101
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An acute gastroenteritis outbreak caused by GII.P16-GII.2 norovirus associated with airborne transmission via the air conditioning unit in a kindergarten in Lianyungang, China. Int J Infect Dis 2017; 65:81-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2017.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2017] [Revised: 09/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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102
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Park SY, Ha JH, Kim SH, Ha SD. Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the inactivation of norovirus and quality of cabbage Kimchi. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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103
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Lei H, Li Y, Xiao S, Yang X, Lin C, Norris SL, Wei D, Hu Z, Ji S. Logistic growth of a surface contamination network and its role in disease spread. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14826. [PMID: 29093534 PMCID: PMC5665872 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13840-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Surfaces and objects surround us, and touching them is integral to everyday life. Pathogen contaminated surfaces (fomites) are known to transmit diseases. However, little is known about the ways and speed at which surfaces become contaminated. We found that under certain conditions, the number of contaminated surfaces grows logistically, corresponding to possible rapid transmission of infection. In such a surface network, pathogen can be transmitted great distances quickly-as far as people move. We found that the surface contamination network in aircraft cabins exhibits a community structure, with small communities connected by the aisle seatback surfaces and toilets, which are high-touch surfaces. In less than two to three hours, most high-touch surfaces in the cabin are contaminated, and within five to six hours nearly all touchable surfaces are contaminated. During short haul flight, aisle passengers have higher fomite exposure. This closely matches the spatial infection pattern of one reported inflight norovirus outbreaks. Our model is generally applicable to other crowded settings. The commonly repeated advice to "wash hands frequently" may be replaced in future by more strategic advice such as "clean surfaces right now", or advice based on who should wash their hands, and when.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Lei
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Yuguo Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
| | - Shenglan Xiao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Xinyan Yang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - ChaoHsin Lin
- Environmental Control Systems, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Everett, WA, USA
| | - Sharon L Norris
- Environmental Control Systems, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Everett, WA, USA
| | - Daniel Wei
- Environmental Control Systems, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Everett, WA, USA
| | - Zhongmin Hu
- Beijing Aeronautical Science & Technology Research Institute of COMAC, Beijing, China
| | - Shengcheng Ji
- Beijing Aeronautical Science & Technology Research Institute of COMAC, Beijing, China
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104
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Kauppinen A, Miettinen IT. Persistence of Norovirus GII Genome in Drinking Water and Wastewater at Different Temperatures. Pathogens 2017; 6:pathogens6040048. [PMID: 29019921 PMCID: PMC5750572 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens6040048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (NoV) causes waterborne outbreaks worldwide suggesting their ability to persist and survive for extended periods in the environment. The objective of this study was to determine the persistence of the NoV GII genome in drinking water and wastewater at three different temperatures (3 °C, 21 °C, and 36 °C). The persistence of two NoV GII inoculums (extracted from stool) and an indigenous NoV GII were studied. The samples were collected for up to one year from drinking water and for up to 140 days from wastewater. Molecular methods (RT-qPCR) were used to assess the decay of the NoV genome. Decay rate coefficients were determined from the fitted decay curves using log-linear and/or non-linear model equations. Results showed significant differences in the decay kinetics of NoV genome between the temperatures, matrices, and virus strains. The persistence of NoV was higher in drinking water compared to wastewater, and the cold temperature assisted persistence at both matrices. Differences between the persistence of NoV strains were also evident and, particularly, indigenous NoVs persisted better than spiked NoVs in wastewater. The decay constants obtained in this study can be utilized to assess the fate of the NoV genome in different water environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ari Kauppinen
- Department of Health Security, Expert Microbiology Unit, National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Ilkka T Miettinen
- Department of Health Security, Expert Microbiology Unit, National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland.
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105
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Moorman E, Montazeri N, Jaykus LA. Efficacy of Neutral Electrolyzed Water for Inactivation of Human Norovirus. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:e00653-17. [PMID: 28600317 PMCID: PMC5541222 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00653-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (NoV) is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Persistence on surfaces and resistance to many conventional disinfectants contribute to widespread transmission of norovirus. We examined the efficacy of neutral electrolyzed water (NEW; pH 7) for inactivation of human NoV GII.4 Sydney in suspension (ASTM method 1052-11) and on stainless steel surfaces (ASTM method 1053-11) with and without an additional soil load. The impact of the disinfectant on viral capsid was assessed using reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR; with an RNase pretreatment), SDS-PAGE, transmission electron microscopy, and a histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) receptor-binding assay. These studies were done in parallel with those using Tulane virus (TuV), a cultivable human NoV surrogate. Neutral electrolyzed water at 250 ppm free available chlorine produced a 4.8- and 0.4-log10 reduction in NoV genome copy number after 1 min in suspension and on stainless steel, respectively. Increasing the contact time on surfaces to 5, 10, 15, and 30 min reduced human NoV genomic copies by 0.5, 1.6, 2.4, and 5.0 log10 and TuV infectious titers by 2.4, 3.0, 3.8, and 4.1 log10 PFU, respectively. Increased soil load effectively eliminated antiviral efficacy regardless of testing method and virus. Exposure to NEW induced a near complete loss of receptor binding (5 ppm, 30 s), degradation of VP1 major capsid protein (250 ppm, 5 min), and increased virus particle aggregation (150 ppm, 30 min). Neutral electrolyzed water at 250 ppm shows promise as an antinoroviral disinfectant when used on precleaned stainless steel surfaces.IMPORTANCE Norovirus is the leading cause of acute viral gastroenteritis worldwide. Transmission occurs by fecal-oral or vomitus-oral routes. The persistence of norovirus on contaminated environmental surfaces exacerbates its spread, as does its resistance to many conventional disinfectants. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the antinoroviral efficacy of neutral electrolyzed water (NEW), a novel chlorine-based disinfectant that can be used at reduced concentrations, making it more environmentally friendly and less corrosive than bleach. An industrial-scale electrochemical activation device capable of producing relatively stable electrolyzed water at a wide pH range was used in this study. Experiments showed that 250 ppm NEW effectively eliminated (defined as a 5-log10 reduction) human norovirus GII.4 Sydney (epidemic strain) on clean stainless steel surfaces after a 30-min exposure. Supporting studies showed that, like bleach, NEW causes inactivation by disrupting the virus capsid. This product shows promise as a bleach alternative with antinoroviral efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Moorman
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Naim Montazeri
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Lee-Ann Jaykus
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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106
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Berendes D, Leon J, Kirby A, Clennon J, Raj S, Yakubu H, Robb K, Kartikeyan A, Hemavathy P, Gunasekaran A, Roy S, Ghale BC, Kumar JS, Mohan VR, Kang G, Moe C. Household sanitation is associated with lower risk of bacterial and protozoal enteric infections, but not viral infections and diarrhoea, in a cohort study in a low-income urban neighbourhood in Vellore, India. Trop Med Int Health 2017; 22:1119-1129. [PMID: 28653489 PMCID: PMC5601219 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Objective This study examined associations between household sanitation and enteric infection – including diarrhoeal‐specific outcomes – in children 0–2 years of age in a low‐income, dense urban neighbourhood. Methods As part of the MAL‐ED study, 230 children in a low‐income, urban, Indian neighbourhood provided stool specimens at 14–17 scheduled time points and during diarrhoeal episodes in the first 2 years of life that were analysed for bacterial, parasitic (protozoa and helminths) and viral pathogens. From interviews with caregivers in 100 households, the relationship between the presence (and discharge) of household sanitation facilities and any, pathogen‐specific, and diarrhoea‐specific enteric infection was tested through mixed‐effects Poisson regression models. Results Few study households (33%) reported having toilets, most of which (82%) discharged into open drains. Controlling for season and household socio‐economic status, the presence of a household toilet was associated with lower risks of enteric infection (RR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.79–1.06), bacterial infection (RR: 0.87, 95% CI: 0.75–1.02) and protozoal infection (RR: 0.64, 95% CI: 0.39–1.04), although not statistically significant, but had no association with diarrhoea (RR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.68–1.45) or viral infections (RR: 1.12, 95% CI: 0.79–1.60). Models also suggested that the relationship between household toilets discharging to drains and enteric infection risk may vary by season. Conclusions The presence of a household toilet was associated with lower risk of bacterial and protozoal enteric infections, but not diarrhoea or viral infections, suggesting the health effects of sanitation may be more accurately estimated using outcome measures that account for aetiologic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Berendes
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Juan Leon
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Amy Kirby
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Julie Clennon
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Suraja Raj
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Habib Yakubu
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Katharine Robb
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Arun Kartikeyan
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Priya Hemavathy
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Annai Gunasekaran
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Sheela Roy
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Ben Chirag Ghale
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - J Senthil Kumar
- Department of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | | | - Gagandeep Kang
- Wellcome Research Laboratory, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Christine Moe
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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107
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Montazeri N, Manuel C, Moorman E, Khatiwada JR, Williams LL, Jaykus LA. Virucidal Activity of Fogged Chlorine Dioxide- and Hydrogen Peroxide-Based Disinfectants against Human Norovirus and Its Surrogate, Feline Calicivirus, on Hard-to-Reach Surfaces. Front Microbiol 2017. [PMID: 28642746 PMCID: PMC5462988 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (NoV) is the leading cause of foodborne illnesses in the United States. Norovirus is shed in high numbers in the feces and vomitous of infected individuals. Contact surfaces contaminated with bodily fluids harboring infectious virus particles serve as vehicles for pathogen transmission. Environmental stability of NoV and its resistance to many conventional disinfectants necessitate effective inactivation strategies to control the spread of virus. We investigated the efficacy of two commercial disinfectants, hydrogen peroxide (7.5%) and a chlorine dioxide (0.2%)-surfactant-based product using a fogging delivery system against human NoV GI.6 and GII.4 Sydney strains as well as the cultivable surrogate, feline calicivirus (FCV) dried on stainless steel coupons. Log10 reductions in human NoV and FCV were calculated utilizing RNase RT-qPCR and infectivity (plaque) assay, respectively. An improved antiviral activity of hydrogen peroxide as a function of disinfectant formulation concentration in the atmosphere was observed against both GII.4 and FCV. At 12.4 ml/m3, hydrogen peroxide achieved a respective 2.5 ± 0.1 and 2.7 ± 0.3 log10 reduction in GI.6 and GII.4 NoV genome copies, and a 4.3 ± 0.1 log10 reduction in infectious FCV within 5 min. At the same disinfectant formulation concentration, chlorine dioxide-surfactant-based product resulted in a respective 1.7 ± 0.2, 0.6 ± 0.0, and 2.4 ± 0.2 log10 reduction in GI.6, GII.4, and FCV within 10 min; however, increasing the disinfectant formulation concentration to 15.9 ml/m3 negatively impacted its efficacy. Fogging uniformly delivered the disinfectants throughout the room, and effectively decontaminated viruses on hard-to-reach surfaces. Hydrogen peroxide delivered by fog showed promising virucidal activity against FCV by meeting the United States EPA 4-log10 reduction criteria for an anti-noroviral disinfectant; however, fogged chlorine dioxide-surfactant-based product did not achieve a 4-log10 inactivation. Future investigation aimed at optimizing decontamination practices is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naim Montazeri
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, RaleighNC, United States
| | - Clyde Manuel
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, RaleighNC, United States
| | - Eric Moorman
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, RaleighNC, United States
| | - Janak R Khatiwada
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina A&T State University, NC Research Campus, KannapolisNC, United States
| | - Leonard L Williams
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina A&T State University, NC Research Campus, KannapolisNC, United States
| | - Lee-Ann Jaykus
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, RaleighNC, United States
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108
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Choi YS, Koo ES, Kim MS, Choi JD, Shin Y, Jeong YS. Re-emergence of a GII.4 Norovirus Sydney 2012 Variant Equipped with GII.P16 RdRp and Its Predominance over Novel Variants of GII.17 in South Korea in 2016. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:168-178. [PMID: 28120262 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-017-9278-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses are major causative pathogen of nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Of the seven genogroups of noroviruses suggested recently, genogroup II genotype 4 (GII.4) had been the most common genotype identified in hospitalized patients in the last few decades. However, since the latter half of 2014, new variants of GII.17 have been reported as the main causes of outbreaks over GII.4 in East Asia and have also occurred in America and Europe. In this study, we monitored norovirus GII in coastal streams at South Gyeongsang province and South Jeolla province of South Korea from March 2015 to May 2016. Norovirus GII.17 capsid sequences were predominantly detected until September 2015 in water samples. However, we found that the number of positive cases of the norovirus GII.4 Sydney 2012 capsid sequence has been increasing since December 2015, overtaking that of GII.17 in 2016. The RdRp genotype of this predominant GII.4 variant in 2016 was identified as GII.P16. The emergence and predominance of the GII.4 pandemic capsid sequence harboring a different RdRp genotype suggested the potential for a future pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Seon Choi
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eung Seo Koo
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Man Su Kim
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Duck Choi
- Department of Seafood Science and Technology, Institute of Marine Industry, Gyeongsang National University, Tongyeong, Gyeongnam, South Korea
| | - Yongsik Shin
- Department of Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology, Mokpo National Maritime University, Mokpo, South Korea
| | - Yong Seok Jeong
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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109
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Castro-Mayorga J, Randazzo W, Fabra M, Lagaron J, Aznar R, Sánchez G. Antiviral properties of silver nanoparticles against norovirus surrogates and their efficacy in coated polyhydroxyalkanoates systems. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.01.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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110
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Phylogenetic Analyses Suggest that Factors Other Than the Capsid Protein Play a Role in the Epidemic Potential of GII.2 Norovirus. mSphere 2017; 2:mSphere00187-17. [PMID: 28529975 PMCID: PMC5437133 DOI: 10.1128/mspheredirect.00187-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. For over two decades, a single genotype (GII.4) has been responsible for most norovirus-associated cases. However, during the winter of 2014 to 2015, the GII.4 strains were displaced by a rarely detected genotype (GII.17) in several countries of the Asian continent. Moreover, during the winter of 2016 to 2017, the GII.2 strain reemerged as predominant in different countries worldwide. This reemerging GII.2 strain is a recombinant virus that presents a GII.P16 polymerase genotype. In this study, we investigated the evolutionary dynamics of GII.2 to determine the mechanism of this sudden emergence in the human population. The phylogenetic analyses indicated strong linear evolution of the VP1-encoding sequence, albeit with minor changes in the amino acid sequence over time. Without major genetic differences among the strains, a clustering based on the polymerase genotype was observed in the tree. This association did not affect the substitution rate of the VP1. Phylogenetic analyses of the polymerase region showed that reemerging GII.P16-GII.2 strains diverged into a new cluster, with a small number of amino acid substitutions detected on the surface of the associated polymerase. Thus, besides recombination or antigenic shift, point mutations in nonstructural proteins could also lead to novel properties with epidemic potential in different norovirus genotypes. IMPORTANCE Noroviruses are a major cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. Currently, there is no vaccine or specific antiviral available to treat norovirus disease. Multiple norovirus strains infect humans, but a single genotype (GII.4) has been regarded as the most important cause of viral gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. Its persistence and predominance have been explained by the continuous replacement of variants that present new antigenic properties on their capsid protein, thus evading the herd immunity acquired to the previous variants. Over the last three seasons, minor genotypes have displaced the GII.4 viruses as the predominant strains. One of these genotypes, GII.2, reemerged as predominant during 2016 to 2017. Here we show that factors such as minor changes in the polymerase may have driven the reemergence of GII.2 during the last season. A better understanding of norovirus diversity is important for the development of effective treatments against noroviruses.
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111
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Ouedraogo N, Ngangas SMT, Bonkoungou IJO, Tiendrebeogo AB, Traore KA, Sanou I, Traore AS, Barro N. Temporal distribution of gastroenteritis viruses in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso: seasonality of rotavirus. BMC Public Health 2017; 17:274. [PMID: 28327111 PMCID: PMC5359802 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-017-4161-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute gastroenteritis is one of the most common diseases among children and adults, and continues to cause a major problem of public health in Burkina Faso. The temporal pattern of rotavirus, norovirus, sapovirus, astrovirus, adenovirus and Aichivirus A was studied by examining prevalence of gastroenteritis viruses in association with meteorological variables in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. METHODS Stool samples from 263 children under 5 years of age and 170 older children patients, adolescent and adults with gastroenteritis were collected in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso from November 2011 to September 2012. Enteric viruses were detected using real-time or end-point (RT-) PCR. Temperature, humidity and monthly rainfall were recorded from the National Meteorological Direction. Categorical data were compared by Chi-square tests and the effect of weather variables and monthly prevalence were analyzed using Pearson Correlation Coefficient test. RESULTS The prevalence of rotavirus infections was significantly higher in the dry season (Season S1) compared to the wet season (season S2) (p = 0.03) among the population of children under 5 years of age. No statistically significant difference was observed regarding other gastroenteritis viruses comparing the dry season and the wet season. Positive cases of rotavirus, norovirus, adenovirus and sapovirus in children under 5 years of age were correlated with temperature (r = -0.68, p = 0.01; r = -0.74, p < 0.001; r = -0.68, p = 0.01; r = -0.65, p = 0.02, respectively) and only rotavirus, adenovirus and astrovirus were correlated with relative humidity (r = -0.61, p = 0.04; r = -0.54, p = 0.08; r = -0.51, p = 0.1 respectively). No correlation was observed with rainfall. In older children, adolescent and adults patients, rotavirus and norovirus correlated with relative humidity (r = -0.58, p = 0.05; r = 0.54, p = 0.08 respectively), but, no correlation was observed between the temperature and the rainfall. CONCLUSION This study extends knowledge on the monthly fluctuations on the prevalence of viral gastroenteritis. These results can provide valuable information necessary to alert health care providers when a period of infection in the community is likely to occur. The transmission of these viruses in Burkina Faso could depends on multiple factors including climatic variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nafissatou Ouedraogo
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire, d'Epidémiologie et de Surveillance des Bactéries et Virus Transmis par les Aliments, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Biologiques Alimentaires et Nutritionnelles (CRSBAN), Université Ouaga I Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
| | - Stephanie Moustapha Tomba Ngangas
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire, d'Epidémiologie et de Surveillance des Bactéries et Virus Transmis par les Aliments, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Biologiques Alimentaires et Nutritionnelles (CRSBAN), Université Ouaga I Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Isidore Juste Ouindguèta Bonkoungou
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire, d'Epidémiologie et de Surveillance des Bactéries et Virus Transmis par les Aliments, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Biologiques Alimentaires et Nutritionnelles (CRSBAN), Université Ouaga I Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.,Laboratoire National de Santé Publique, Direction de la Biologie médicale (DBM), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Aissatou Bénéwendé Tiendrebeogo
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire, d'Epidémiologie et de Surveillance des Bactéries et Virus Transmis par les Aliments, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Biologiques Alimentaires et Nutritionnelles (CRSBAN), Université Ouaga I Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Kuan Abdoulaye Traore
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire, d'Epidémiologie et de Surveillance des Bactéries et Virus Transmis par les Aliments, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Biologiques Alimentaires et Nutritionnelles (CRSBAN), Université Ouaga I Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Idrissa Sanou
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie-Virologie de l'Hôpital National BLAISE COMPAORE, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.,UFR Sciences de la Santé, Université Ouaga I Joseph KI ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Alfred Sababénédjo Traore
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire, d'Epidémiologie et de Surveillance des Bactéries et Virus Transmis par les Aliments, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Biologiques Alimentaires et Nutritionnelles (CRSBAN), Université Ouaga I Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Nicolas Barro
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire, d'Epidémiologie et de Surveillance des Bactéries et Virus Transmis par les Aliments, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Biologiques Alimentaires et Nutritionnelles (CRSBAN), Université Ouaga I Joseph KI-ZERBO, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
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112
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Matsuyama R, Miura F, Nishiura H. The transmissibility of noroviruses: Statistical modeling of outbreak events with known route of transmission in Japan. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173996. [PMID: 28296972 PMCID: PMC5352013 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In Japan, the fraction of norovirus outbreaks attributable to human-to-human transmission has increased with time, and the timing of the increased fraction has coincided with the increase in the observed fraction of genogroup II genotype 4 (GII.4). The present study aimed to estimate the time-dependent changes in the transmissibility of noroviruses. The effective reproduction number (Ry), for year y, was estimated by analyzing the time series surveillance data for outbreak events from 2000 to 2016. Ry was estimated by using the fraction of outbreak events that were attributable to human-to-human transmission and by employing three different statistical models that are considered to mechanistically capture the possible data-generating process in different ways. The Ry estimates ranged from 0.14 to 4.15 in value, revealing an overall increasing trend (p<0.05 for all three models). The proportion of outbreaks caused by GII and GII.4 viruses among the total events also increased with time, and positive correlations were identified between transmissibility and these proportions. Parametric modeling of Ry indicated that the time-dependent patterns of Ry were better described by a step function plus linear trend rather than the step function alone that reflects the widespread use of reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) in and after 2007 for laboratory diagnosis. Accordingly, we conclude that norovirus transmissibility has increased over the past 16 years in Japan. The change is at least partially explained by the time-dependent domination of the contagious GII genogroup (e.g., GII.4), indicating that noroviruses better fitted to humans have selectively caused the human-to-human transmissions, thereby altering the epidemiology of this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Matsuyama
- Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 15 Jo Nishi 7 Chome, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
- CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, 4-1-8, Honcho, Kawaguchi-shi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Fuminari Miura
- Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 15 Jo Nishi 7 Chome, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
- Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Nishiura
- Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 15 Jo Nishi 7 Chome, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
- CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, 4-1-8, Honcho, Kawaguchi-shi, Saitama, Japan
- * E-mail:
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113
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Norovirus Disease in Older Adults Living in Long-Term Care Facilities: Strategies for Management. CURRENT GERIATRICS REPORTS 2017; 6:26-33. [PMID: 29204334 DOI: 10.1007/s13670-017-0195-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Purpose of Review Noroviruses are the most common cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks in long-term care facility (LTCFs). This review summarizes the most up-to-date knowledge on norovirus infection in LTCFs with the aim of identifying potential strategies for management. Recent Findings LTCF residents are at greater risk of norovirus infection. Early identification of norovirus infection and prompt initiation of appropriate supportive therapy are required to reduce morbidity and mortality. Measures to prevent outbreaks and reduce the risk of norovirus infection in LTCFs include timely diagnosis and implementation of infection control interventions to limit virus transmission. Summary Current guidelines for prevention and control are based on generic principles of infection control. Real-time reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction assays have been the gold standard for the rapid and sensitive detection of noroviruses. With the recent breakthroughs of human norovirus in vitro culture, doors are now opened to evaluate the efficacy of environmental disinfectants and hand hygiene options. Additionally, development of licensed vaccines against noroviruses may provide another important tool for infection prevention among high-risk individuals.
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114
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Shamkhali Chenar S, Deng Z. Environmental indicators for human norovirus outbreaks. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2017; 27:40-51. [PMID: 27876423 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2016.1257705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus is the most common cause of outbreaks of non-bacterial gastroenteritis in human. While the winter seasonality of norovirus outbreaks has been widely reported, the association between norovirus outbreak epidemics and environmental factors remains not fully understood. This literature review is intended to improve understanding of environmental factors governing norovirus outbreaks and how the factors affect norovirus transmission. To that end, a large number of studies (67) from countries around the world were critically reviewed and discussed. Results of the literature review show that temperature, humidity, and rainfall are the most important environmental variables governing the norovirus epidemic cycle. It was found that low temperature between -6.6 and 20 °C, relative humidity between 10 and 66 %, and rainfall from 1 day to 3 months before an outbreak are effective ranges of the environmental factors, which favor the prevalence of norovirus. Some other environmental factors might have an association with the cycle of norovirus epidemics. However, further investigations are needed to understand effects of the other factors on norovirus incidence. The findings of this literature review improve our understanding of the relationship between norovirus outbreaks and environmental factors and provide the direction for future research on norovirus outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shima Shamkhali Chenar
- a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge , LA , USA
| | - Zhiqiang Deng
- a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge , LA , USA
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115
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Rumble C, Addiman S, Balasegaram S, Chima K, Ready D, Heard J, Alexander E. Role of Food Handlers in Norovirus Outbreaks in London and South East England, 2013 to 2015. J Food Prot 2017; 80:257-264. [PMID: 28221985 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-16-083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Outbreaks caused by norovirus infection are common and occur throughout the year. Outbreaks can be related to food outlets either through a contaminated food source or an infected food handler. Both asymptomatic and symptomatic food handlers are potentially implicated in outbreaks, but evidence of transmission is limited. To understand potential food handler transmission in outbreak scenarios, epidemiological and microbiological data on possible and confirmed norovirus outbreaks reported in London and South East England in a 2-year period were reviewed. One hundred eighty-six outbreaks were associated with a food outlet or registered caterer in this period. These occurred throughout the year with peaks in quarter 1 of study years. A case series of 17 outbreaks investigated by the local field epidemiological service were evaluated further, representing more than 606 cases. In five outbreaks, symptomatic food handlers were tested and found positive for norovirus. In four outbreaks, symptomatic food handlers were not tested. Asymptomatic food handlers were tested in three outbreaks but positive for norovirus in one only. Environmental sampling did not identify the causative agent conclusively in any of the outbreaks included in this analysis. Food sampling identified norovirus in one outbreak. Recommendations from this study include for outbreak investigations to encourage testing of symptomatic food handlers and for food and environmental samples to be taken as soon as possible. In addition, sampling of asymptomatic food handlers should be considered when possible. However, in light of the complexity in conclusively identifying a source of infection, general measures to improve hand hygiene are recommended, with specific education among food handlers about the potential for foodborne pathogen transmission during asymptomatic infection, as well as reinforcing the importance of self-exclusion from food handling activities when symptomatic.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rumble
- Field Epidemiology Service South East and London, Public Health England, 151 Buckingham Palace Road, London, SW1W 9SZ, UK
| | - S Addiman
- North East and North Central London Health Protection Team, Public Health England, Ground Floor, South Wing, Fleetbank House, 2-6 Salisbury Square, London, EC4Y 8JX, UK
| | - S Balasegaram
- Field Epidemiology Service South East and London, Public Health England, 151 Buckingham Palace Road, London, SW1W 9SZ, UK
| | - K Chima
- North East and North Central London Health Protection Team, Public Health England, Ground Floor, South Wing, Fleetbank House, 2-6 Salisbury Square, London, EC4Y 8JX, UK
| | - D Ready
- London Public Health Laboratory, Public Health England, Public Health Laboratory London, 3rd Floor Pathology & Pharmacy Building, 80 Newark Street, London, E1 2ES, UK
| | - J Heard
- City of London, Markets and Consumer Protection, Guildhall, London, EC2P 2EJ, UK
| | - E Alexander
- London Public Health Laboratory, Public Health England, Public Health Laboratory London, 3rd Floor Pathology & Pharmacy Building, 80 Newark Street, London, E1 2ES, UK
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116
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Huang XY, Su J, Lu QC, Li SZ, Zhao JY, Li ML, Li Y, Shen XJ, Zhang BF, Wang HF, Mu YJ, Wu SY, Du YH, Liu LC, Chen WJ, Klena JD, Xu BL. A large outbreak of acute gastroenteritis caused by the human norovirus GII.17 strain at a university in Henan Province, China. Infect Dis Poverty 2017; 6:6. [PMID: 28143569 PMCID: PMC5286658 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-017-0236-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human noroviruses are a major cause of viral gastroenteritis and are the main etiological agents of acute gastroenteritis outbreaks. An increasing number of outbreaks and sporadic cases of norovirus have been reported in China in recent years. There was a large acute gastroenteritis outbreak at a university in Henan Province, China in the past five years. We want to identify the source, transmission routes of the outbreak by epidemiological investigation and laboratory testing in order to provide the effective control measures. Methods The clinical cases were investigated, and analysed by descriptive epidemiological methods according to factors such as time, department, grade and so on. Samples were collected from clinical cases, healthy persons, the environment, water, and food at the university. These samples were tested for potential bacteria and viruses. The samples that tested positive for norovirus were selected for whole genome sequencing and the sequences were then analysed. Results From 4 March to 3 April 2015, a total of 753 acute diarrhoea cases were reported at the university; the attack rate was 3.29%. The epidemic curve showed two peaks, with the main peak occurring between 10 and 20 March, accounting for 85.26% of reported cases. The rates of norovirus detection in samples from confirmed cases, people without symptoms, and environmental samples were 32.72%, 17.39%, and 9.17%, respectively. The phylogenetic analysis showed that the norovirus belonged to the genotype GII.17. Conclusions This is the largest and most severe outbreak caused by genotype GII.17 norovirus in recent years in China. The GII.17 viruses displayed high epidemic activity and have become a dominant strain in China since the winter of 2014, having replaced the previously dominant GII.4 Sydney 2012 strain. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40249-017-0236-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Yong Huang
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jia Su
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Qian-Chao Lu
- Nanyang City Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanyang, China
| | - Shi-Zheng Li
- Nanyang City Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanyang, China
| | - Jia-Yong Zhao
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Meng-Lei Li
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yi Li
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Jing Shen
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Bai-Fan Zhang
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Hai-Feng Wang
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yu-Jiao Mu
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shu-Yu Wu
- Program of Global Disease Detection, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Yan-Hua Du
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Li-Cheng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogens and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei-Jun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogens and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - John David Klena
- Program of Global Disease Detection, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,Division of Global Health Protection, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA
| | - Bian-Li Xu
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China. .,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China.
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Gastañaduy AS, Bégué RE. Acute Gastroenteritis Viruses. Infect Dis (Lond) 2017. [PMCID: PMC7173516 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-7020-6285-8.00162-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute diarrhea is the leading cause of morbidity and second commonest cause of mortality in children <5 years old worldwide. Most acute diarrheal illnesses are caused by viruses. Noroviruses are the commonest cause of diarrhea in all age groups combined, and rotaviruses are still the leading cause of diarrhea for children <5 years old. Transmission is mainly by the fecal–oral route through person-to-person contact, contaminated food and water. Most cases of viral diarrhea are mild and self-limiting, but severe cases occur, leading to dehydration and death. Repeated episodes lead to malnutrition. Most cases can be managed at home with oral rehydration solutions and feeding a regular diet. Vaccines will be the best preventive measure. Only rotavirus vaccines are available. Breast-feeding, vitamin A supplementation and zinc significantly reduce the frequency and/or severity of diarrhea.
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118
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Kim DK, Kim SJ, Kang DH. Inactivation modeling of human enteric virus surrogates, MS2, Qβ, and ΦX174, in water using UVC-LEDs, a novel disinfecting system. Food Res Int 2017; 91:115-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2016.11.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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119
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Structure(s), function(s), and inhibition of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of noroviruses. Virus Res 2016; 234:21-33. [PMID: 28041960 PMCID: PMC7114559 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes current knowledge on the norovirus RdRp. Multiple X-ray structures of norovirus RdRp show important conformational changes. Norovirus RdRp recognizes specific promotor sequences to initiate RNA synthesis. Anti-HCV nucleoside analogs such as 2CM-C also inhibit Norovirus RdRp. Suramin and its analogs act as allosteric non-nucleoside polymerase inhibitors.
Noroviruses belong to the Caliciviridae family of single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses. The genus Norovirus includes seven genogroups (designated GI-GVII), of which GI, GII and GIV infect humans. Human noroviruses are responsible for widespread outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis and represent one of the most common causes of foodborne illness. No vaccine or antiviral treatment options are available for norovirus infection. The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of noroviruses is a key enzyme responsible for transcription and replication of the viral genome. Here, we review the progress made in understanding the structures and functions of norovirus RdRp and its use as a target for small molecule inhibitors. Crystal structures of the RdRp at different stages of substrate interaction have been determined, which shed light on its multi-step catalytic cycle. The in vitro assays and in vivo animal models that have been developed to identify and characterize inhibitors of norovirus RdRp are also summarized, followed by an update on the current antiviral research targeting different regions of norovirus RdRp. In the future, structure-based drug design and rational optimization of known nucleoside and non-nucleoside inhibitors of norovirus RdRp may pave the way towards the next generation of direct-acting antivirals.
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120
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Chronic norovirus infection among solid organ recipients in a tertiary care hospital, the Netherlands, 2006-2014. Clin Microbiol Infect 2016; 23:265.e9-265.e13. [PMID: 28003123 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2016.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 12/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Immunocompromised patients can suffer prolonged norovirus symptoms and virus shedding for many years. Little is known about the prevalence of chronic norovirus infection among solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients. In this study, 2182 SOT recipients were retrospectively tested for chronic norovirus infection. METHODS The first and last norovirus positive faecal samples of SOT recipients were sequenced to distinguish between persisting infection and re-infection. Patient charts were reviewed to obtain data on health status and treatments. RESULTS In all, 101 of 2182 (4.6%) recipients were norovirus infected and 23 (22.8%) of these developed chronic norovirus infection. Chronic norovirus infection was found among allogeneic heart, kidney and lung transplant recipients. The median shedding period at the end of the study period was 218 days (range 32-1164 days). CONCLUSIONS This study shows that chronic norovirus infection is not a rare phenomenon among SOT recipients in a tertiary-care hospital. Further research is needed to study the risk of norovirus transmission to other immunocompromised patients in the hospital and to the general population.
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121
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Manuel C, Moore M, Jaykus L. Efficacy of a disinfectant containing silver dihydrogen citrate against
GI
.6 and
GII
.4 human norovirus. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 122:78-86. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C.S. Manuel
- Department of Food Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
| | - M.D. Moore
- Department of Food Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
| | - L.‐A. Jaykus
- Department of Food Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
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122
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Agnihothram S, Mullis L, Townsend TA, Watanabe F, Mustafa T, Biris A, Manjanatha MG, Azevedo MP. Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Evoke Proinflammatory Response during Murine Norovirus Infection Despite Having Minimal Effects on Virus Replication. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE & ENGINEERING 2016; 1:63-73. [PMID: 29930994 DOI: 10.25141/2474-8811-2016-3.0063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoV) have enhanced tropism for the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are the major cause of nonbacterial gastroenteritis in humans. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) used as food additives, dietary supplements, and cosmetics accumulate in the GI tract. We investigated the effect anatase TiO2 NPs on NoV replication and host response during virus infection, using murine norovirus (MNV-1) infection of RAW 264.7 macrophages. Pretreatment with 20 μg/ml anatase NPs significantly reduced the viability of macrophages alone or during virus infection, but did not alter virus replication. In contrast, pre-incubation with 2 μg/ml anatase NPs reduced virus replication fivefold at 48 h. The presence of anatase NPs during MNV-1 infection evoked a pro-inflammatory response, as measured by a significant increase in expression of cytokines, including IL-6, IFN-γ, TNFα and the TGFβ1. No genotoxic insults due to anatase TiO2 NPs alone or to their presence during MNV-1 infection were detected. This study highlights important safety considerations related to NP exposure of the GI tract in individuals infected with noroviruses or other foodborne viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa Mullis
- Division of Microbiology, Jefferson, Arkansas, 72079, USA
| | - Todd A Townsend
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, Jefferson, Arkansas, 72079, USA
| | - Fumiya Watanabe
- Center for Integrative Nanotechnology Sciences, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, Arkansas 72204
| | - Thikra Mustafa
- Department of Medical Bioscience, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Kirkuk, Kirkuk, Iraq
| | - Alexandru Biris
- Center for Integrative Nanotechnology Sciences, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, Arkansas 72204
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123
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Tozzoli R, Di Bartolo I, Gigliucci F, Brambilla G, Monini M, Vignolo E, Caprioli A, Morabito S. Pathogenic Escherichia coli and enteric viruses in biosolids and related top soil improvers in Italy. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 122:239-247. [PMID: 27684893 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the presence of genomic traits associated with a set of enteric viruses as well as pathogenic Escherichia coli in top soil improvers (TSI) from Italy. METHODS AND RESULTS Twenty-four TSI samples originating from municipal sewage sludges, pig manure, green and household wastes were analysed by real time PCR for the presence of hepatitis E virus (HEV), porcine and human adenovirus (HuAdV), norovirus, rotavirus and diarrhoeagenic E. coli. None of the samples was found positive for HEV or rotavirus. Four samples were positive for the presence of nucleic acids from human norovirus, two of them being also positive for HuAdV. Real time PCR screening gave positive results for many of the virulence genes characteristic of diarrhoeagenic E. coli in 21 samples. These included the verocytotoxin-coding genes, in some cases associated with intimin-coding gene, and markers of enteroaggregative, enterotoxigenic and enteroinvasive E. coli. CONCLUSIONS These results provide evidence that enteric viruses and pathogenic E. coli may be released into the environment through the use of sludge-derived TSI. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The results highlight that the TSI-related environmental risk for the food chain should be more deeply assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Tozzoli
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - I Di Bartolo
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - F Gigliucci
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - G Brambilla
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - M Monini
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - E Vignolo
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - A Caprioli
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - S Morabito
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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Kim JH, Lee DH, Joo Y, Zoh KD, Ko G, Kang JH. Identification of environmental determinants for spatio-temporal patterns of norovirus outbreaks in Korea using a geographic information system and binary response models. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 569-570:291-299. [PMID: 27343948 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/18/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Although norovirus outbreaks are well-recognized to have strong winter seasonality relevant to low temperature and humidity, the role of artificial human-made features within geographical areas in norovirus outbreaks has rarely been studied. The aim of this study is to assess the natural and human-made environmental factors favoring the occurrence of norovirus outbreaks using nationwide surveillance data. We used a geographic information system and binary response models to examine whether the norovirus outbreaks are spatially patterned and whether these patterns are associated with specific environmental variables including service levels of water supply and sanitation systems and land-use types. The results showed that small-scale low-tech local sewage treatment plants and winter sports areas were statistically significant factors favoring norovirus outbreaks. Compactness of the land development also affected the occurrence of norovirus outbreaks; transportation, water, and forest land-uses were less favored for effective transmission of norovirus, while commercial areas were associated with an increased rate of norovirus outbreaks. We observed associations of norovirus outbreaks with various outcomes of human activities, including discharge of poorly treated sewage, overcrowding of people during winter season, and compactness of land development, which might help prioritize target regions and strategies for the management of norovirus outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Hwi Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30, Pildong-ro 1gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hoon Lee
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30, Pildong-ro 1gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea
| | - Yongsung Joo
- Department of Statistics, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30, Pildong-ro 1gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Duk Zoh
- Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwangpyo Ko
- Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Joo-Hyon Kang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dongguk University-Seoul, 30, Pildong-ro 1gil, Jung-gu, Seoul 04620, Republic of Korea.
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125
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Campos CJA, Kershaw S, Morgan OC, Lees DN. Risk factors for norovirus contamination of shellfish water catchments in England and Wales. Int J Food Microbiol 2016; 241:318-324. [PMID: 27837721 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This study examines the relationships between concentrations of human noroviruses (NoV) genogroups I (GI) and II (GII) and Escherichia coli monitored in oysters from 31 commercial harvesting areas on the coast of England and Wales from May 2009 to April 2011 and demographic, hydrometric, climatic and pollution source characteristics of upstream river catchments using multiple regression techniques. The predictive environmental factors for E. coli contamination in the oysters were rainfall (cumulative 7days before sampling) while the predictive factors for NoV (GI+GII) were water temperature, catchment area and the combined volume of continuous sewage discharges in the catchment. Oysters from cold waters (<5°C) had significantly higher NoV content than those from warmer waters (>10°C). The association with water temperature may be consequential on the seasonal prevalence of the virus in the community or linked with oyster metabolic function. In a group of 10 study sites, mean concentrations of NoV increased as the number of stormwater spills at those sites also increased. The results of this study could be used to evaluate the likely impact of sewerage infrastructure improvements in catchments at risk of NoV contamination and to help identify sites suitable for shellfish farming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos J A Campos
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Aquatic Health and Hygiene Division, Food Safety Group, Weymouth Laboratory, UK.
| | - Simon Kershaw
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Aquatic Health and Hygiene Division, Food Safety Group, Weymouth Laboratory, UK
| | - Owen C Morgan
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Aquatic Health and Hygiene Division, Food Safety Group, Weymouth Laboratory, UK
| | - David N Lees
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Aquatic Health and Hygiene Division, Food Safety Group, Weymouth Laboratory, UK
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126
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Rocha-Pereira J, Van Dycke J, Neyts J. Norovirus genetic diversity and evolution: implications for antiviral therapy. Curr Opin Virol 2016; 20:92-98. [PMID: 27736665 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2016.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses are the leading cause of foodborne illness causing both acute and chronic gastroenteritis. In recent years, a number of vaccine candidates entered (pre-) clinical development and the first efforts to develop antiviral therapy have been made. We here discuss aspects of norovirus genetic evolution, persistence in immunocompromised patients as well as the risk and potential consequences of resistance development toward future antiviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Rocha-Pereira
- KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jana Van Dycke
- KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Johan Neyts
- KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Leuven, Belgium.
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127
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Leone CM, Tang C, Sharp J, Jiang X, Fraser A. Presence of human noroviruses on bathroom surfaces: a review of the literature. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2016; 26:420-432. [PMID: 26786956 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2015.1135312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Enteric viruses are the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide with most cases of illness attributed to caliciviruses, such as human noroviruses (HuNoV). While environmental transmission of HuNoV is reported to be low, environmental surfaces could be a source of secondary transmission. As many vomiting/fecal episodes occur in bathrooms, bathroom surfaces could be an important vehicle for transmitting HuNoV. We systematically reviewed the literature to determine the presence of HuNoV on bathroom surfaces. Our review included 22 eligible studies conducted in commercial and institutional settings. Under outbreak conditions, 11 studies reported detection rates of 20-100 %. Six studies implicated bathroom surfaces as primary sources of HuNoV infection while three reported HuNoV present on bathroom surfaces but indicated different primary sources. Under non-outbreak conditions, five studies reported detection rates of 2-17 %. Factors associated with HuNoV presence in bathrooms included population density, setting type, employee numbers, food handler knowledge, awareness, and behaviours, and cleaning/disinfecting procedures. Our review suggests bathrooms could be vehicles that transmit HuNoV under both outbreak and non-outbreak conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cortney M Leone
- a Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences , Clemson University , Clemson , SC , USA
| | - Chaoyi Tang
- a Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences , Clemson University , Clemson , SC , USA
| | - Julia Sharp
- b Department of Mathematical Sciences , Clemson University , Clemson , SC , USA
| | - Xiuping Jiang
- a Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences , Clemson University , Clemson , SC , USA
| | - Angela Fraser
- a Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences , Clemson University , Clemson , SC , USA
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128
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Stokely JN, Niendorf S, Taube S, Hoehne M, Young VB, Rogers MA, Wobus CE. Prevalence of human norovirus and Clostridium difficile coinfections in adult hospitalized patients. Clin Epidemiol 2016; 8:253-60. [PMID: 27418856 PMCID: PMC4934455 DOI: 10.2147/clep.s106495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Human norovirus (HuNoV) and Clostridium difficile are common causes of infectious gastroenteritis in adults in the US. However, limited information is available regarding HuNoV and C. difficile coinfections. Our study was designed to evaluate the prevalence of HuNoV and C. difficile coinfections among adult patients in a hospital setting and disease symptomatology. Study design and setting For a cross-sectional analysis, 384 fecal samples were tested for the presence of C. difficile toxins from patients (n=290), whom the provider suspected of C. difficile infections. Subsequent testing was then performed for HuNoV genogroups I and II. Multinomial logistic regression was performed to determine symptoms more frequently associated with coinfections. Results The final cohort consisted of the following outcome groups: C. difficile (n=196), C. difficile + HuNoV coinfection (n=40), HuNoV only (n=12), and neither (n=136). Coinfected patients were more likely to develop nausea, gas, and abdominal pain and were more likely to seek treatment in the winter season compared with individuals not infected or infected with either pathogen alone. Conclusion Our study revealed that patients with coinfection are more likely to experience certain gastrointestinal symptoms, in particular abdominal pain, suggesting an increased severity of disease symptomatology in coinfected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle N Stokely
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Sandra Niendorf
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Consultant Laboratory for Noroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Taube
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Marina Hoehne
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Consultant Laboratory for Noroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vincent B Young
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases
| | - Mary Am Rogers
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of General Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Christiane E Wobus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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129
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Park GW, Collins N, Barclay L, Hu L, Prasad BVV, Lopman BA, Vinjé J. Strain-Specific Virolysis Patterns of Human Noroviruses in Response to Alcohols. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0157787. [PMID: 27337036 PMCID: PMC4919085 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are widely used to disinfect hands to prevent the spread of pathogens including noroviruses. Alcohols inactivate norovirus by destruction of the viral capsid, resulting in the leakage of viral RNA (virolysis). Since conflicting results have been reported on the susceptibility of human noroviruses against alcohols, we exposed a panel of 30 human norovirus strains (14 GI and 16 GII strains) to different concentrations (50%, 70%, 90%) of ethanol and isopropanol and tested the viral RNA titer by RT-qPCR. Viral RNA titers of 10 (71.4%), 14 (100%), 3 (21.4%) and 7 (50%) of the 14 GI strains were reduced by > 1 log10 RNA copies/ml after exposure to 70% and 90% ethanol, and 70% and 90% isopropanol, respectively. RNA titers of 6 of the 7 non-GII 4 strains remained unaffected after alcohol exposure. Compared to GII strains, GI strains were more susceptible to ethanol than to isopropanol. At 90%, both alcohols reduced RNA titers of 8 of the 9 GII.4 strains by ≥ 1 log10 RNA copies/ml. After exposure to 70% ethanol, RNA titers of GII.4 Den Haag and Sydney strains decreased by ≥ 1.9 log10, whereas RNA reductions for GII.4 New Orleans strains were < 0.5 log10. To explain these differences, we sequenced the complete capsid gene of the 9 GII.4 strains and identified 17 amino acid substitutions in the P2 region among the 3 GII.4 variant viruses. When comparing with an additional set of 200 GII.4 VP1 sequences, only S310 and P396 were present in all GII.4 New Orleans viruses but not in the ethanol-sensitive GII.4 Sydney and GII.4 Den Haag viruses Our data demonstrate that alcohol susceptibility patterns between different norovirus genotypes vary widely and that virolysis data for a single strain or genotype are not representative for all noroviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geun Woo Park
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Nikail Collins
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
- Atlanta Research and Education Foundation (AREF), Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Leslie Barclay
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Liya Hu
- Verna Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - B. V. Venkataram Prasad
- Verna Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Benjamin A. Lopman
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Jan Vinjé
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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Kittigul L, Thamjaroen A, Chiawchan S, Chavalitshewinkoon-Petmitr P, Pombubpa K, Diraphat P. Prevalence and Molecular Genotyping of Noroviruses in Market Oysters, Mussels, and Cockles in Bangkok, Thailand. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2016; 8:133-40. [PMID: 26872638 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-016-9228-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses are the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis associated with bivalve shellfish consumption. This study aimed to detect and characterize noroviruses in three bivalve shellfish species: oysters (Saccostrea forskali), cockles (Anadara nodifera), and mussels (Perna viridis). The virus concentration procedure (adsorption-twice elution-extraction) and a molecular method were employed to identify noroviruses in shellfish. RT-nested PCR was able to detect known norovirus GII.4 of 8.8 × 10(-2) genome copies/g of digestive tissues from oyster and cockle concentrates, whereas in mussel concentrates, the positive result was seen at 8.8 × 10(2) copies/g of digestive tissues. From August 2011 to July 2012, a total of 300 shellfish samples, including each of 100 samples from oysters, cockles, and mussels were collected and tested for noroviruses. Norovirus RNA was detected in 12.3 % of shellfish samples. Of the noroviruses, 7.7 % were of the genogroup (G) I, 2.6 % GII, and 2.0 % were mixed GI and GII. The detection rate of norovirus GI was 2.1 times higher than GII. With regards to the different shellfish species, 17 % of the oyster samples were positive, while 14.0 and 6.0 % were positive for noroviruses found in mussels and cockles, respectively. Norovirus contamination in the shellfish occurred throughout the year with the highest peak in September. Seventeen norovirus-positive PCR products were characterized upon a partial sequence analysis of the capsid gene. Based on phylogenetic analysis, five different genotypes of norovirus GI (GI.2, GI.3, GI.4, GI.5, and GI.9) and four different genotypes of GII (GII.1, GII.2, GII.3, and GII.4) were identified. These findings indicate the prevalence and distribution of noroviruses in three shellfish species. The high prevalence of noroviruses in oysters contributes to the optimization of monitoring plans to improve the preventive strategies of acute gastroenteritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leera Kittigul
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Ratchawithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.
| | - Anyarat Thamjaroen
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Ratchawithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Suwat Chiawchan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Ratchawithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | | | - Kannika Pombubpa
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Ratchawithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Pornphan Diraphat
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, 420/1 Ratchawithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
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131
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Currie K, Price L, Curran E, Bunyan D, Knussen C. Acceptability of temporary suspension of visiting during norovirus outbreaks: investigating patient, visitor and public opinion. J Hosp Infect 2016; 93:121-6. [PMID: 26874935 PMCID: PMC4898206 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2015.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Noroviruses are a leading cause of outbreaks globally and the most common cause of service disruption due to ward closures. Temporary suspension of visiting (TSV) is increasingly a recommended public health measure to reduce exposure, transmission and impact during norovirus outbreaks; however, preventing patient-visitor contact may contravene the ethos of person-centred care, and public acceptability of this measure is not known. AIM To investigate the acceptability of TSV during norovirus outbreaks from the perspectives of patients, visitors and the wider public. METHODS Cross-sectional survey of patients (N = 153), visitors (N = 175) and the public (N = 224) in three diverse areas in Scotland. Health Belief Model constructs were applied to understand ratings of acceptability of TSV during norovirus outbreaks, and to determine associations between these levels and various predictor variables. FINDINGS The majority (84.6%) of respondents indicated that the possible benefits of TSV are greater than the possible disadvantages. Conversely, the majority (70%) of respondents disagreed that TSV 'is wrong as it ignores people's rights to have contact with family and friends'. The majority (81.6%) of respondents agreed that TSV would be more acceptable if exceptions were made for seriously ill or dying patients. Correlational analysis demonstrated that overall acceptability was positively related to perceived severity (r = 0.65), identified benefits (r = 0.54) and implementing additional communication strategies (r = 0.60); acceptability was negatively related to potential barriers (r = -0.49). CONCLUSIONS There is greater service user and public support for the use of TSV than concerns around impinging upon patients' rights to have visitors. TSV should be considered as an acceptable infection control measure that could be implemented consistently during norovirus outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Currie
- School of Health & Life Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK.
| | - L Price
- School of Health & Life Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK
| | - E Curran
- Health Protection Scotland, Glasgow, UK
| | - D Bunyan
- Health Protection Scotland, Glasgow, UK
| | - C Knussen
- School of Health & Life Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK
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132
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Rapid transmission of norovirus often occurs due to its low infectious dosage, high genetic diversity and its short incubation time. The viruses cause acute gastroenteritis and may lead to death. Presently, no effective vaccine or selective drugs accepted by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are available for the treatment of norovirus. Advances in the development of norovirus replicon cell lines, GII.4-Sydney HuNoV strain human B cells, and murine and gnotobiotic pig norovirus models have facilitated the discovery of effective small molecule inhibitors in vitro and in vivo. AREAS COVERED This review gives a brief discussion of the biology and replication of norovirus before highlighting the discovery of anti-norovirus molecules. The article coverage includes: an overview of the current state of norovirus drug discovery, the targeting of the norovirus life cycle, the inhibition of structural and nonstructural proteins of norovirus such as proteases and polymerase, and the blockage of virus entry into host cells. Finally, anti-norovirus drugs in the clinical development stage are described. EXPERT OPINION The current approach for the counteraction of norovirus focuses on the inhibition of viral RNA polymerase, norovirus 3C-like protease and the structural proteins VP1 as well as the blockade of norovirus entry. Broad-spectrum anti-norovirus molecules, based on the inhibition of 3C-like protease, have been developed. Other host factors and ways to overcome the development of resistance through mutation are also being examined. A dual approach in targeting viral and host factors may lead to an effective counteraction of norovirus infection. Current successes in developing norovirus replicon harboring cells and norovirus infected human cells, as well as murine norovirus models and other animal models such as piglets have facilitated the discovery of effective drugs and helped our understanding of its mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahani Weerasekara
- a Department of Chemistry , Kansas State University , Manhattan , KS , USA
| | - Allan M Prior
- b Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry , University of the Witwatersrand , Johannesburg , South Africa
| | - Duy H Hua
- a Department of Chemistry , Kansas State University , Manhattan , KS , USA
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133
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Leshem E, Gastañaduy PA, Trivedi T, Laufer Halpin A, Pringle J, Lang F, Gregoricus N, Vinjé J, Behravesh CB, Parashar U, Hall AJ. Norovirus in a United States virgin islands resort: outbreak investigation, response, and costs. J Travel Med 2016; 23:taw040. [PMID: 27296584 DOI: 10.1093/jtm/taw040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During 8-20 April 2012, an outbreak of gastrointestinal illness occurred among guests and employees of a resort hotel in St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands. We describe outbreak characteristics, and estimate indirect (non-medical) costs to travellers. METHODS Employees who met the case definition were interviewed and provided stool samples. Samples were tested for norovirus by real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Guests were asked to complete a survey aimed to identify and characterize cases, and to estimate quality adjusted vacation days (QAVD) lost. RESULTS Overall, 66 persons (20 employees and 46 guests) met the probable case definition. The first reported illness onset occurred in a hotel employee on 8 April, while the first reported onset in a guest occurred on 13 April. An employee suffered a public diarrhoea incident on 13 April in the central kitchen, followed by illness onset in the next day among employees that assisted with the clean-up. On 15 April, after 10 guests reported ill, the hotel implemented an outbreak response protocol instructing ill employees to take a 3-day leave, and obtain medical clearance prior to resuming work. Ill guests were advised to self-isolate, and rapid cleaning of public areas and guest rooms where suspected contamination occurred was implemented. We estimated that 65 QAVDs were lost by 43 guests (1.5 days/guest). Using an approximate cost of $450 per vacation day, we estimated indirect illness cost at $675 per guest case. Seven (64%) of 11 cases' stool specimens were positive for norovirus genotype GII.4 Den Haag. CONCLUSIONS A norovirus outbreak in a resort hotel resulted in substantial indirect costs and loss of vacation days to ill travellers. We recommend outbreak control measures including exclusion of ill employees, until ≥48-72 h after resolution of symptoms, self-isolation of ill guests and appropriate cleaning in hotel-associated norovirus outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyal Leshem
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology, and Laboratory Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, GA, USA.,Internal Medicine C', Sheba Medical Center, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Paul A Gastañaduy
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology, and Laboratory Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tarak Trivedi
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.,The CDC Experience Applied Epidemiology Fellowship, Scientific Education and Professional Development Program Office, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Alison Laufer Halpin
- Epidemic Intelligence Service, Division of Scientific Education and Professional Development, Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology, and Laboratory Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta, GA, USA.,Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jeshua Pringle
- The CDC Experience Applied Epidemiology Fellowship, Scientific Education and Professional Development Program Office, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Francine Lang
- The United States Virgin Islands Department of Health, St Thomas, US Virgina Island
| | - Nicole Gregoricus
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jan Vinjé
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Casey Barton Behravesh
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Umesh Parashar
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Aron J Hall
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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134
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Abstract
Noroviruses are among the most common cause of diarrhea in transplant recipients. The clinical spectrum of norovirus infection after transplant is increasingly being recognized. As substantial morbidity is now associated with norovirus infections in this population; the quest for rapid diagnostic modalities and newer therapies has expanded. Transplant recipients with norovirus infection are at risk for several complications, including protracted illness with malnutrition, organ failure, and chronic viral shedding. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the epidemiology, complications, diagnosis, and treatment of norovirus infection in the transplant setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Angarone
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 645 N Michigan Avenue, Suite 900, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
| | - Anna Sheahan
- Infection Control and Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mini Kamboj
- Infection Control and Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
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135
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Kirby AE, Streby A, Moe CL. Vomiting as a Symptom and Transmission Risk in Norovirus Illness: Evidence from Human Challenge Studies. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0143759. [PMID: 27116105 PMCID: PMC4845978 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the US, noroviruses are estimated to cause 21 million cases annually with economic losses reaching $2 billion. Outbreak investigations frequently implicate vomiting as a major transmission risk. However, little is known about the characteristics of vomiting as a symptom or the amount of virus present in emesis. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Emesis samples and symptomology data were obtained from previous norovirus human challenge studies with GI.1 Norwalk virus, GII.2 Snow Mountain virus, and a pilot study with GII.1 Hawaii virus. Viral titers in emesis were determined using strain-specific quantitative RT-PCR. In all four studies, vomiting was common with 40-100% of infected subjects vomiting at least once. However, only 45% of subjects with vomiting also had diarrhea. Most of the emesis samples had detectable virus and the mean viral titers were 8.0 x 105 and 3.9 x 104 genomic equivalent copies (GEC)/ml for GI and GII viruses, respectively (p = 0.02). Sample pH was correlated with GII.2 Snow Mountain virus detection. CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE Half of all subjects with symptomatic infection experienced vomiting and the average subject shed 1.7 x 108 GEC in emesis. Unlike shedding through stool, vomiting is more likely to result in significant environmental contamination, leading to transmission through fomites and airborne droplets. This quantitative data will be critical for risk assessment studies to further understand norovirus transmission and develop effective control measures. The correlation between sample pH and virus detection is consistent with a single site of virus replication in the small intestine and stomach contents becoming contaminated by intestinal reflux. Additionally, the frequency of vomiting without concurrent diarrhea suggests that epidemiology studies that enroll subjects based on the presence of diarrhea may be significantly underestimating the true burden of norovirus disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E. Kirby
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Ashleigh Streby
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Christine L. Moe
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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136
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White MB, Rajagopalan S, Yoshikawa TT. Infectious Diarrhea: Norovirus and Clostridium difficile in Older Adults. Clin Geriatr Med 2016; 32:509-22. [PMID: 27394020 DOI: 10.1016/j.cger.2016.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus infection usually results in acute gastroenteritis, often with incapacitating nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It is highly contagious and resistant to eradication with alcohol-based hand sanitizer. Appropriate preventative and infection control measures can mitigate the morbidity and mortality associated with norovirus infection. Clostridium difficile infection is the leading cause of health care-associated diarrhea in the United States. Antibiotic use is by far the most common risk factor for C difficile colonization and infection. Appropriate preventive measures and judicious use of antibiotics can help mitigate the morbidity and mortality associated with C difficile infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary B White
- Department of Veterans Affairs, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, 11300 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA
| | - Shobita Rajagopalan
- County of Los Angeles Department of Public Health, Curtis Tucker Health Center, 123 West Manchester Boulevard, Inglewood CA 90301, USA.
| | - Thomas T Yoshikawa
- Department of Veterans Affairs, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, 11300 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA
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137
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Bekele AZ, Gokulan K, Williams KM, Khare S. Dose and Size-Dependent Antiviral Effects of Silver Nanoparticles on Feline Calicivirus, a Human Norovirus Surrogate. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2016; 13:239-44. [PMID: 26938256 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2015.2054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as antibacterial agents are incorporated in many consumer products, while the use as antiviral agents is an ongoing area of research. We evaluated the antiviral properties of AgNPs of variable sizes (10, 75, and 110 nm) and doses (25, 50, and 100 μg/mL) at different contact time points against feline calicivirus (FCV), a surrogate for norovirus. MATERIALS AND METHODS Antiviral effects of the AgNPs were determined by comparing the infectivity of FCV, the appearance of cytopathic effects (CPEs), and the integrity of the viral capsid protein in viral suspension treated with AgNPs with the untreated controls. RESULTS The 10 nm AgNPs at 50 and 100 μg/mL concentrations inactivated the FCV beyond the limit of detection, resulting in a decrease of up to 6.5 log10 viral titer, prevented development of CPEs, and reduction in the western blot band signal of the viral capsid protein. No significant antiviral effect was observed for the 75 and 110 nm AgNPs. Conclusions and Applications: These results demonstrate that the antiviral effects of AgNPs are both size and dose dependent, thus potential applications of AgNPs as antiviral agents to prevent contamination of foodborne viruses need to consider size and dose effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aschalew Z Bekele
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research , U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Kuppan Gokulan
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research , U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Katherine M Williams
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research , U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Sangeeta Khare
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research , U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
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138
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Rönnqvist M, Maunula L. Noroviruses on surfaces: detection, persistence, disinfection and role in environmental transmission. Future Virol 2016. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2015-0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (HuNoVs), the most common cause of infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis and the cause of numerous foodborne and hospital outbreaks, are easily transmitted from person-to-person. HuNoVs may persist on surfaces for long periods of time and may be transferred via hands, foods, fomites and air. In this review, studies on methods for detecting HuNoVs on environmental surfaces, such as swabbing, are presented. The review also focuses on recent studies on the efficiency of disinfectants for inactivating HuNoV or its surrogates, such as murine norovirus, on environmental surfaces and hands. Although HuNoV is probably more resistant than MuNoV, this study data adds to the understanding of HuNoV transmission routes and selection of tools for the prevention of HuNoV gastroenteritis outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rönnqvist
- Department of Food Hygiene & Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 66, 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
- Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, Mustialankatu 3, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Leena Maunula
- Department of Food Hygiene & Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 66, 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland
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139
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Fumian TM, Leite JPG, Rocha MS, de Andrade JS, Fioretti JM, de Assis RM, Assis MR, Fialho AM, Miagostovich MP. Performance of a one-step quantitative duplex RT-PCR for detection of rotavirus A and noroviruses GII during two periods of high viral circulation. J Virol Methods 2016; 228:123-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Revised: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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140
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Ibfelt T, Frandsen T, Permin A, Andersen LP, Schultz AC. Test and validation of methods to sample and detect human virus from environmental surfaces using norovirus as a model virus. J Hosp Infect 2016; 92:378-84. [PMID: 26905662 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viruses cause a major proportion of human infections, especially gastroenteritis and respiratory infections in children and adults. Indirect transmission between humans via environmental surfaces may play a role in infections, but methods to investigate this have been sparse. AIM To validate and test efficient and reliable procedures to detect multiple human pathogenic viruses on surfaces. METHODS The study was divided into two parts. In Part A, six combinations of three different swabs (consisting of cotton, foamed cotton, or polyester head) and two different elution methods (direct lysis or immersion in alkaline glycine buffer before lysis) were tested for efficient recovery of human norovirus GII.7 and mengovirus from artificially contaminated surfaces. In Part B we determined the detection limit for norovirus GI.1 and GII.3 using the best procedure found in Part A linked with a commercial multiplex real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction detection assay. FINDINGS Combining the polyester swab with direct lysis allowed recovery down to 100 and 10 genome copies/cm(2) of norovirus GI.1 and GII.3, respectively. This procedure resulted in the significant highest recovery of both norovirus and mengovirus, whereas no differences in amplification efficiencies were observed between the different procedures. CONCLUSION The results indicate that it is possible to detect low concentrations of virus on environmental surfaces. We therefore suggest that a polyester swab, followed by direct lysis, combined with a multiplex qPCR detection assay is an efficient screening tool that merits study of different respiratory and gastrointestinal viruses on environment surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Ibfelt
- Departments of Infection Control 6901 and Clinical Microbiology 9301, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Denmark.
| | - T Frandsen
- Departments of Infection Control 6901 and Clinical Microbiology 9301, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Denmark
| | - A Permin
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DTU, Denmark
| | - L P Andersen
- Departments of Infection Control 6901 and Clinical Microbiology 9301, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Denmark
| | - A C Schultz
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, DTU, Denmark
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141
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Curran ET, Wilson J, Haig CE, McCowan C, Leanord A, Loveday H. The Where is Norovirus Control Lost (WINCL) Study: an enhanced surveillance project to identify norovirus index cases in care settings in the UK and Ireland. J Infect Prev 2016; 17:8-14. [PMID: 28989447 PMCID: PMC5074184 DOI: 10.1177/1757177415613133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Norovirus outbreaks have a significant impact on all care settings; little is known about the index cases from whom these outbreaks initiate. AIM To identify and categorise norovirus outbreak index cases in care settings. METHODS A mixed-methods, multi-centre, prospective, enhanced surveillance study identified and categorised index cases in acute and non-acute care settings. RESULTS From 54 participating centres, 537 outbreaks were reported (November 2013 to April 2014): 383 (71.3%) in acute care facilities (ACF); 115 (21.4%) in residential or care homes (RCH) and 39 (7.3%) in other care settings (OCS). Index cases were identified in 424 (79%) outbreaks. Of the 245 index cases who were asymptomatic on admission and not transferred within/into the care setting, 123 (50%) had been an inpatient/resident for 4 days. Four themes emerged: missing the diagnosis, care service under pressure, delay in outbreak control measures and patient/resident location and proximity. CONCLUSION The true index case is commonly not identified as the cause of a norovirus outbreak with at least 50% of index cases being misclassified. Unrecognised norovirus cross-transmission occurs frequently suggesting that either Standard Infection Control Precautions (SICPs) are being insufficiently well applied, and or SICPs are themselves are insufficient to prevent outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jennie Wilson
- Richard Wells Research Centre, University of West London, UK
| | - Caroline E Haig
- Robertson Centre for Biostatistics, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Colin McCowan
- Robertson Centre for Biostatistics, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Alistair Leanord
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Heather Loveday
- Richard Wells Research Centre, University of West London, UK
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142
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Wilson J. Norovirus: increasing the index of suspicion. J Infect Prev 2016; 17:5-6. [DOI: 10.1177/1757177415617242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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143
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Arthur SE, Gibson KE. Environmental persistence of Tulane virus - a surrogate for human norovirus. Can J Microbiol 2015; 62:449-54. [PMID: 26825139 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2015-0756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are the leading cause of acute viral gastroenteritis worldwide. The persistence of HuNoV in the environment contributes significantly to its transmission to humans. Surrogate viruses are used to study HuNoV owing to the lack of a cell culture system for this virus. Here, the persistence of Tulane virus (TV) - a novel HuNoV surrogate - in surface water (SW) and groundwater (GW) as well as on acrylic-based solid (ABS) and stainless steel (SS) surfaces was investigated. After 28 days, TV remained stable in SW (<1 log10 reduction) but was reduced by ≥3.5 to 4 log10 in GW by day 21. TV had a higher rate of reduction on SS compared with ABS, with corresponding D values of 18.5 ± 0.34 and 13.1 ± 0.36 days, respectively. This is the first study to demonstrate the persistence of TV in environmental waters and on fomite surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabastine Eugene Arthur
- University of Arkansas, Department of Food Science, Center for Food Safety, Fayetteville, AR 72704, USA.,University of Arkansas, Department of Food Science, Center for Food Safety, Fayetteville, AR 72704, USA
| | - Kristen Elizabeth Gibson
- University of Arkansas, Department of Food Science, Center for Food Safety, Fayetteville, AR 72704, USA.,University of Arkansas, Department of Food Science, Center for Food Safety, Fayetteville, AR 72704, USA
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144
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Park JH, Jung S, Shin J, Lee JS, Joo IS, Lee DY. Three gastroenteritis outbreaks in South Korea caused by the consumption of kimchi tainted by norovirus GI.4. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2015; 12:221-7. [PMID: 25764445 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2014.1879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In April 2013, outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis were reported at three schools in Jeonju, South Korea. Epidemiological investigations were performed to characterize the outbreaks and implement appropriate control measures. MATERIALS AND METHODS Retrospective cohort studies were performed at these schools. Stool and environmental samples were collected for bacterial and viral assessment. A food supplier of the schools, food company X, was inspected, and samples of cabbage kimchi and groundwater were tested for norovirus by real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. The relatedness of the detected norovirus strains was evaluated by phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS Of the 3347 questionnaires distributed, 631 (attack rate: 18.9%) met the case definition. Among the consumed food items, kimchi products (i.e., cabbage and fresh kimchi) were significantly associated with illness. The kimchi products were supplied by food company X. Among stool samples from 95 students and 34 food handlers at the 3 schools, 39 (41.1%) and 14 (41.2%) samples, respectively, were positive for norovirus. The samples of groundwater and cabbage kimchi at food company X were positive for norovirus. The predominant genotype of norovirus detected in the patient, groundwater, and cabbage kimchi samples, GI.4, shared high nucleotide identity. CONCLUSIONS Kimchi products tainted with norovirus GI.4 from contaminated groundwater were linked to the acute gastroenteritis outbreaks. Therefore, kimchi manufacturers in South Korea should apply chlorine disinfection when using groundwater. Moreover, more stringent sanitation requirements and strict regulations for food companies are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hyuk Park
- 1 Department of Preventive Medicine, Donngguk University College of Medicine , Gyeongju-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea
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145
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Kabue JP, Meader E, Hunter PR, Potgieter N. Human Norovirus prevalence in Africa: a review of studies from 1990 to 2013. Trop Med Int Health 2015; 21:2-17. [PMID: 26436862 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess the contribution of Human Norovirus to diarrhoeal diseases in Africa. METHODS We conducted a systematic review of the PubMed and EMBASE databases for published articles of Human Norovirus in Africa between 1990 and 2013. Data were extracted from selected studies and analysed. RESULTS A total of 208 eligible studies were identified, of which 55 (from 19 countries) met the inclusion criteria. Many cases were of sporadic gastroenteritis (70.9%) in children (82%), 65.4% of which were seen in an outpatient setting. Over half (59.4%) of the affected children were under 5 years of age. The pooled prevalence rate of Human NoV was 11% (95% CI 8-14%), and the meta-analysis indicated significant heterogeneity between the studies. However, the conditional negative binomial regression could not clearly find the factors affecting the Human NoV prevalence rates reported. A close relationship was found between Human Norovirus strains from environmental and clinical samples. CONCLUSION Unreported sporadic gastroenteritis cases of Human Norovirus are common in Africa. Most are community-associated infections. Possible environmental transmission routes have been documented. Combined environmental and clinical studies are required for targeted actions to control transmission of Human Norovirus in Africa. Systematic surveillance of Human Norovirus is needed to measure the burden of Norovirus-induced gastroenteritis in Africa and support any requirements for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Pierre Kabue
- Department of Microbiology, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, RSA
| | - Emma Meader
- School of Medicine, Health Policy and Practice, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Paul R Hunter
- School of Medicine, Health Policy and Practice, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK.,Department of Environmental Health, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, RSA
| | - Natasha Potgieter
- Department of Microbiology, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, RSA
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146
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Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs) are highly prevalent, positive-sense RNA viruses that infect a range of mammals, including humans and mice. Murine noroviruses (MuNoVs) are the most prevalent pathogens in biomedical research colonies, and they have been used extensively as a model system for human noroviruses (HuNoVs). Despite recent successes in culturing HuNoVs in the laboratory and a small animal host, studies of human viruses have inherent limitations. Thus, owing to its versatility, the MuNoV system-with its native host, reverse genetics, and cell culture systems-will continue to provide important insights into NoV and enteric virus biology. In the current review, we summarize recent findings from MuNoVs that increase our understanding of enteric virus pathogenesis and highlight similarities between human and murine NoVs that underscore the value of MuNoVs to inform studies of HuNoV biology. We also discuss the potential of endemic MuNoV infections to impact other disease models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M Karst
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610;
| | - Christiane E Wobus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109;
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147
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Inactivation Kinetics and Mechanism of a Human Norovirus Surrogate on Stainless Steel Coupons via Chlorine Dioxide Gas. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 82:116-23. [PMID: 26475110 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02489-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute gastroenteritis caused by human norovirus is a significant public health issue. Fresh produce and seafood are examples of high-risk foods associated with norovirus outbreaks. Food contact surfaces also have the potential to harbor noroviruses if exposed to fecal contamination, aerosolized vomitus, or infected food handlers. Currently, there is no effective measure to decontaminate norovirus on food contact surfaces. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas is a strong oxidizer and is used as a decontaminating agent in food processing plants. The objective of this study was to determine the kinetics and mechanism of ClO2 gas inactivation of a norovirus surrogate, murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), on stainless steel (SS) coupons. MNV-1 was inoculated on SS coupons at the concentration of 10(7) PFU/coupon. The samples were treated with ClO2 gas at 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 4 mg/liter for up to 5 min at 25°C and a relative humidity of 85%, and virus survival was determined by plaque assay. Treatment of the SS coupons with ClO2 gas at 2 mg/liter for 5 min and 2.5 mg/liter for 2 min resulted in at least a 3-log reduction in MNV-1, while no infectious virus was recovered at a concentration of 4 mg/liter even within 1 min of treatment. Furthermore, it was found that the mechanism of ClO2 gas inactivation included degradation of viral protein, disruption of viral structure, and degradation of viral genomic RNA. In conclusion, treatment with ClO2 gas can serve as an effective method to inactivate a human norovirus surrogate on SS contact surfaces.
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148
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Yeargin T, Fraser A, Huang G, Jiang X. Recovery and Disinfection of Two Human Norovirus Surrogates, Feline Calicivirus and Murine Norovirus, from Hard Nonporous and Soft Porous Surfaces. J Food Prot 2015; 78:1842-50. [PMID: 26408133 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-14-515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Human norovirus is a leading cause of foodborne disease and can be transmitted through many routes, including environmental exposure to fomites. In this study, both the recovery and inactivation of two human norovirus surrogates, feline calicivirus (FCV) and murine norovirus (MNV), on hard nonporous surfaces (glass) and soft porous surfaces (polyester and cotton) were evaluated by both plaque assay and reverse transcription quantitative PCR method. Two disinfectants, sodium hypochlorite (8.25%) and accelerated hydrogen peroxide (AHP, at 4.25%) were evaluated for disinfection efficacy. Five coupons per surface type were used to evaluate the recovery of FCV and MNV by sonication and stomaching and the disinfection of each surface type by using 5 ml of disinfectant for a contact time of 5 min. FCV at an initial titer of ca. 7 log PFU/ml was recovered from glass, cotton, and polyester at 6.2, 5.4, and 3.8 log PFU/ml, respectively, compared with 5.5, 5.2, and 4.1 log PFU/ml, respectively, for MNV with an initial titer of ca. 6 log PFU/ml. The use of sodium hypochlorite (5,000 ppm) was able to inactivate both FCV and MNV (3.1 to 5.5 log PFU/ml) below the limit of detection on all three surface types. AHP (2,656 ppm) inactivated FCV (3.1 to 5.5 log PFU/ml) below the limit of detection for all three surface types but achieved minimal inactivation of MNV (0.17 to 1.37 log PFU/ml). Reduction of viral RNA by sodium hypochlorite corresponded to 2.72 to 4.06 log reduction for FCV and 2.07 to 3.04 log reduction for MNV on all three surface types. Reduction of viral RNA by AHP corresponded to 1.89 to 3.4 log reduction for FCV and 0.54 to 0.85 log reduction for MNV. Our results clearly indicate that both virus and surface types significantly influence recovery efficiency and disinfection efficacy. Based on the performance of our proposed testing method, an improvement in virus recovery will be needed to effectively validate virus disinfection of soft porous surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Yeargin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA
| | - Angela Fraser
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Science, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA
| | - Guohui Huang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA
| | - Xiuping Jiang
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Science, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA.
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149
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Thépaut M, Grandjean T, Hober D, Lobert PE, Bortolotti P, Faure K, Dessein R, Kipnis E, Guery B. Protective role of murine norovirus against Pseudomonas aeruginosa acute pneumonia. Vet Res 2015; 46:91. [PMID: 26338794 PMCID: PMC4558952 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0239-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The murine norovirus (MNV) is a recently discovered mouse pathogen, representing the most common contaminant in laboratory mouse colonies. Nevertheless, the effects of MNV infection on biomedical research are still unclear. We tested the hypothesis that MNV infection could alter immune response in mice with acute lung infection. Here we report that co-infection with MNV increases survival of mice with Pseudomonas aeruginosa acute lung injury and decreases in vivo production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Our results suggest that MNV infection can deeply modify the parameters studied in conventional models of infection and lead to false conclusions in experimental models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Thépaut
- EA 7366: Pseudomonas aeruginosa Host-Pathogen Translational Research Group, UDSL, Université Lille Nord de France, 59045, Lille, France.
| | - Teddy Grandjean
- EA 7366: Pseudomonas aeruginosa Host-Pathogen Translational Research Group, UDSL, Université Lille Nord de France, 59045, Lille, France.
| | - Didier Hober
- Laboratoire de virologie EA3610, Faculté de Médecine, CHRU, Université Lille 2, 59037, Lille, France.
| | - Pierre-Emmanuel Lobert
- Laboratoire de virologie EA3610, Faculté de Médecine, CHRU, Université Lille 2, 59037, Lille, France.
| | - Perrine Bortolotti
- EA 7366: Pseudomonas aeruginosa Host-Pathogen Translational Research Group, UDSL, Université Lille Nord de France, 59045, Lille, France.
| | - Karine Faure
- EA 7366: Pseudomonas aeruginosa Host-Pathogen Translational Research Group, UDSL, Université Lille Nord de France, 59045, Lille, France.
| | - Rodrigue Dessein
- EA 7366: Pseudomonas aeruginosa Host-Pathogen Translational Research Group, UDSL, Université Lille Nord de France, 59045, Lille, France.
| | - Eric Kipnis
- EA 7366: Pseudomonas aeruginosa Host-Pathogen Translational Research Group, UDSL, Université Lille Nord de France, 59045, Lille, France.
| | - Benoit Guery
- EA 7366: Pseudomonas aeruginosa Host-Pathogen Translational Research Group, UDSL, Université Lille Nord de France, 59045, Lille, France.
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150
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Tung-Thompson G, Libera DA, Koch KL, de los Reyes FL, Jaykus LA. Aerosolization of a Human Norovirus Surrogate, Bacteriophage MS2, during Simulated Vomiting. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134277. [PMID: 26287612 PMCID: PMC4545942 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Human noroviruses (NoV) are the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Epidemiological studies of outbreaks have suggested that vomiting facilitates transmission of human NoV, but there have been no laboratory-based studies characterizing the degree of NoV release during a vomiting event. The purpose of this work was to demonstrate that virus aerosolization occurs in a simulated vomiting event, and to estimate the amount of virus that is released in those aerosols. A simulated vomiting device was constructed at one-quarter scale of the human body following similitude principles. Simulated vomitus matrices at low (6.24 mPa*s) and high (177.5 mPa*s) viscosities were inoculated with low (108 PFU/mL) and high (1010 PFU/mL) concentrations of bacteriophage MS2 and placed in the artificial "stomach" of the device, which was then subjected to scaled physiologically relevant pressures associated with vomiting. Bio aerosols were captured using an SKC Biosampler. In low viscosity artificial vomitus, there were notable differences between recovered aerosolized MS2 as a function of pressure (i.e., greater aerosolization with increased pressure), although this was not always statistically significant. This relationship disappeared when using high viscosity simulated vomitus. The amount of MS2 aerosolized as a percent of total virus "vomited" ranged from 7.2 x 10-5 to 2.67 x 10-2 (which corresponded to a range of 36 to 13,350 PFU total). To our knowledge, this is the first study to document and measure aerosolization of a NoV surrogate in a similitude-based physical model. This has implications for better understanding the transmission dynamics of human NoV and for risk modeling purposes, both of which can help in designing effective infection control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Tung-Thompson
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Dominic A. Libera
- Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kenneth L. Koch
- Section on Gastroenterology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157, United States of America
| | - Francis L. de los Reyes
- Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Lee-Ann Jaykus
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
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