Low-density lipoprotein receptor family: endocytosis and signal transduction

High extracellular calcium attenuates adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes

We studied the effect of extracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](e)) on adipocyte differentiation. Preadipocytes exposed to continuous [Ca(2+)](e) higher than 2.5 mmol/l accumulated little or no cytoplasmic lipid compared to controls in 1.8 mmol/l [Ca(2+)](e). Differentiation was monitored by Oil Red O staining of cytoplasmic lipid and triglyceride assay of accumulated lipid, by RT-PCR analysis of adipogenic markers, and by the activity of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH). Elevated [Ca(2+)](e) inhibited expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha, and steroid regulatory binding element protein. High [Ca(2+)](e) significantly inhibited differentiation marker expression including adipocyte fatty acid binding protein, and GPDH. The decrease in Pref-1 expression that accompanied differentiation also was prevented by high [Ca(2+)](e). Treatment of 3T3-L1 cells with high [Ca(2+)](e) did not significantly affect cell number or viability and did not trigger apoptosis. Levels of intracellular Ca(+2) remained unchanged in various [Ca(2+)](e). Treatment of 3T3-L1 with pertussis toxin (PTX) partially restored lipid accumulation and increased differentiation markers in cells treated with 5 mmol/l [Ca(2+)](e). 'Classical' parathyroid cell Ca(2+) sensing receptors (CaSR) were not detected either by RT-PCR or by Western blotting. These results suggest that continuous exposure to high [Ca(2+)](e) inhibits preadipocyte differentiation and that this may involve a G-protein-coupled mechanism mediated by a novel Ca(2+) sensor or receptor.

Role of the intracellular domains of LRP5 and LRP6 in activating the Wnt canonical pathway

LDL-receptor related proteins 5 and 6 (LRP5/6) are co-receptors of Frizzled receptors that mediate Wnt-induced activation of the transcription factor family TCF/LEF-1. Even though LRP5 and LRP6 are highly homologous, LRP6, but not LRP5, is expressed primarily in the nervous system and deletion of the LRP6 gene results in significant brain abnormalities, while deletion of LRP5 results in primarily decreased bone density. Additionally, the exact function of LRP5 and LRP6 have not been clearly defined, although it is clear that they both play key roles in the Wnt canonical pathway. In this study the role of the intracellular domains of LRP5/6 in mediating Wnt signaling was examined. In the absence of exogenous Wnt 3a, full-length (FL) LRP6, but not LRP5, increased TCF/LEF-1 transcriptional activity, however both significantly potentiated Wnt 3a-induced TCF/LEF-1 activation. In contrast to the findings with the FL constructs, the intracellular domains (membrane-anchored and cytosolic) of both LRP5 and LRP6 significantly increased TCF/LEF-1 activation in the absence of Wnt 3a, and potentiated the Wnt 3a-induced decrease in beta-catenin phosphorylation, increase in free beta-catenin levels and the increase in TCF/LEF-1 activity. These findings demonstrate that: (1) LRP5 and LRP6 differentially modulate TCF/LEF-1 activation in the absence of Wnt 3a and (2) the intracellular C-terminal domains of LRP5/6 potentiate Wnt 3a-induced TCF/LEF-1 activation whether or not they are membrane-anchored. These findings provide significant new insights into the roles of LRP5/6 in modulating canonical Wnt signaling.

Apolipoprotein E Is Required for Cell Proliferation and Survival in Ovarian Cancer

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) has been recently identified as a potential tumor-associated marker in ovarian cancer by serial analysis of gene expression. ApoE has long been known to play a key role in lipid transport, and its specific isoforms may participate in atherosclerogenesis. However, its role in human cancer is not known. In this study, apoE expression was frequently detected in ovarian serous carcinomas, the most common and lethal type of ovarian cancer. It was not detected in serous borderline tumors and normal ovarian surface epithelium. Inhibition of apoE expression using an apoE-specific siRNA led to G2 cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in an apoE-expressing ovarian cancer cell line, OVCAR3, but not in apoE-negative cell lines. Furthermore, the phenotype of apoE siRNA–treated OVCAR3 cells was reversed by expressing engineered mutant apoE with introduced silent mutations in the siRNA target sequence. Expression of apoE in nuclei was significantly associated with a better survival in patients who presented peritoneal effusion at the time of diagnosis (5-year follow-up, P = 0.004). This study suggests a new role of apoE in cancer as apoE expression is important for the proliferation and survival in apoE-expressing ovarian cancer cells.

Efficient transfer of receptor-associated protein (RAP) across the blood-brain barrier

We have sought to identify a high-capacity transport system that mediates transcytosis of proteins from the blood to the brain. The 39 kDa receptor-associated protein (RAP) functions as a specialized endoplasmic reticulum chaperone assisting in the folding and trafficking of members of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor family. RAP efficiently binds to these receptors and antagonizes binding of other ligands. Previous studies have shown that two large members of the LDL receptor family, LDL receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) and LDL receptor-related protein 2 (LRP2 or megalin), possess the ability to mediate transcytosis of ligands across the brain capillary endothelium. Here, we tested whether blood-borne RAP crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by LRP1- or megalin-mediated transport by studying the pharmacokinetics of [125I]-RAP transport into the brain in intact mice and across cell monolayers in vitro. Our results show that [125I]-RAP is relatively stable in blood for 30 minutes and has a mean influx constant of 0.62±0.08 μl/g-minute from blood to brain. In situ brain perfusion in blood-free buffer shows that transport of [125I]-RAP across the BBB is a saturable process. Capillary depletion of brain homogenates indicates that 70% of [125I]-RAP is localized in the parenchyma rather than in the vasculature of the brain. Results of transport in stably transfected MDCK cells are consistent with the hypothesis that megalin mediates most of the apical-to-basolateral transport across polarized epithelial cells. The inhibition of [125I]-RAP influx by excess RAP and the involvement of megalin indicate the presence of a saturable transport system at the BBB. The higher permeability of RAP compared with that of melanotransferrin and transferrin show that the LRP receptor is a high capacity transport system. These studies suggest that RAP may provide a novel means of protein-based drug delivery to the brain.

The Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein 1 Is a Mitogenic Receptor for Lactoferrin in Osteoblastic Cells

Lactoferrin induces osteoblast proliferation and survival in vitro and is anabolic to bone in vivo. The molecular mechanisms by which lactoferrin exerts these biological actions are not known, but lactoferrin is known to bind to two members of the low-density lipoprotein receptor family, low- density lipoprotein receptor-related proteins 1 (LRP1) and 2 (LRP2). We have examined the role(s) of these receptors in the actions of lactoferrin on osteoblasts. We show that lactoferrin binds to cultured osteoblastic cells, and that LRP1 and LRP2 are expressed in several osteoblastic cell types. In primary rat osteoblastic cells, the LRP1/2 inhibitor receptor associated protein blocks endocytosis of lactoferrin and abrogates lactoferrin-induced p42/44 MAPK signaling and mitogenesis. Lactoferrin-induced mitogenesis is also inhibited by an antibody to LRP1. Lactoferrin also induces receptor associated protein-sensitive activation of p42/44 MAPK signaling and proliferation in osteoblastic human SaOS-2 cells, which express LRP1 but not LRP2. The mitogenic response of LRP1-null fibroblastic cells to lactoferrin is substantially reduced compared with that of cells expressing wild-type LRP1. The endocytic and signaling functions of LRP1 are independent of each other, because lactoferrin can activate mitogenic signaling in conditions in which endocytosis is inhibited. Taken together, these results 1) suggest that mitogenic signaling through LRP1 to p42/44 MAPKs contributes to the anabolic skeletal actions of lactoferrin; 2) demonstrate growth-promoting actions of a third LRP family member in osteoblasts; and 3) provide further evidence that LRP1 functions as a signaling receptor in addition to its recognized role in ligand endocytosis.

Lipoprotein Receptor Binding, Cellular Uptake, and Lysosomal Delivery of Fusions between the Receptor-associated Protein (RAP) and α-l-Iduronidase or Acid α-Glucosidase

Enzyme replacement therapy for lysosomal storage disorders depends on efficient uptake of recombinant enzyme into the tissues of patients. This uptake is mediated by oligosaccharide receptors including the cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor and the mannose receptor. We have sought to exploit alternative receptor systems that are independent of glycosylation but allow for efficient delivery to the lysosome. Fusions of the human lysosomal enzymes alpha-l-iduronidase or acid alpha-glucosidase with the receptor-associated protein were efficiently endocytosed by lysosomal storage disorder patient fibroblasts, rat C6 glioma cells, mouse C2C12 myoblasts, and recombinant Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing individual members of the low-density lipoprotein receptor family. Uptake of the fusions exceeded that of phosphorylated enzyme in all cases, often by an order of magnitude or greater. Uptake was specifically mediated by members of the low-density lipoprotein receptor protein family and was followed by delivery of the fusions to the lysosome. The advantages of the lipoprotein receptor system over oligosaccharide receptor systems include more efficient cellular delivery and the potential for transcytosis of ligands across tight endothelia, including the blood-brain barrier.

The low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1B retains beta-amyloid precursor protein at the cell surface and reduces amyloid-beta peptide production

The low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-related protein 1B (LRP1B) is a newly identified member of the LDL receptor family that shares high homology with the LDL receptor-related protein (LRP). LRP1B was originally described as a putative tumor suppressor in lung cancer cells; however, its expression profile in several regions of adult human brain suggests it may have additional functions in the central nervous system. Since LRP1B has overlapping ligand binding properties with LRP, we investigated whether LRP1B, like LRP, could interact with the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and modulate its processing to amyloid-beta peptides (Abetas). Using an LRP1B minireceptor (mLRP1B4) generated to study the trafficking of LRP1B, we found that mLRP1B4 and APP form an immunoprecipitable complex. Furthermore mLRP1B4 bound and facilitated the degradation of a soluble isoform of APP containing a Kunitz proteinase inhibitor domain but not soluble APP lacking a Kunitz proteinase inhibitor domain. A functional consequence of mLRP1B4 expression was a significant accumulation of APP at the cell surface, which is likely related to the slow endocytosis rate of LRP1B. More importantly, mLRP1B4-expressing cells that accumulated cell surface APP produced less Abeta and secreted more soluble APP. These findings reveal that LRP1B is a novel binding partner of APP that functions to decrease APP processing to Abeta. Consequently LRP1B expression could function to protect against the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.

Lack of association between the levels of the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) and either Alzheimer dementia or LRP exon 3 genotype

The low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP), which interacts with the Alzheimer disease (AD) beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP), represents an important pathway in AD pathology. LRP-mediated receptor pathways appear to regulate both the production and the clearance of amyloid beta-protein (Abeta), a principal neuropathological product in AD. Several conflicting studies have examined levels of LRP in AD brains, as well as the relationship between the LRP exon 3 (C766T) polymorphism and LRP levels and/or disease susceptibility. In order to further investigate the role of LRP in AD, we examined well-characterized brain samples collected from subjects with varying degrees of cognitive impairment for LRP protein expression levels as well as for the presence of the LRP exon 3 polymorphism. We found no correlation between LRP levels and either presence of the disease or cognitive decline. In addition, we found no correlation between the LRP exon 3 polymorphism and either AD or LRP levels.

The intracellular domain of the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein modulates transactivation mediated by amyloid precursor protein and Fe65

Low density lipoprotein-related protein (LRP) is a transmembrane receptor, localized mainly in hepatocytes, fibroblasts, and neurons. It is implicated in diverse biological processes both as an endocytic receptor and as a signaling molecule. Recent reports show that LRP undergoes sequential proteolytic cleavage in the ectodomain and transmembrane domain. The latter cleavage, mediated by the Alzheimer-related gamma-secretase activity that also cleaves amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Notch, results in the release of the LRP cytoplasmic domain (LRPICD) fragment. This relatively small cytoplasmic fragment has several motifs by which LRP interacts with various intracellular adaptor and scaffold proteins. However, the function of this fragment is largely unknown. Here we show that the LRPICD is translocated to the nucleus, where it colocalizes in the nucleus with a transcription modulator, Tip60, which is known to interact with Fe65 and with the APP-derived intracellular domain. LRPICD dramatically inhibits APP-derived intracellular domain/Fe65 transactivation mediated by Tip60. LRPICD has a close interaction with Tip60 in the nucleus, as shown by a fluorescence resonance energy transfer assay. These observations suggest that LRPICD has a novel signaling function, negatively impacting transcriptional activity of the APP, Fe65, and Tip60 complex in the nucleus, and shed new light on the function of LRP in transcriptional modulation.

Differential regulation of CXCR2 trafficking by Rab GTPases

Intracellular trafficking of chemokine receptors plays an important role in fine-tuning the functional responses of neutrophils and lymphocytes in the inflammatory process and HIV infection. Although many chemokine receptors internalize through clathrin-coated pits, regulation of the receptor trafficking is not fully understood. The present study demonstrated that CXCR2 was colocalized with transferrin and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) after agonist treatment for different periods of time, suggesting 2 intracellular trafficking pathways for this receptor. CXCR2 was colocalized with Rab5 and Rab11a, which are localized in early and recycling endosomes, respectively, in response to agonist stimulation for a short period of time, suggesting a recycling pathway for the receptor trafficking. However, overexpression of a dominant-negative Rab5-S34N mutant significantly attenuated CXCR2 sequestration. The internalized CXCR2 was recycled back to the cell surface after removal of the agonist and recovery of the cells, but receptor recycling was inhibited by overexpression of a dominant-negative Rab11a-S25N mutant. After prolonged (4-hour) agonist treatment, CXCR2 exhibited significantly increased colocalization with Rab7, which is localized in late endosomes. The colocalization of CXCR2 with LDL and LAMP-1 suggests that CXCR2 is targeted to lysosomes for degradation after prolonged ligand treatment. However, the colocalization of CXCR2 with Lamp1 was blocked by the overexpression of a dominant-negative Rab7-T22N mutant. In cells overexpressing Rab7-T22N, CXCR2 was retained in the Rab5- and Rab11a-positive endosomes after prolonged (4-hour) agonist treatment. Our data suggest that the intracellular trafficking of CXCR2 is differentially regulated by Rab proteins.

Receptor-ligand interaction between vitellogenin receptor (VtgR) and vitellogenin (Vtg), implications on low density lipoprotein receptor and apolipoprotein B/E. The first three ligand-binding repeats of VtgR interact with the amino-terminal region of Vtg

The vitellogenin receptor (VtgR) belongs to the low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) gene family. It mediates the uptake of vitellogenin (Vtg) in oocyte development of oviparous animals. In this study, we cloned and characterized two forms of Oreochromis aureus VtgR. Northern analysis showed that VtgR was specifically expressed in ovarian tissues. However, reverse transcription-PCR indicates that either there are trace levels of expression of VtgR or a homolog of LDLR exists in nonovarian tissues. The VtgR is highly homologous to the very low density lipoprotein receptor. To better understand the mechanism by which similar structural modules in the ligand-binding domain bind different ligands, we used the yeast two-hybrid system to screen for the minimal interaction motifs in Vtg and VtgR. The amino-terminal region of the lipovitellin I domain of Vtg interacts with the ligand-binding domain of VtgR. The first three ligand-binding repeats of the receptor were found to be essential for ligand binding. Computational analysis of the binding sequence indicates that Vtg has a similar receptor-binding region to apolipoprotein (apo) E and apoB. Site-directed mutagenesis of this region indicates electrostatic interaction between Vtg and its receptor. Sequence analysis suggests the coevolution of receptor-ligand pairs for the LDLR/apo superfamily and suggests that the mode of binding of LDLR/very low density lipoprotein receptor to apoB and apoE is inherited from the electrostatic attraction of VtgR and Vtg.

The cytoplasmic domain of the LDL receptor-related protein regulates multiple steps in APP processing

The low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) has recently been implicated in numerous intracellular signaling functions, as well as in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Studies have shown that the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) interacts with LRP and that this association may impact the production of amyloid beta-protein (Abeta). In this report, we provide evidence that LRP regulates trafficking of intracellular proteins independently of its lipoprotein receptor functions. We show that in the absence of LRP, Abeta production, APP secretion, APP internalization, turnover of full-length APP and stability of APP C-terminal fragments are affected. Importantly, these changes are not APP isoform dependent. Using deletion constructs, the critical region in LRP that modulates APP processing was mapped to a seven peptide domain around the second NPXY domain (residues 4504-4510). Therefore, we propose a model by which LRP functionally modulates APP processing, including those steps critical for Abeta production, through interactions of the cytosolic domains.

Low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-related protein 1B impairs urokinase receptor regeneration on the cell surface and inhibits cell migration

The low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-related protein 1B (LRP1B) is a newly identified member of the LDL receptor family and is closely related to LRP. It was discovered as a putative tumor suppressor and is frequently inactivated in lung cancer cells. In the present study, we used an LRP1B minireceptor (mLRP1B4), which mimics the function and trafficking of LRP1B, to explore the roles of LRP1B on the plasminogen activation system. We found that mLRP1B4 and urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) form immunoprecipitable complexes on the cell surface in the presence of complexes of uPA and its inhibitor, plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1). However, compared with cells expressing the analogous LRP minireceptor (mLRP4), cells expressing mLRP1B4 display a substantially slower rate of uPA.PAI-1 complex internalization. Expression of mLRP1B4, or an mLRP4 mutant deficient in endocytosis, leads to an accumulation of uPAR at the cell surface and increased cell-associated uPA and PAI-1 when compared with cells expressing mLRP4. In addition, we found that expression of mLRP1B or the mLRP4 endocytosis mutant impairs the regeneration of unoccupied uPAR on the cell surface and that this correlates with a diminished rate of cell migration. Taken together, these results demonstrate that LRP1B can function as a negative regulator of uPAR regeneration and cell migration.

The correlation between hydrophilicity of hypericins and helianthrone: internalization mechanisms, subcellular distribution and photodynamic action in colon carcinoma cells

The internalization mechanism and subcellular distribution of hypericin (Hyp), hypericin tetrasulfonic acid (HypS4) and 1,3,4,6-tetrahydroxyhelianthrone (Hel) were studied in murine colon carcinoma CT26 cells, in protein-free medium or in the presence of serum proteins. The correlation between the extent of uptake of the sensitizers by cells that were incubated in the presence of different serum components, and the internalization mechanisms, was studied. The results indicate that sensitizer internalization may be a result of three mechanisms: partitioning, pinocytosis and endocytosis, and as a direct consequence is targeted to specific subcellular sites. While Hyp and Hel, the two lipophilic sensitizers, were localized in the endoplasmic reticulum after protein-free internalization, the hydrophilic HypS4 was localized in the cytoplasmic membrane and in lysosomes. An endolysosomal internalization route was revealed for Hyp and Hel under serum-enriched conditions showing lysosomal localization, as for HypS4. The lysosomal accumulation of Hyp-serum and specifically Hyp-LDL points to an endocytotic mechanism which is supported by its higher uptake parameter in an LDL-enriched medium, compared to the medium with 10% serum. The different uptake parameters of Hyp to cells, with or without serum, reflect the different mechanisms. Smaller differences in the uptake parameter for HypS4 reflect the distinction between partitioning and endocytosis, which, in this case, are both targeted to the lysosomes. The same uptake parameter of Hel to cells incubated in media with or without serum indicates the absence of the endocytotic mechanism. The interrelationship between subcellular targeting and photodynamic treatment was shown for the three sensitizers Hyp was found to be the most efficient sensitizer for PDT under our illumination protocol and it was dependent on internalization and localization sites.