Phytochemical profile of Rosmarinus officinalis and Salvia officinalis extracts and correlation to their antioxidant and anti-proliferative activity

Anticancer Potential of Calli Versus Seedling Extracts Derived from Rosmarinus officinalis and Coleus hybridus

BACKGROUND

In Saudi Arabia, the incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer are high. Although current treatments are effective, breast cancer cells develop resistance to these treatments. Numerous studies have demonstrated that active compounds in plant extracts, such as the phenolic compound Rosmarinic Acid (RA), exert anti-cancer effects.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the anticancer properties of methanolic crude extracts of seedlings and calli of Rosmarinus officinalis and Coleus hybridus, two Lamiaceae species.

METHODS

MCF-7 human breast cancer cells were treated with methanolic crude extracts obtained from plant calli and seedlings generated in vitro, and cell proliferation was evaluated. Transcriptional profiling of the seedling and callus tissues was also conducted.

RESULTS

The mRNA expression levels of RA genes were higher in C. hybridus seedlings than in R. officinalis seedlings, as well as in C. hybridus calli than in R. officinalis calli, except for TAT and C4H. In addition, seedling and callus extracts of both R. officinalis and C. hybridus showed anti-proliferative effects against MCF-7 cells after 24 or 48 h of treatment.

DISCUSSION

At a low concentration of 10 μg/mL, C. hybridus calli and seedling extracts showed the most significant anti-proliferative effects after 24 and 48 h of exposure (p < 0.01); controls (doxorubicin) also showed significant inhibition, but lesser than that observed with C. hybridus (p < 0.05). Results with R. officinalis callus and seedling extracts did not significantly differ from those with untreated cells.

CONCLUSION

Methanolic extracts of R. officinalis and C. hybridus are potentially valuable options for breast cancer treatment.

Phytochemical composition, antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of Rosmarinus officinalis leaves

Phytochemicals in Rosmarinus officinalis leaves, their total phenolic content, antioxidant potential and antiproliferative activity against human prostate (DU145), colon (CT26) and cervical (HeLa 229) cancer cells were investigated. Extraction was done separately using hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and methanol. A total of 32 compounds were identified, eight of which were reported for the first time. The highest phenolic content was 476.80 ± 0.69 µg/ml for the methanolic extract which also had the highest antioxidant activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 5.39 ± 0.09 mg/ml. Extracts exhibited the highest toxicity against prostate cancer cells and the least against cervical cancer cells.

Antidiabetic Effects and Mechanisms of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) and its Phenolic Components

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic endocrine disease result from absolute or relative insulin secretion deficiency, insulin resistance, or both, and has become a major and growing public healthy menace worldwide. Currently, clinical antidiabetic drugs still have some limitations in efficacy and safety such as gastrointestinal side effects, hypoglycemia, or weight gain. Rosmarinus officinalis is an aromatic evergreen shrub used as a food additive and medicine, which has been extensively used to treat hyperglycemia, atherosclerosis, hypertension, and diabetic wounds. A great deal of pharmacological research showed that rosemary extract and its phenolic constituents, especially carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, and carnosol, could significantly improve diabetes mellitus by regulating glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, anti-inflammation, and anti-oxidation, exhibiting extremely high research value. Therefore, this review summarizes the pharmacological effects and underlying mechanisms of rosemary extract and its primary phenolic constituents on diabetes and relative complications both in vitro and in vivo studies from 2000 to 2020, to provide some scientific evidence and research ideas for its clinical application.

Hypolipidemic effects of Rosmarinus officinalis L

Dyslipidemia is one of the major risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Current strategies are not effective in the management of dyslipidemia. Thus, there is a necessity to find new preventative and therapeutic approaches. In recent years, herbal medicine has drawn great attention regarding the prevention and management of dyslipidemia. Rosmarinus officinalis, commonly known as rosemary, is an evergreen shrub containing several polyphenols. The plant grows in the Mediterranean and South American regions. Rosemary and its main components have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-lowering properties. The present review has focused on in vivo and in vitro studies on the hypolipidemic effects of rosemary and its main constituents as well as their functional mechanisms. Studies have described lipid-scavenging activities of rosemary through its flavonoid contents. Modulating inflammation and oxidative stress have been described as possible mechanisms by which rosemary ameliorates dyslipidemia. However, the exact mechanisms are not fully understood yet. Conducting experimental and clinical trial studies are recommended to confirm the safety and efficacy of rosemary in the prevention and management of dyslipidemia and other cardio-metabolic diseases.

Characterization of Phenolic Compounds and Antiproliferative Effects of Salvia pomifera and Salvia fruticosa Extracts

The phenolic compounds of methanolic extracts of Salvia pomifera and Salvia fruticosa were identified by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Carnosic acid and its metabolite carnosol were the most abundant terpene phenolic compounds of S. fruticosa, while they were completely absent in S. pomifera. The main terpene phenolic constituent of S. pomifera was 12-O-methylcarnosic acid and its mass/mass fragmentation pathway was explained. The detailed mechanism of carnosic acid oxidation to carnosol was suggested. The effects of Salvia extracts and/or carnosic acid, the main diterpene phenolic component of S. fruticosa, on the proliferation and cell cycle of two melanoma cell lines (A375, Mel JuSo) and human fibroblast cell line (HFF) were investigated by MTT assay, PI-exclusion assay and flow cytometry cell cycle analysis. Extract of S. fruticosa more efficiently than S. pomifera extract reduced the proliferation of the human melanoma cells. Carnosic acid showed the most significant effect. The first evidence that carnosic acid affects microtubule dynamics and arrests the cell cycle in the G2/M phase was provided. Collectively, our results demonstrate that these two Salvia species are plants of medicinal interest with perspective for further investigation. Carnosic acid could be the compound responsible for the biological activities of S. fruticosa extracts.

Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, and Anticholinesterase Activities and Phytochemical Profile of Azorella glabra Wedd

Oxidative stress is involved in different diseases, such as diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. The genus Azorella includes about 70 species of flowering plant species; most of them are commonly used as food and in particular as a tea infusion in the Andean region of South America in folk medicine to treat various chronic diseases. Azorella glabra Wedd. aerial parts were firstly analyzed for their in vitro antioxidant activity using different complementary assays. In particular, radical scavenging activity was tested against biological neutral radical DPPH; ferric reducing power and lipid peroxidation inhibitory capacity (FRAP and Beta-Carotene Bleaching tests) were also determined. The Relative Antioxidant Capacity Index (RACI) was used to compare data obtained by different assays. Then, the inhibitory ability of samples was investigated against α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes involved in diabetes and against acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase enzymes considered as strategy for the treatment of Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s diseases. Moreover, the phytochemical profile of the sample showing the highest RACI (1.35) and interesting enzymatic activities (IC₅₀ of 163.54 ± 9.72 and 215.29 ± 17.10 μg/mL in α-glucosidase and acetylcholinesterase inhibition, respectively) was subjected to characterization and quantification of its phenolic composition using LC-MS/MS analysis. In fact, the ethyl acetate fraction derived from ethanol extract by liquid/liquid extraction showed 29 compounds, most of them are cinnamic acid derivatives, flavonoid derivatives, and a terpene. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about the evaluation of significant biological activities and phytochemical profile of A. glabra, an important source of health-promoting phytochemicals.

HPTLC-PCA Complementary to HRMS-PCA in the Case Study of Arbutus unedo Antioxidant Phenolic Profiling

A comparison between High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) analysis and Liquid Chromatography High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS), coupled with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was carried out by performing a combined metabolomics study to discriminate Arbutus unedo (A. unedo) plants. For a rapid digital record of A. unedo extracts (leaves, yellow fruit, and red fruit collected in La Maddalena and Sassari, Sardinia), HPTLC was used. Data were then analysed by PCA with the results of the ability of this technique to discriminate samples. Similarly, extracts were acquired by non-targeted LC-HRMS followed by unsupervised PCA, and then by LC-HRMS (MS) to identify secondary metabolites involved in the differentiation of the samples. As a result, we demonstrated that HPTLC may be applied as a simple and reliable untargeted approach to rapidly discriminate extracts based on tissues and/or geographical origins, while LC-HRMS could be used to identify which metabolites are able to discriminate samples.

Cytotoxic Effects of Different Aromatic Plants Essential Oils on Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma- an in vitro Study

Background/Aim: Current approaches in therapy of head and neck cancers are surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, recurrence, development of multidrug resistance, side effects, and high costs of therapy are significant problems which point to the need for more efficient and less toxic drugs and interventions.

Material and Methods: Eight essential oils obtained from Thymus serpyllum, Mentha piperita, Juniperus communis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Melissa officinalis, Achillea millefolium, Zingiber officinale, and Helichrysum arenarium were tested for their anti-proliferative on oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) culture and SCC-25 cell line. Cytotoxicity assays (MTT and Neutral red) were used to detect the effect of the mentioned essential oils.

Results: T. serpyllum, M. piperita, J. communis, and R. officinalis essential oils exhibited the best anti-proliferative effect, on both types of cells. M. piperita had the greatest effect on SCC-25 cell line (4,5% of viable cells) and OSCC cells (7,2% of viable cells). Overall, cytotoxicity was higher in OSCC than in SCC-25 cell line.

Conclusions: This study showed a clear anti-proliferative effect of four essential oils, in vitro making them novel potential antineoplastic agents.

Incorporating ifosfamide into salvia oil-based nanoemulsion diminishes its nephrotoxicity in mice inoculated with tumor

Introduction: Nephrotoxicity is one of the major side effects of the chemotherapeutic drug, ifosfamide (IFO). In this study, IFO was solubilized in nanoemulsion (NE) containing salvia (SAL) essential oil to investigate its adverse side effects in mice.

Methods: One hundred female Swiss albino mice (n = 20/group) were split into five groups. Group I (Normal) received saline solution (0.9% (w/v) NaCl) while groups II-V were intraperitoneally (I.P.) injected with 2.5 × 10⁶ Ehrlich ascetic carcinoma (EAC) cells/mouse. Group II (EAC) represented the untreated EAC-bearing mice. Group III (IFO) was treated with IFO at a dose of 60 mg/kg/d (I.P. 0.3 mL/mouse). Group IV (SAL) was treated with 0.3 mL blank NE-based SAL oil/mouse. Group V (SAL-IFO) was treated with IFO, loaded in 0.3 mL of blank SAL-NE, at a dose of 60 mg/kg/d (I.P. 0.3 mL/mouse). Groups III-V were treated for three consecutive days.

Results: There was a double increase in the survival percentage of the SAL-IFO group (60%) relative to the IFO group (30%). Renal damage with the presence of Fanconi syndrome was indicated in the IFO group through a significant elevation in the levels of serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, urine bicarbonate, and phosphate in addition to a reduced level of glucose compared to the normal group. On the other hand, the administration of SAL-IFO into the mice reversed this effect. Additionally, the oxidative stress in the kidney tissues of the SAL-IFO group was ameliorated when compared to the IFO group.

Conclusion: Incorporating IFO into SAL-NE has protected the kidneys from the damage induced by IFO.

Bioactive Profile of Various Salvia officinalis L. Preparations

Salvia officinalis L., also known as the “Salvation Plant”, has been long used and well-documented in traditional medicine around the globe. Its bioactive compounds, and especially its polyphenol profile, have been extensively researched and reviewed. However, sage’s beneficial effects reach much further, and nowadays, with a range of new extraction techniques, we are discovering new components with new therapeutic effects, especially in the context of neurodegenerative diseases and various carcinomas. This review describes the bioactive profile of various sage preparations depending on the extraction techniques and extraction parameters, and this review lists the newest research findings on its health effects.

Development and Validation of an Analytical Method Based on HPLC-ELSD for the Simultaneous Determination of Rosmarinic Acid, Carnosol, Carnosic Acid, Oleanolic Acid and Ursolic Acid in Rosemary

The safety, efficacy and stability of natural antioxidants have been the focus of research in the food industry, with the aim of rapidly analyzing and controlling the quality of rosemary and its extracts, a novel analytical method involving high-performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light scattering detection (HPLC-ELSD) was developed for the simultaneous determination of rosmarinic acid, carnosol, carnosic acid, oleanolic acid and ursolic acid in rosemary. Chromatographic separation was conducted with gradient elution mode by using a Zorbax SB-C18 column (4.6 mm × 250 mm, 5 μm) with mobile phases of methanol and 0.6% acetic acid. The drift tube temperature of ELSD was 70 °C, and the pressure of nebulizer nitrogen gas was 40 Psi. The method developed has high sensitivity (with limits of detection from 1.3 to 8.6 μg/mL), acceptable linearity over the tested concentrations (with correlation coefficients from 0.991 to 0.999), good repeatability (with intra- and inter-day CV less than 3.1% for all analytes) and satisfactory accuracy (with recovery between 95.5% and 100.8%). The method has been demonstrated as a powerful tool for the functional ingredients analysis and quality control of rosemary and its extracts in a cost- and time-effective manner.

Effects of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation on a rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L) extract rich in rosmarinic acid

The potential phytochemical losses occurring throughout the sequential steps of in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation of a rosemary aqueous extract were investigated. Crude (CE), digested (DE) and fermented (FE) extracts were characterized in terms of their phenolic profile and biological activities. Rosmarinic acid was the phytochemical that underwent the most significate transformation during digestion and fermentation, which amounted to 60% compared to the 26% degradation of the total phenolics. Overall, the simulated digestion step decreased the antioxidant activity estimated by DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, ORAC and TBARS assays. Both CE and DE did not present antiproliferative potential, however, FE exhibited a pronounced cytotoxic activity (GI50 = 116 µg/mL) against HeLa cells. CE and DE showed to be moderate inhibitors of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA), S. aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, whilst the FE acted as a moderate inhibitor of MRSA and MSSA.

Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) as therapeutic and prophylactic agent

Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) is a medicinal plant native to the Mediterranean region and cultivated around the world. Besides the therapeutic purpose, it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative. R. officinalis L. is constituted by bioactive molecules, the phytocompounds, responsible for implement several pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiproliferative, antitumor and protective, inhibitory and attenuating activities. Thus, in vivo and in vitro studies were presented in this Review, approaching the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of R. officinalis L. on some physiological disorders caused by biochemical, chemical or biological agents. In this way, methodology, mechanisms, results, and conclusions were described. The main objective of this study was showing that plant products could be equivalent to the available medicines.

Extraction of Carnosic Acid and Carnosol from Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) Leaves by Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Their Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity

Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) is a good source of antioxidant compounds, carnosic acid and carnosol being the prominent ones. Both are soluble in CO₂, and our goal was to investigate the application of supercritical CO₂ extraction to obtain sage extracts rich in these compounds. The effect of pressure, temperature, and CO₂ flow rate on the carnosic acid and carnosol yield was studied. These variables were optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The pressure significantly affected carnosol extraction, while the extraction of carnosic acid was affected by the pressure, temperature, and CO₂ flow rate. Carnosic acid content varied from 0.29–120.0 µg mg⁻¹, and carnosol content from 0.46–65.5 µg mg⁻¹. The optimal conditions according to RSM were a pressure of 29.5 MPa, a temperature of 49.1 °C, and a CO₂ flow rate of 3 kg h⁻¹, and the sage extract yield was calculated to be 6.54%, carnosic acid content 105 µg mg⁻¹, and carnosol content 56.3 µg mg⁻¹. The antioxidant activities of the sage extracts were evaluated by the scavenging activities of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Sage extract obtained at 30 MPa and 40 °C with 2 kg h⁻¹ CO₂ flow rate with a carnosic acid content of 72 µg mg⁻¹ and carnosol content of 55 µg mg⁻¹ exhibited the highest antioxidant activity (80.0 ± 0.68%) amongst the investigated supercritical fluid extracts at 25 µg mL⁻¹ concentration. The antimicrobial properties of extracts were tested on four bacterial strains: Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus. The extract with a carnosic acid content of 116 µg mg⁻¹ and a carnosol content of 60.6 µg mg⁻¹ was found to be the most potent agent against B. subtilis.

Mediterranean herb extracts inhibit microbial growth of representative oral microorganisms and biofilm formation of Streptococcus mutans

In light of the growing antibiotic resistance, the usage of plant-derived antimicrobial agents could serve as an effective alternative treatment against oral infections. The aim of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of Mediterranean herb extracts against representative oral microorganisms. The extraction procedures and the analysis of the obtained extracts were performed under established experimental conditions. The minimum inhibitory (MIC) and bactericidal (MBC) concentrations of the methanol extracts of Cistus creticus ssp. creticus, Cistus monspeliensis, Origanum vulgare, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia sclarea and Thymus longicaulis against eight typical oral bacteria and the fungus Candida albicans were determined. The antibiofilm activity against Streptococcus mutans was also quantified using the microtiter plate test. Overall, all tested extracts inhibited effectively the screened obligate anaerobic microorganisms and in concentrations ≥0.3 mg ml-1 had moderate to high antibiofilm activity comparable to that of chlorhexidine (CHX) against S. mutans. In particular, R. officinalis (MIC: 0.08-5.00 mg ml-1) and S. sclarea (MIC: 0.08-2.50 mg ml-1) showed the highest antibacterial activity, while Cistus spp., R. officinalis and S. sclarea significantly inhibited S. mutans biofilm formation at 0.60, 1.25 and 2.50 mg ml-1, respectively. Porphyromonas gingivalis and Parvimonas micra were high susceptible to O. vulgare (MIC = 0.30 mg ml-1), whereas T. longicaulis eradicated all oral bacteria (MBC: 0.15-2.50 mg ml-1). Nevertheless, C. albicans showed no sensitivity to the tested extracts. In conclusion, the tested plant extracts could serve as alternative natural antibacterial and antibiofilm components against oral infections.

Cytotoxic Tolerance of Healthy and Cancerous Bone Cells to Anti-microbial Phenolic Compounds Depend on Culture Conditions

Carnosol and carnosic acid are polyphenolic compounds found in rosemary and sage with known anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial properties. Here, we addressed the potential use of carnosol and carnosic acid for in vitro bone tissue engineering applications, specifically depending on their cytotoxic effects on bone marrow stromal and stem cells, and osteosarcoma cells in monolayer and 3D cultures. Carnosol and carnosic acid displayed a bacteriostatic effect on Gram-positive bacteria, especially on S. aureus. The viability results indicated that bone marrow stromal cells and bone marrow stem cells were more tolerant to the presence of carnosol compared to osteosarcoma cells. 3D culture conditions increased this tolerance further for healthy cells, while not affecting the cytotoxic potential of carnosol for osteosarcoma cells. Carnosic acid was found to be more cytotoxic for all cell types used in the study. Results suggest that phenolic compounds might have potential use as anti-microbial and anti-carcinogenic agents for bone tissue engineering with further optimization for controlled release.

Involvement of Carnosic Acid in the Phytotoxicity of Rosmarinus officinalis Leaves

Weeds are rapidly developing resistance to synthetic herbicides, and this can pose a threat to the ecosystem. Exploring allelopathic species as an alternative weed control measure can help minimize the ecological threat posed by herbicide-resistant weeds. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the contribution of some polyphenols to the allelopathy of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.). The phytotoxic effects of rosemary (leaves, roots, inflorescences, and stems) crude extracts were tested on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Soils incorporated with dried rosemary leaves were also tested on test plants. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis was used to determine the content of some polyphenols (caffeic, ferulic, gallic, rosmarinic, carnosic, and chlorogenic acids) in rosemary. The specific activity and total activity of crude extracts and individual compounds were evaluated using lettuce. The crude extract of rosemary leaves showed the highest growth inhibitory effect among the rosemary organs tested. Soil amended with rosemary leaf debris reduced the dry matter and seed emergence of lettuce. Carnosic acid was the main compound detected in rosemary leaves and had a high specific activity when tested on lettuce. During the seed germination period, there was observed filter paper coloration among the test plants treated with carnosic acid (250 μg/mL). The high concentration and strong inhibitory effect of carnosic acid could explain the inhibitory activity of the rosemary leaf extract. Hence, we conclude based on the total activity estimation that carnosic acid among the other tested compounds is the major allelochemical in rosemary leaves.

Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, L.): A Review

Nowadays, there is an interest in the consumption of food without synthetic additives and rather with the use of natural preservatives. In this regard, natural extracts of the Lamiaceae family, such as rosemary, have been studied because of its bioactive properties. Several studies have reported that rosemary extracts show biological bioactivities such as hepatoprotective, antifungal, insecticide, antioxidant and antibacterial. It is well known that the biological properties in rosemary are mainly due to phenolic compounds. However, it is essential to take into account that these biological properties depend on different aspects. Their use in foods is limited because of their odour, colour and taste. For that reason, commercial methods have been developed for the preparation of odourless and colourless antioxidant compounds from rosemary. Owing to the new applications of natural extracts in preservatives, this review gives a view on the use of natural extract from rosemary in foods and its effect on preservative activities. Specifically, the relationship between the structure and activity (antimicrobial and antioxidant) of the active components in rosemary are being reviewed.

The effects of baking conditions on acrylamide content in shortcrust cookies with added freeze-dried aqueous rosemary extract

The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of baking air humidity and dough supplementation with freeze-dried aqueous rosemary extract on acrylamide content in shortcrust cookies, as well as on their antioxidant properties and phenolic composition. Shortcrust cookies were baked at 170 °C in dry or humid (90%) air using 0.1, 0.2, or 0.5% of rosemary extract, and were compared to control samples without the extract. Acrylamide concentration in the obtained products ranged from 22.49 to 28.38 µg kg⁻¹. Furthermore, cookies baked in humid air had less acrylamide (by 6% on average) than those baked in dry air, irrespective of extract content. On the other hand, a significant relationship was found between humidity conditions and total phenolic content in the final products. Shortcrust cookies containing 0.5% of rosemary extract and baked in humid air revealed the best antioxidant properties as their total polyphenol content was approx. Three times higher than that in control samples. Furthermore, shortcrust cookies with 0.5% of rosemary extract showed superior DPPH radical scavenging capacity.

Extraction of bioactive compounds and essential oils from mediterranean herbs by conventional and green innovative techniques: A review

Market interest in aromatic plants from the Mediterranean is continuously growing mainly due to their medicinal and bioactive compounds (BACs) with other valuable constituents from essential oils (EOs). From ancient times, these plants have been important condiments for traditional Mediterranean cuisine and remedies in folk medicine. Nowadays, they are considered as important factors for food quality and safety, due to prevention of various deteriorative factors like oxidations and microbial spoilage. EOs have different therapeutic benefits (e.g. antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antifungal), while BACs mostly affect nutritive, chemical, microbiological, and sensory quality of foods. Currently, many plant extracts are used for functional (healthy) foods, which additionally fuels consumer and industrial interest in sustainable and non-toxic routes for their production. EO yields from dried plants are below 5%. Their extraction is strongly dependent on the hydrophobic or lipophilic character of target molecules, hence the common use of organic solvents. Similarly, BACs encompass a wide range of substances with varying structures as reflected by their different physical/chemical qualities. Thus, there is a need to identify optimal non-toxic extraction method(s) for isolation/separation of EO/BCs from plants. Various innovative non-thermal extractions (e.g. ultrasound-, high-pressure-, pulsed electric fields assisted extraction, etc.) have been proposed to overcome the above mentioned limitations. These techniques are "green" in concept, as they are shorter, avoid toxic chemicals, and are able to improve extract yields and quality with reduced consumption of energy and solvents. This research provides an overview of such extractions of both BAC and EOs from Mediterranean herbs, sustained by innovative and non-conventional energy sources.

Histo-cytochemistry and scanning electron microscopy for studying spatial and temporal extraction of metabolites induced by ultrasound. Towards chain detexturation mechanism

There are more than 1300 articles in scientific literature dealing with positive impacts of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) such as reduction of extraction time, diminution of solvent and energy used, enhancement in yield and even selectivity, intensification of diffusion, and eliminating wastes. This present study aims to understand what are the mechanism(s) behind these positive impacts which will help to design a decision tool for UAE of natural products. Different microscopic observations (Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (e-SEM), Cyto-histochemistry) have been used for spacial and temporal localization of metabolites in rosemary leaves, which is one of the most studied and most important plant for its antioxidant metabolites used in food industry, during conventional and ultrasound extraction. The study permits to highlight that ultrasound impacted rosemary leaves not by a single or different mechanisms in function of ultrasound power, as described by previous studies, but by a chain detexturation mechanism in a special order: local erosion, shear forces, sonoporation, fragmentation, capillary effect, and detexturation. These detexturation impacts followed a special order during ultrasound treatment leading at the end to the total detexturation of rosemary leaves. These mechanisms and detexturation impacts were identified in glandular trichomes, non-glandular-trichomes and the layer adaxial and abaxial cuticle. Modelling metabolites diffusion phenomenon during conventional and ultrasound extraction with the second Fick's law allowed the estimation of diffusivities and solvent penetration into the inner tissues and in meantime to accelerate the release of valuable metabolites.

Synthesis of Benzofuran-2-One Derivatives and Evaluation of Their Antioxidant Capacity by Comparing DPPH Assay and Cyclic Voltammetry

The present work aimed to synthesise promising antioxidant compounds as a valuable alternative to the currently expensive and easily degradable molecules that are employed as stabilizers in industrial preparation. Taking into account our experience concerning domino Friedel-Crafts/lactonization reactions, we successfully improved and extended the previously reported methodology toward the synthesis of 3,3-disubstituted-3H-benzofuran-2-one derivatives 9-20 starting from polyphenols 1-6 as substrates and either diethylketomalonate (7) or 3,3,3-trifluoromethyl pyruvate (8) as electrophilic counterpart. The antioxidant capacity of the most stable compounds (9-11 and 15-20) was evaluated by both DPPH assay and Cyclic Voltammetry analyses performed in alcoholic media (methanol) as well as in aprotic solvent (acetonitrile). By comparing the recorded experimental data, a remarkable activity can be attributed to few of the tested lactones.

Phytochemical screening and biological activity of Lamiaceae family plant extracts

The current study aimed to investigate ethanolic extracts from the following medicinal plant species cultivated in western Romania: Melissa officinalis L., Rosmarinus officinalis L. (RO) and Salvia officinalis L. (SO). Antioxidant activity, total phenolics content and a profile of the main hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs), including caffeic, ferulic, coumaric and rosmarinic acids, was determined for each plant extract. The in vitro antimicrobial activity against four bacterial strains (Escherichia coli, Listeria-, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus), and the effect on cell viability in two melanoma cell lines (B164A5 murine melanoma and A375 human melanoma) was also assessed. The results indicated that total phenolics content was 73.76-274.73 mg GAE·g-1 and the antioxidant activity was 2.32-2.87 mM Fe2+·100 g-1. There was found a strong positive correlation (R=0.9691) between total phenolics content and the antioxidant activity in the investigated samples. Regarding the HCA profile obtained by high performance liquid chromatography, the results demonstrated that rosmarinic acid represents the main identified compound. The ethanolic extracts of RO and SO exhibited antibacterial activity against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. RO was the most effective in terms of decreasing the cell viability of murine and human melanoma cell lines, while the HCAs did not exhibit any effect on cell viability. These findings suggest that plant extracts from the Lamiaceae family may used in the clinic as natural antibacterial agents.

Determination of the clean-up efficiency of the solid-phase extraction of rosemary extracts: Application of full-factorial design in hyphenation with Gaussian peak fit function

We present a novel method for the quantitative determination of the clean-up efficiency to provide a calculated parameter for peak purity through iterative fitting in conjunction with design of experiments. Rosemary extracts were used and analyzed before and after solid-phase extraction using a self-fabricated mixed-mode sorbent based on poly(N-vinylimidazole/ethylene glycol dimethacrylate). Optimization was performed by variation of washing steps using a full three-level factorial design and response surface methodology. Separation efficiency of rosmarinic acid from interfering compounds was calculated using an iterative fit of Gaussian-like signals and quantifications were performed by the separate integration of the two interfering peak areas. Results and recoveries were analyzed using Design-Expert® software and revealed significant differences between the washing steps. Optimized parameters were considered and used for all further experiments. Furthermore, the solid-phase extraction procedure was tested and compared with commercial available sorbents. In contrast to generic protocols of the manufacturers, the optimized procedure showed excellent recoveries and clean-up rates for the polymer with ion exchange properties. Finally, rosemary extracts from different manufacturing areas and application types were studied to verify the developed method for its applicability. The cleaned-up extracts were analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry for detailed compound evaluation to exclude any interference from coeluting molecules.

A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled pilot trial of a combined extract of sage, rosemary and melissa, traditional herbal medicines, on the enhancement of memory in normal healthy subjects, including influence of age

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate for the first time the effects of a combination of sage, rosemary and melissa (Salvia officinalis L., Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Melissa officinalis L.; SRM), traditional European medicines, on verbal recall in normal healthy subjects. To devise a suitable study design for assessing the clinical efficacy of traditional herbal medicines for memory and brain function.

METHODS

Forty-four normal healthy subjects (mean age 61 ± 9.26y SD; m/f 6/38) participated in this study. A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled pilot study was performed with subjects randomised into an active and placebo group. The study consisted of a single 2-week term ethanol extract of SRM that was chemically-characterised using high resolution LC-UV-MS/MS analysis. Immediate and delayed word recall were used to assess memory after taking SRM or placebo (ethanol extract of Myrrhis odorata (L.) Scop.). In addition analysis was performed with subjects divided into younger and older subgroups (≤ 62 years mean age n = 26: SRM n = 10, Placebo n = 16; ≥ 63 years n = 19: SRM n = 13, Placebo n = 6).

RESULTS

Overall there were no significant differences between treatment and placebo change from baseline for immediate or delayed word recall. However subgroup analysis showed significant improvements to delayed word recall in the under 63 year age group (p < 0.0123) with Cohen's effect size d = 0.92. No adverse effects were observed.

CONCLUSION

This pilot study indicates that an oral preparation of SRM at the selected dose and for the period of administration is more effective than a placebo in supported verbal episodic memory in healthy subjects under 63 years of age. Short- and long- term supplementation with SRM extract merits more robust investigation as an adjunctive treatment for patients with Alzheimer's disease and in the general ageing population. The study design proved a simple cost effective trial protocol to test the efficacy of herbal medicines on verbal episodic memory, with future studies including broader cognitive assessment.

Rosemary Extract as a Potential Anti-Hyperglycemic Agent: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a disease on the rise and with huge economic burden to health care systems around the globe, results from defects in insulin action (termed insulin resistance) combined with impaired insulin secretion. Current methods of prevention and treatments for insulin resistance and T2DM are lacking in number and efficacy and, therefore, there is a need for new preventative measures and targeted therapies. In recent years, chemicals found in plants/herbs have attracted attention for their use as functional foods or nutraceuticals for preventing and treating insulin resistance and T2DM. Rosemary is an evergreen shrub indigenous to the Mediterranean region and South America, which contains various polyphenols. Rosemary extract and its polyphenolic constituents have been reported to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-hyperglycemic properties. The current review summarizes the existing in vitro and in vivo studies examining the anti-diabetic effects of rosemary extract and its polyphenolic components and highlights the known mechanism of action.

Regulation of microRNA using promising dietary phytochemicals: Possible preventive and treatment option of malignant mesothelioma

Malignant mesothelioma (MM) is a very aggressive, lethal cancer, and its incidence is increasing worldwide. Development of multi-drug resistance, therapy related side-effects, and disease recurrence after therapy are the major problems for the successful treatment of MM. Emerging evidence indicates that dietary phytochemicals can exert anti-cancer activities by regulating microRNA expression. Until now, only one dietary phytochemical (ursolic acid) has been reported to have MM microRNA regulatory ability. A large number of dietary phytochemicals still remain to be tested. In this paper, we have introduced some dietary phytochemicals (curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, quercetin, genistein, pterostilbene, resveratrol, capsaicin, ellagic acid, benzyl isothiocyanate, phenethyl isothiocyanate, sulforaphane, indole-3-carbinol, 3,3'-diindolylmethane, diallyl disulphide, betulinic acid, and oleanolic acid) which have shown microRNA regulatory activities in various cancers and could regulate MM microRNAs. In addition to microRNA regulatory activities, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, quercetin, genistein, resveratrol, phenethyl isothiocyanate, and sulforaphane have anti-mesothelioma potentials, and pterostilbene, capsaicin, ellagic acid, benzyl isothiocyanate, indole-3-carbinol, 3,3'-diindolylmethane, diallyl disulphide, betulinic acid, and oleanolic acid have potentials to inhibit cancer by regulating the expression of various genes which are also known to be aberrant in MM.

Liver immunology and herbal treatment

Beyond the metabolic functions, the liver recently has been defined as an organ of immune system (IS), which have central regulatory role for innate and adaptive immunity. The liver keeps a delicate balance between hepatic screening of pathogenic antigens and immune tolerance to self-antigens. Herbal treatments with immunological effects have potential to alter this hepatic immune balance towards either therapeutic side or diseases side by inducing liver injury via hepatotoxicity or initiation of autoimmune diseases. Most commonly known herbal treatments, which have therapeutic effect on liver and IS, have proven via in vitro, in vivo, and/or clinical studies were summarized in this review.

Pharmacological properties of Salvia officinalis and its components

Salvia officinalis (Sage) is a plant in the family of Labiatae/Lamiaceae. It is native to Middle East and Mediterranean areas, but today has been naturalized throughout the world. In folk medicine, S. officinalis has been used for the treatment of different kinds of disorders including seizure, ulcers, gout, rheumatism, inflammation, dizziness, tremor, paralysis, diarrhea, and hyperglycemia. In recent years, this plant has been a subject of intensive studies to document its traditional use and to find new biological effects. These studies have revealed a wide range of pharmacological activities for S. officinalis. Present review highlights the up-to-date information on the pharmacological findings that have been frequently reported for S. officinalis. These findings include anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antimutagenic, antidementia, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects. Also, chemical constituents responsible for pharmacological effects of S. officinalis and the clinical studies on this plant are presented and discussed.

Novel Approach to the Development of Functional Goat's Milk-Based Beverages Using Medicinal Plant Extracts in Combination with High Intensity Ultrasound Treatment

Regardless of its highly valuable nutritive composition, goat's milk is less preferred by consumers due to its specific sensory characteristics that are very often regarded as undesirable. On the other hand, traditional medicinal plants from Lamiaceae family, due to their rich bioactive composition, especially polyphenols, and desirable aroma profile, can be used to enhance and improve bioactive and sensory properties of food. In the present study nutritively valuable beverages were produced by enrichment of goat's milk with medicinal plant extracts derived from the Lamiaceae family and stabilized by homogenization with high intensity ultrasound treatment. The impact of plant species (lemon balm, mint, lavender, rosemary and sage) and ultrasound treatment duration (5 or 10 min) on the physicochemical, bioactive and sensory characteristics of enriched beverages was evaluated. The addition of plant extracts to goat's milk significantly increased the concentration of bioactive components (rosmarinic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and luteolin derivatives), in dependence of the added plant extract. The prolongation of the ultrasound homogenization markedly decreased the fat globule size and thus beneficially affected the product stability. Apart from the achieved bioactive enrichment and stability, the developed beverages exhibited significantly improved sensory properties in comparison to plain goat's milk, with the highest overall acceptability determined for samples enriched with mint and rosemary.