the sun-exposed peel, but the concentrations of most organic acids were relatively stable, except pyruvate and oxaloacetate. Due to the different availability of carbon skeletons from dark respiration in the two peel types, amino acids with higher C/N ratios are accumulated in the sun-exposed peel whereas those with lower C/N ratios are accumulated in the shaded peel. Contents of anthocyanins and flavonols and activities of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, UDP-galactose:flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase and several other enzymes were higher in the sun-exposed peel than in the shaded peel, indicating the entire phenylpropanoid pathway is upregulated in the sun-exposed peel. Comprehensive analyses of the metabolites and activities of enzymes involved in primary metabolism and secondary metabolism have allowed us to gain a full picture of the metabolic network in the two peel types under natural light exposure.

Influence of temperature on measurements of the CO2 compensation point: differences between the Laisk and O2-exchange methods

The CO2 compensation point in the absence of day respiration (Γ*) is a key parameter for modelling leaf CO2 exchange. Γ* links the kinetics of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (Rubisco) with the stoichiometry of CO2 released per Rubisco oxygenation from photorespiration (α), two essential components of biochemical models of photosynthesis. There are two main gas-exchange methods for measuring Γ*: (i) the Laisk method, which requires estimates of mesophyll conductance to CO2 (g m) and (ii) measurements of O2 isotope exchange, which assume constant values of α and a fixed stoichiometry between O2 uptake and Rubisco oxygenation. In this study, the temperature response of Γ* measured using the Laisk and O2-exchange methods was compared under ambient (25 °C) and elevated (35 °C) temperatures to determine whether both methods yielded similar results. Previously published temperature responses of Γ* estimated with the Laisk and O2-exchange methods in Nicotiana tabacum demonstrated that the Laisk-derived model of Γ* was more sensitive to temperature compared with the O2-exchange model. Measurements in Arabidopsis thaliana indicated that the Laisk and O2-exchange methods produced similar Γ* at 25 °C; however, Γ* values from O2 exchange were lower at 35 °C compared with the Laisk method. Compared with a photorespiratory mutant (pmdh1pmdh2hpr) with increased α, wild-type (WT) plants had lower Laisk values of Γ* at 25 °C but were not significantly different at 35 °C. These differences between Laisk and O2 exchange values of Γ* at 35 °C could be explained by temperature sensitivity of α in WT and/or errors in the assumptions of O2 exchange. The differences between Γ* measured using the Laisk and O2-exchange method with temperature demonstrate that assumptions used to measure Γ*, and possibly the species-specific validity of these assumptions, need to be considered when modelling the temperature response of photosynthesis.

Photorespiratory bypasses: how can they work?

Photorespiration has been suggested as a target for increasing photosynthesis for decades. Within the last few years, three bypass pathways or reactions have been designed and tested in plants. The three reactions bypass photorespiration either in the chloroplast or in the peroxisome, or oxidize glycolate completely to CO(2) in the chloroplast. The reactions differ in their demand for energy and reducing power as well as in the catabolic fate of glycolate. The design, energy balance, and reported benefits of the three bypasses are compared here, and an outlook on further optimization is given.

Peroxisomes and photomorphogenesis

In higher plants, light-grown seedlings exhibit photomorphogenesis, a developmental program controlled by a complex web of interactions between photoreceptors, central repressors, and downstream effectors that leads to changes in gene expression and physiological changes. Light induces peroxisomal proliferation through a phytochrome A-mediated pathway, in which the transcription factor HYH activates the peroxisomal proliferation factor gene PEX11b. Microarray analysis revealed that light activates the expression of a number of peroxisomal genes, especially those involved in photorespiration, a process intimately associated with photosynthesis. In contrast, light represses the expression of genes involved in β-oxidation and the glyoxylate cycle, peroxisomal pathways essential for seedling establishment before photosynthesis begins. Furthermore, the peroxisome is a source of signaling molecules, notably nitric oxide, which promotes photomorphogenesis. Lastly, a gain-of-function mutant of the peroxisomal membrane-tethered RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase PEX2 partially suppresses the phenotype of the photomorphogenic mutant det1. Possible mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are discussed.

High-to-low CO2 acclimation reveals plasticity of the photorespiratory pathway and indicates regulatory links to cellular metabolism of Arabidopsis

BACKGROUND

Photorespiratory carbon metabolism was long considered as an essentially closed and nonregulated pathway with little interaction to other metabolic routes except nitrogen metabolism and respiration. Most mutants of this pathway cannot survive in ambient air and require CO(2)-enriched air for normal growth. Several studies indicate that this CO(2) requirement is very different for individual mutants, suggesting a higher plasticity and more interaction of photorespiratory metabolism as generally thought. To understand this better, we examined a variety of high- and low-level parameters at 1% CO(2) and their alteration during acclimation of wild-type plants and selected photorespiratory mutants to ambient air.

METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The wild type and four photorespiratory mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) were grown to a defined stadium at 1% CO(2) and then transferred to normal air (0.038% CO(2)). All other conditions remained unchanged. This approach allowed unbiased side-by-side monitoring of acclimation processes on several levels. For all lines, diel (24 h) leaf growth, photosynthetic gas exchange, and PSII fluorescence were monitored. Metabolite profiling was performed for the wild type and two mutants. During acclimation, considerable variation between the individual genotypes was detected in many of the examined parameters, which correlated with the position of the impaired reaction in the photorespiratory pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Photorespiratory carbon metabolism does not operate as a fully closed pathway. Acclimation from high to low CO(2) was typically steady and consistent for a number of features over several days, but we also found unexpected short-term events, such as an intermittent very massive rise of glycine levels after transition of one particular mutant to ambient air. We conclude that photorespiration is possibly exposed to redox regulation beyond known substrate-level effects. Additionally, our data support the view that 2-phosphoglycolate could be a key regulator of photosynthetic-photorespiratory metabolism as a whole.

Photorespiration has a dual origin and manifold links to central metabolism

Photorespiration is a Janus-headed metabolic process: it makes oxygenic photosynthesis possible by scavenging its major toxic by-product, 2-phosphoglycolate, but also leads to high losses of freshly assimilated CO(2) from most land plants. Photorespiration has been often classified as a wasteful process but is now increasingly appreciated as a key ancillary component of photosynthesis and therefore the global carbon cycle. As such, the photorespiratory cycle is one of the major highways for the flow of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere. Recent research revealed that this important pathway originated as a partner of oxygenic photosynthesis billions of years ago and is multiply linked to other pathways of central metabolism of contemporary land plants.

Two alanine aminotranferases link mitochondrial glycolate oxidation to the major photorespiratory pathway in Arabidopsis and rice

The major photorespiratory pathway in higher plants is distributed over chloroplasts, mitochondria, and peroxisomes. In this pathway, glycolate oxidation takes place in peroxisomes. It was previously suggested that a mitochondrial glycolate dehydrogenase (GlcDH) that was conserved from green algae lacking leaf-type peroxisomes contributes to photorespiration in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, the identification of two Arabidopsis mitochondrial alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferases (ALAATs) that link glycolate oxidation to glycine formation are described. By this reaction, the mitochondrial side pathway produces glycine from glyoxylate that can be used in the glycine decarboxylase (GCD) reaction of the major pathway. RNA interference (RNAi) suppression of mitochondrial ALAAT did not result in major changes in metabolite pools under standard conditions or enhanced photorespiratroy flux, respectively. However, RNAi lines showed reduced photorespiratory CO(2) release and a lower CO(2) compensation point. Mitochondria isolated from RNAi lines are incapable of converting glycolate to CO(2), whereas simultaneous overexpression of GlcDH and ALAATs in transiently transformed tobacco leaves enhances glycolate conversion. Furthermore, analyses of rice mitochondria suggest that the side pathway for glycolate oxidation and glycine formation is conserved in monocotyledoneous plants. It is concluded that the photorespiratory pathway from green algae has been functionally conserved in higher plants.

Transport proteins regulate the flux of metabolites and cofactors across the membrane of plant peroxisomes

In land plants, peroxisomes play key roles in various metabolic pathways, including the most prominent examples, that is lipid mobilization and photorespiration. Given the large number of substrates that are exchanged across the peroxisomal membrane, a wide spectrum of metabolite and cofactor transporters is required and needs to be efficiently coordinated. These peroxisomal transport proteins are a prerequisite for metabolic reactions inside plant peroxisomes. The entire peroxisomal "permeome" is closely linked to the adaption of photosynthetic organisms during land plant evolution to fulfill and optimize their new metabolic demands in cells, tissues, and organs. This review assesses for the first time the distribution of these peroxisomal transporters within the algal and plant species underlining their evolutionary relevance. Despite the importance of peroxisomal transporters, the majority of these proteins, however, are still unknown at the molecular level in plants as well as in other eukaryotic organisms. Four transport proteins have been recently identified and functionally characterized in Arabidopsis so far: one transporter for the import of fatty acids and three carrier proteins for the uptake of the cofactors ATP and NAD into plant peroxisomes. The transport of the three substrates across the peroxisomal membrane is essential for the degradation of fatty acids and fatty acids-related compounds via β-oxidation. This metabolic pathway plays multiple functions for growth and development in plants that have been crucial in land plant evolution. In this review, we describe the current state of their physiological roles in Arabidopsis and discuss novel features in their putative transport mechanisms.

Plant nitrogen assimilation and use efficiency

Crop productivity relies heavily on nitrogen (N) fertilization. Production and application of N fertilizers consume huge amounts of energy, and excess is detrimental to the environment; therefore, increasing plant N use efficiency (NUE) is essential for the development of sustainable agriculture. Plant NUE is inherently complex, as each step-including N uptake, translocation, assimilation, and remobilization-is governed by multiple interacting genetic and environmental factors. The limiting factors in plant metabolism for maximizing NUE are different at high and low N supplies, indicating great potential for improving the NUE of current cultivars, which were bred in well-fertilized soil. Decreasing environmental losses and increasing the productivity of crop-acquired N requires the coordination of carbohydrate and N metabolism to give high yields. Increasing both the grain and N harvest index to drive N acquisition and utilization are important approaches for breeding future high-NUE cultivars.

Transgenic Introduction of a Glycolate Oxidative Cycle into A. thaliana Chloroplasts Leads to Growth Improvement

The photorespiratory pathway helps illuminated C(3)-plants under conditions of limited CO(2) availability by effectively exporting reducing equivalents in form of glycolate out of the chloroplast and regenerating glycerate-3-P as substrate for RubisCO. On the other hand, this pathway is considered as probably futile because previously assimilated CO(2) is released in mitochondria. Consequently, a lot of effort has been made to reduce this CO(2) loss either by reducing fluxes via engineering RubisCO or circumventing mitochondrial CO(2) release by the introduction of new enzyme activities. Here we present an approach following the latter route, introducing a complete glycolate catabolic cycle in chloroplasts of Arabidopsis thaliana comprising glycolate oxidase (GO), malate synthase (MS), and catalase (CAT). Results from plants bearing both GO and MS activities have already been reported (Fahnenstich et al., 2008). This previous work showed that the H(2)O(2) produced by GO had strongly negative effects. These effects can be prevented by introducing a plastidial catalase activity, as reported here. Transgenic lines bearing all three transgenic enzyme activities were identified and some with higher CAT activity showed higher dry weight, higher photosynthetic rates, and changes in glycine/serine ratio compared to the wild type. This indicates that the fine-tuning of transgenic enzyme activities in the chloroplasts seems crucial and strongly suggests that the approach is valid and that it is possible to improve the growth of A. thaliana by introducing a synthetic glycolate oxidative cycle into chloroplasts.

Peroxisomal hydroxypyruvate reductase is not essential for photorespiration in Arabidopsis but its absence causes an increase in the stoichiometry of photorespiratory CO2 release

Recycling of carbon by the photorespiratory pathway involves enzymatic steps in the chloroplast, mitochondria, and peroxisomes. Most of these reactions are essential for plants growing under ambient CO(2) concentrations. However, some disruptions of photorespiratory metabolism cause subtle phenotypes in plants grown in air. For example, Arabidopsis thaliana lacking both of the peroxisomal malate dehydrogenase genes (pmdh1pmdh2) or hydroxypyruvate reductase (hpr1) are viable in air and have rates of photosynthesis only slightly lower than wild-type plants. To investigate how disruption of the peroxisomal reduction of hydroxypyruvate to glycerate influences photorespiratory carbon metabolism we analyzed leaf gas exchange in A. thaliana plants lacking peroxisomal HPR1 expression. In addition, because the lack of HPR1 could be compensated for by other reactions within the peroxisomes using reductant supplied by PMDH a triple mutant lacking expression of both peroxisomal PMDH genes and HPR1 (pmdh1pmdh2hpr1) was analyzed. Rates of photosynthesis under photorespiratory conditions (ambient CO(2) and O(2) concentrations) were slightly reduced in the hpr1 and pmdh1pmdh2hpr1 plants indicating other reactions can help bypass this disruption in the photorespiratory pathway. However, the CO(2) compensation points (Γ) increased under photorespiratory conditions in both mutants indicating changes in photorespiratory carbon metabolism in these plants. Measurements of Γ*, the CO(2) compensation point in the absence of mitochondrial respiration, and the CO(2) released per Rubisco oxygenation reaction demonstrated that the increase in Γ in the hpr1 and pmdh1pmdh2hpr1 plants is not associated with changes in mitochondrial respiration but with an increase in the non-respiratory CO(2) released per Rubisco oxygenation reaction.

Regulation of respiration in plants: a role for alternative metabolic pathways

Respiratory metabolism includes the reactions of glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the mitochondrial electron transport chain, but is also directly linked with many other metabolic pathways such as protein and lipid biosynthesis and photosynthesis via photorespiration. Furthermore, any change in respiratory activity can impact the redox status of the cell and the production of reactive oxygen species. In this review, it is discussed how respiration is regulated and what alternative pathways are known that increase the metabolic flexibility of this vital metabolic process. By looking at the adaptive responses of respiration to hypoxia or changes in the oxygen availability of a cell, the integration of regulatory responses of various pathways is illustrated.

The hydroxypyruvate-reducing system in Arabidopsis: multiple enzymes for the same end

Hydroxypyruvate (HP) is an intermediate of the photorespiratory pathway that originates in the oxygenase activity of the key enzyme of photosynthetic CO(2) assimilation, Rubisco. In course of this high-throughput pathway, a peroxisomal transamination reaction converts serine to HP, most of which is subsequently reduced to glycerate by the NADH-dependent peroxisomal enzyme HP reductase (HPR1). In addition, a NADPH-dependent cytosolic HPR2 provides an efficient extraperoxisomal bypass. The combined deletion of these two enzymes, however, does not result in a fully lethal photorespiratory phenotype, indicating even more redundancy in the photorespiratory HP-into-glycerate conversion. Here, we report on a third enzyme, HPR3 (At1g12550), in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), which also reduces HP to glycerate and shows even more activity with glyoxylate, a more upstream intermediate of the photorespiratory cycle. The deletion of HPR3 by T-DNA insertion mutagenesis results in slightly altered leaf concentrations of the photorespiratory intermediates HP, glycerate, and glycine, indicating a disrupted photorespiratory flux, but not in visible alteration of the phenotype. On the other hand, the combined deletion of HPR1, HPR2, and HPR3 causes increased growth retardation, decreased photochemical efficiency, and reduced oxygen-dependent gas exchange in comparison with the hpr1xhpr2 double mutant. Since in silico analysis and proteomic studies from other groups indicate targeting of HPR3 to the chloroplast, this enzyme could provide a compensatory bypass for the reduction of HP and glyoxylate within this compartment.

Defining the plant peroxisomal proteome: from Arabidopsis to rice

Peroxisomes are small subcellular organelles mediating a multitude of processes in plants. Proteomics studies over the last several years have yielded much needed information on the composition of plant peroxisomes. In this review, the status of peroxisome proteomics studies in Arabidopsis and other plant species and the cumulative advances made through these studies are summarized. A reference Arabidopsis peroxisome proteome is generated, and some unique aspects of Arabidopsis peroxisomes that were uncovered through proteomics studies and hint at unanticipated peroxisomal functions are also highlighted. Knowledge gained from Arabidopsis was utilized to compile a tentative list of peroxisome proteins for the model monocot plant, rice. Differences in the peroxisomal proteome between these two model plants were drawn, and novel facets in rice were expounded upon. Finally, we discuss about the current limitations of experimental proteomics in decoding the complete and dynamic makeup of peroxisomes, and complementary and integrated approaches that would be beneficial to defining the peroxisomal metabolic and regulatory roadmaps. The synteny of genomes in the grass family makes rice an ideal model to study peroxisomes in cereal crops, in which these organelles have received much less attention, with the ultimate goal to improve crop yield.

Mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase lowers leaf respiration and alters photorespiration and plant growth in Arabidopsis

Malate dehydrogenase (MDH) catalyzes a reversible NAD(+)-dependent-dehydrogenase reaction involved in central metabolism and redox homeostasis between organelle compartments. To explore the role of mitochondrial MDH (mMDH) in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), knockout single and double mutants for the highly expressed mMDH1 and lower expressed mMDH2 isoforms were constructed and analyzed. A mmdh1mmdh2 mutant has no detectable mMDH activity but is viable, albeit small and slow growing. Quantitative proteome analysis of mitochondria shows changes in other mitochondrial NAD-linked dehydrogenases, indicating a reorganization of such enzymes in the mitochondrial matrix. The slow-growing mmdh1mmdh2 mutant has elevated leaf respiration rate in the dark and light, without loss of photosynthetic capacity, suggesting that mMDH normally uses NADH to reduce oxaloacetate to malate, which is then exported to the cytosol, rather than to drive mitochondrial respiration. Increased respiratory rate in leaves can account in part for the low net CO(2) assimilation and slow growth rate of mmdh1mmdh2. Loss of mMDH also affects photorespiration, as evidenced by a lower postillumination burst, alterations in CO(2) assimilation/intercellular CO(2) curves at low CO(2), and the light-dependent elevated concentration of photorespiratory metabolites. Complementation of mmdh1mmdh2 with an mMDH cDNA recovered mMDH activity, suppressed respiratory rate, ameliorated changes to photorespiration, and increased plant growth. A previously established inverse correlation between mMDH and ascorbate content in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) has been consolidated in Arabidopsis and may potentially be linked to decreased galactonolactone dehydrogenase content in mitochondria in the mutant. Overall, a central yet complex role for mMDH emerges in the partitioning of carbon and energy in leaves, providing new directions for bioengineering of plant growth rate and a new insight into the molecular mechanisms linking respiration and photosynthesis in plants.

Photorespiration

Photorespiration is initiated by the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-carboxylase/oxygenase (RUBISCO), the same enzyme that is also responsible for CO(2) fixation in almost all photosynthetic organisms. Phosphoglycolate formed by oxygen fixation is recycled to the Calvin cycle intermediate phosphoglycerate in the photorespiratory pathway. This reaction cascade consumes energy and reducing equivalents and part of the afore fixed carbon is again released as CO(2). Because of this, photorespiration was often viewed as a wasteful process. Here, we review the current knowledge on the components of the photorespiratory pathway that has been mainly achieved through genetic and biochemical studies in Arabidopsis. Based on this knowledge, the energy costs of photorespiration are calculated, but the numerous positive aspects that challenge the traditional view of photorespiration as a wasteful pathway are also discussed. An outline of possible alternative pathways beside the major pathway is provided. We summarize recent results about photorespiration in photosynthetic organisms expressing a carbon concentrating mechanism and the implications of these results for understanding Arabidopsis photorespiration. Finally, metabolic engineering approaches aiming to improve plant productivity by reducing photorespiratory losses are evaluated.

Recent developments in photorespiration research

Photorespiration is the light-dependent release of CO2 initiated by Rubisco (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) during oxygenic photosynthesis. It occurs during the biochemical reactions of the photorespiratory C2 cycle, which is an ancillary metabolic process that allows photosynthesis to occur in oxygen-containing environments. Recent research has identified the genes for many plant photorespiratory enzymes, allowing precise functional analyses by reverse genetics. Similar studies with cyanobacteria disclosed the evolutionary origin of photorespiratory metabolism in these ancestors of plastids.

Arabidopsis and primary photosynthetic metabolism - more than the icing on the cake

Historically speaking, Arabidopsis was not the plant of choice for investigating photosynthesis, with physiologists and biochemists favouring other species such as Chlorella, spinach and pea. However, its inherent advantages for forward genetics rapidly led to its adoption for photosynthesis research. In the last ten years, the availability of the Arabidopsis genome sequence - still the gold-standard for plant genomes - and the rapid expansion of genetic and genomic resources have further increased its importance. Research in Arabidopsis has not only provided comprehensive information about the enzymes and other proteins involved in photosynthesis, but has also allowed transcriptional responses, protein levels and compartmentation to be analysed at a global level for the first time. Emerging technical and theoretical advances offer another leap forward in our understanding of post-translational regulation and the control of metabolism. To illustrate the impact of Arabidopsis, we provide a historical review of research in primary photosynthetic metabolism, highlighting the role of Arabidopsis in elucidation of the pathway of photorespiration and the regulation of RubisCO, as well as elucidation of the pathways of starch turnover and studies of the significance of starch for plant growth.

Fatty acid beta-oxidation in germinating Arabidopsis seeds is supported by peroxisomal hydroxypyruvate reductase when malate dehydrogenase is absent

Peroxisomal malate dehydrogenase (PMDH) oxidises NADH produced by fatty acid beta-oxidation during seed germination and seedling growth. Arabidopsis thaliana beta-oxidation mutants exhibit seed dormancy or impaired seed germination and failure of seedlings to degrade triacylglycerol (TAG), but the pmdh1 pmdh2 null mutant germinates readily and degrades TAG slowly during seedling growth. We reasoned that in the pmdh1 pmdh2 mutant an alternative means of oxidising NADH operates to allow a slow rate of beta-oxidation, such as NADH and NAD(+) transport across the peroxisomal membrane or activity of another peroxisomal oxido-reductase. Here we show that peroxisomal hydroxypyruvate reductase (HPR) is present in germinating seeds and although knocking out HPR has little effect on germination and early seedling growth, when knocked out in combination with PMDH it exacerbates the pmdh1 pmdh2 phenotype. It greatly increases the proportion of dormant seeds and reduces the rate of seed germination. Seedlings have increased sucrose dependence and resistance to 2,4-dichlorophenoxybutyric acid (2,4-DB), and slower rate of TAG breakdown. When PMDH is absent, malate is lower in amount in germinating seeds and when HPR is also absent, serine (the immediate precursor of hydroxypyruvate) is much higher. These results indicate that HPR can oxidise NADH at sufficient rate in the absence of PMDH to support beta-oxidation and hence seed germination. We conclude that while HPR normally plays little role in seed germination our results support the growing body of evidence that peroxisomal NADH cannot be exported to the cytosol for oxidation but is oxidised by resident oxido-reductases.

Chlorophyll fluorescence screening of Arabidopsis thaliana for CO2 sensitive photorespiration and photoinhibition mutants

Exposure of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) photorespiration mutants to air leads to a rapid decline in the F_v/F_m chlorophyll fluorescence parameter, reflecting a decline in PSII function and an onset of photoinhibition. This paper demonstrates that chlorophyll fluorescence imaging of F_v/F_m can be used as an easy and efficient means of detecting Arabidopsis mutants that are impaired in various aspects of photorespiration. This screen was developed to be sensitive and high throughput by the use of exposure to zero CO₂ conditions and the use of array grids of 1-week-old Arabidopsis seedlings as the starting material for imaging. Using this procedure, we screened ~25 000 chemically mutagenised M2 Arabidopsis seeds and recovered photorespiration phenotypes (reduction in F_v/F_m at low CO₂) at a frequency of ~4 per 1000 seeds. In addition, we also recovered mutants that showed reduced F_v/F_m at high CO₂. Of this group, we detected a novel 'reverse photorespiration' phenotype that showed a high CO₂ dependent reduction in F_v/F_m. This chlorophyll fluorescence screening technique promises to reveal novel mutants associated with photorespiration and photoinhibition.

Peroxisome biogenesis and function

Peroxisomes are small and single membrane-delimited organelles that execute numerous metabolic reactions and have pivotal roles in plant growth and development. In recent years, forward and reverse genetic studies along with biochemical and cell biological analyses in Arabidopsis have enabled researchers to identify many peroxisome proteins and elucidate their functions. This review focuses on the advances in our understanding of peroxisome biogenesis and metabolism, and further explores the contribution of large-scale analysis, such as in sillco predictions and proteomics, in augmenting our knowledge of peroxisome function In Arabidopsis.

Photorespiratory metabolism: genes, mutants, energetics, and redox signaling

Photorespiration is a high-flux pathway that operates alongside carbon assimilation in C(3) plants. Because most higher plant species photosynthesize using only the C(3) pathway, photorespiration has a major impact on cellular metabolism, particularly under high light, high temperatures, and CO(2) or water deficits. Although the functions of photorespiration remain controversial, it is widely accepted that this pathway influences a wide range of processes from bioenergetics, photosystem II function, and carbon metabolism to nitrogen assimilation and respiration. Crucially, the photorespiratory pathway is a major source of H(2)O(2) in photosynthetic cells. Through H(2)O(2) production and pyridine nucleotide interactions, photorespiration makes a key contribution to cellular redox homeostasis. In so doing, it influences multiple signaling pathways, particularly those that govern plant hormonal responses controlling growth, environmental and defense responses, and programmed cell death. The potential influence of photorespiration on cell physiology and fate is thus complex and wide ranging. The genes, pathways, and signaling functions of photorespiration are considered here in the context of whole plant biology, with reference to future challenges and human interventions to diminish photorespiratory flux.

A cytosolic pathway for the conversion of hydroxypyruvate to glycerate during photorespiration in Arabidopsis

Deletion of any of the core enzymes of the photorespiratory cycle, one of the major pathways of plant primary metabolism, results in severe air-sensitivity of the respective mutants. The peroxisomal enzyme hydroxypyruvate reductase (HPR1) represents the only exception to this rule. This indicates the presence of extraperoxisomal reactions of photorespiratory hydroxypyruvate metabolism. We have identified a second hydroxypyruvate reductase, HPR2, and present genetic and biochemical evidence that the enzyme provides a cytosolic bypass to the photorespiratory core cycle in Arabidopsis thaliana. Deletion of HPR2 results in elevated levels of hydroxypyruvate and other metabolites in leaves. Photosynthetic gas exchange is slightly altered, especially under long-day conditions. Otherwise, the mutant closely resembles wild-type plants. The combined deletion of both HPR1 and HPR2, however, results in distinct air-sensitivity and a dramatic reduction in photosynthetic performance. These results suggest that photorespiratory metabolism is not confined to chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and mitochondria but also extends to the cytosol. The extent to which cytosolic reactions contribute to the operation of the photorespiratory cycle in varying natural environments is not yet known, but it might be dynamically regulated by the availability of NADH in the context of peroxisomal redox homeostasis.