Role of ginsenosides, the main active components of Panax ginseng, in inflammatory responses and diseases

The Administration of Panax Ginseng Berry Extract Attenuates High-Fat-Diet-Induced Sarcopenic Obesity in C57BL/6 Mice

Sarcopenia and obesity are serious health problems that are highly related to several metabolic diseases. Sarcopenic obesity, a combined state of sarcopenia and obesity, results in higher risks of metabolic diseases and even mortality than sarcopenia or obesity alone. Therefore, the development of therapeutic agents for sarcopenic obesity is crucial. C57BL/6 mice were fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) for 9 weeks. Then, mice were administered with Panax ginseng berry extract (GBE) for an additional 4 weeks, with continuous HFD intake. GBE significantly decreased the food efficiency ratio, serum lipid and insulin levels, adipose tissue weights, and adipocyte size. It significantly increased the grip strength, muscle masses, and myofiber cross-sectional area. It deactivated the protein kinase C (PKC) theta and zeta, resulting in activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) pathway, which is known to regulate muscle synthesis and degradation. Furthermore, it inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines in the muscle tissue. GBE attenuated both obesity and sarcopenia. Thus, GBE is a potential agent to prevent or treat sarcopenic obesity.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Ameliorates Stress of Broiler Chicks Induced by Escherichia coli Lipopolysaccharide

In broiler chicks, Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide is a prominent cause for inflammatory damage and loss of immune homeostasis in broiler chicks. Ginsenosides have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. However, it has not been demonstrated that ginsenosides protect broiler chicks against stress induced by Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide challenge. The aim of this is to investigate the protective effect of ginsenosides Rg1, Re, and Rg3 on Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide-induced stress. Our results showed that Rg3 ameliorated growth inhibition and fever, as well as decreased the production of stress-related hormones in broilers with stress. The protective effect of Rg3 on the stressed chicks may be largely mediated by regulating inflammatory response and oxidative damage. Moreover, real-time quantitative-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) results demonstrated that Rg3 upregulated mRNA expression of mTOR, HO-1, and SOD-1. These results suggested that ginsenoside Rg3 and ginsenoside products contains Rg3 deserve further study for the control of immunological stress and inflammation in broiler chicks.

Anti-Inflammatory Activities of an Anti-Histamine Drug, Loratadine, by Suppressing TAK1 in AP-1 Pathway

Loratadine is an anti-histamine routinely used for treating allergies. However, recent findings have shown that Loratadine may also have anti-inflammatory functions, while their exact mechanisms have not yet been fully uncovered. In this paper, we investigated whether Loratadine can be utilized as an anti-inflammatory drug through a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments using a murine macrophage cell line and an acute gastritis mouse model. Loratadine was found to dramatically reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory genes, including MMP1, MMP3, and MMP9, and inhibit AP-1 transcriptional activation, as demonstrated by the luciferase assay. Therefore, we decided to further explore its role in the AP-1 signaling pathway. The expression of c-Jun and c-Fos, AP-1 subunits, was repressed by Loratadine and, correspondingly, the expression of p-JNK, p-MKK7, and p-TAK1 was also inhibited. In addition, Loratadine was able to reduce gastric bleeding in acute gastritis-induced mice; Western blotting using the stomach samples showed reduced p-c-Fos protein levels. Loratadine was shown to effectively suppress inflammation by specifically targeting TAK1 and suppressing consequent AP-1 signaling pathway activation and inflammatory cytokine production.

Potential benefits of ginseng against COVID-19 by targeting inflammasomes

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the pathogenic virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), with major symptoms including hyper-inflammation and cytokine storm, which consequently impairs the respiratory system and multiple organs, or even cause death. SARS-CoV-2 activates inflammasomes and inflammasome-mediated inflammatory signaling pathways, which are key determinants of hyperinflammation and cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients. Additionally, SARS-CoV-2 inhibits inflammasome activation to evade the host's antiviral immunity. Therefore, regulating inflammasome initiation has received increasing attention as a preventive measure in COVID-19 patients. Ginseng and its major active constituents, ginsenosides and saponins, improve the immune system and exert anti-inflammatory effects by targeting inflammasome stimulation. Therefore, this review discussed the potential preventive and therapeutic roles of ginseng in COVID-19 based on its regulatory role in inflammasome initiation and the host's antiviral immunity.

The Use of Panax Ginseng to Reduce the Cardiotoxicity of Doxorubicin and Study its Effect on Modulating Oxidative Stress, Inflammatory, and Apoptosis Pathways

BACKGROUND: Doxorubicin (DOX) is a broad-spectrum anti-cancer drug that is used to treat a variety of cancers, including blood cancers such as leukemia and solid tissue cancers. However, its use some time limited because of its cardiotoxicity. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to determine the cardioprotective effect of ginseng in the case of cardiotoxicity caused by doxorubicin therapy. Methods: Thirty experimental animals (male Sprague Wistar rats) were used in this research and they were separated into three groups: Rats in Group I (n# = 10) were given distilled water plus normal saline, rats in Group II (n# = 10) were given distilled water plus doxorubicin, and rats in Group III (n# = 10) were given Panax ginseng plus doxorubicin. Serum concentration, malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione reductase (GSH), lipid peroxidase (LPO), TNF (ng/L), cardiac troponin (ng/L), brain natriuretic peptide BNP(g/L), and caspase-3 (pmol/L) levels were measured in all groups. RESULTS: Doxorubicin caused substantial cardiotoxicity as a result of a significant increase in the elevation of cTnI to 40.09 ± 6.67 (ng/L). In addition, MDA, LPO, TNF-α, and caspase-3 levels were increased in doxorubicin group compared to the control group p < 0.05. Panax ginseng reduced cardiac troponin (cTnI) However, its effect on reduction of BNP levels insignificantly compared to the doxorubicin group p = 0.06. Panax ginseng reduced LPO and MDA and raised the antioxidant potential biomarker GSH significantly compared to the doxorubicin group p < 0.05. Panax ginseng significantly reduced inflammatory (TNF-α) and apoptotic (caspase-3) biomarkers when compared to the doxorubicin group. CONCLUSIONS: According to the findings of this study, Panax ginseng suppresses reactive oxygen species and inflammatory and apoptotic pathways in experimental rats, thereby preventing doxorubicin-induced cardiovascular events.

A novel strategy to reveal clinical advantages and molecular mechanism of aidi injection in the treatment of pancreatic cancer based on network meta-analysis and network pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Pancreatic cancer is a common malignancy worldwide due to its poor prognosis and high mortality rate. It is clinically proven that the combination of chemotherapeutic drugs and Traditional Chinese Medicine injections (TCMIs) significantly improves the therapeutic effect.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the efficacy and clinical benefits of TCMIs in combination with chemotherapy in the treatment of pancreatic cancer and to explore the mechanism of clinical advantage of Aidi injection.

METHODS

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were searched in databases by NMA before December 29, 2020. WinBUGS 1.4, Stata 14.0, and R 4.0.4 software were used for calculations. All results were expressed as odds ratios and 95% credible intervals. Through the network pharmacology method, the chemical components and their targets, as well as the disease targets were further analyzed. And then, biological experiments were integrated to verify the results of network pharmacology analysis. (PROSPERO ID: CRD42021283559).

RESULTS

A total of 33 RCTs with 8 TCMIs and 2011 patients were included. The results of NMA showed that Aidi injection can significantly improve the clinical efficacy (OR = 0.34, 95%CI: 0.16-0.74), and the clinical advantage was that it can significantly alleviate the leukopenia and thrombocytopenia caused by chemotherapy (OR = 5.65, 95%CI: 1.18-28.13). A total of 23 chemical compounds and 280 potential targets for Aidi injection were obtained from the online databases. Among them, there were 22 compounds, 50 targets and 211 signaling pathways closely related to leukopenia. Five genes were predicted to be core targets of ADI in alleviating leukopenia, and 2 of them (TP53 and VEGFA) were confirmed by biological experiments as regulatory targets of ADI in the treatment of PC.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, TCMIs in combination with chemotherapy, can improve clinical efficacy and safety in the treatment of pancreatic cancer. However, the overall evidence base is low, and large samples with multi-center RCTs are still needed to support further research findings. Aidi injection can alleviate leukopenia mainly by intervening in oxidative stress, regulating cell proliferation and apoptosis, and regulating the inflammatory response. The combined application of NMA, network pharmacology, and biological experiments provides a reference for clinical evaluation and mechanism of action exploration of other drugs.

Macrophage polarization by potential nutraceutical compounds: A strategic approach to counteract inflammation in atherosclerosis

Chronic inflammation represents a main event in the onset and progression of atherosclerosis and is closely associated with oxidative stress in a sort of vicious circle that amplifies and sustains all stages of the disease. Key players of atherosclerosis are monocytes/macrophages. According to their pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotype and biological functions, lesional macrophages can release various mediators and enzymes, which in turn contribute to plaque progression and destabilization or, alternatively, lead to its resolution. Among the factors connected to atherosclerotic disease, lipid species carried by low density lipoproteins and pro-oxidant stimuli strongly promote inflammatory events in the vasculature, also by modulating the macrophage phenotyping. Therapies specifically aimed to balance macrophage inflammatory state are increasingly considered as powerful tools to counteract plaque formation and destabilization. In this connection, several molecules of natural origin have been recognized to be active mediators of diverse metabolic and signaling pathways regulating lipid homeostasis, redox state, and inflammation; they are, thus, considered as promising candidates to modulate macrophage responsiveness to pro-atherogenic stimuli. The current knowledge of the capability of nutraceuticals to target macrophage polarization and to counteract atherosclerotic lesion progression, based mainly on in vitro investigation, is summarized in the present review.

Anti-Inflammatory Functions of Methanol Extract from Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. Leaves and Shoots by Targeting the NF-κB Pathway

Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. is a widely used medical plant in Asia. Since the anti-inflammatory mechanism of this plant is not fully understood, the aim of this study was to explore the anti-inflammatory function and mechanism of Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. methanol extract (Mb-ME). For in vitro experiments, nitric oxide production assay, PCR, overexpression strategy, immunoblotting, luciferase reporter assay, and immunoprecipitation were employed to explore the molecular mechanism and the target proteins of Mb-ME. For in vivo experiments, an HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis mouse model was used to confirm the anti-inflammatory function. Mb-ME showed a strong ability to inhibit the production of nitric oxide and the expression of inflammatory genes. Mb-ME decreased NF-κB luciferase activity mediated by MyD88 and TRIF. Moreover, Mb-ME blocked the activation of Src, Syk, p85, Akt, p50, p60, IKKα/β, and IκBα in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Overexpression and immunoprecipitation analyses suggested Syk and Src as the target enzymes of Mb-ME. In vitro results showed that Mb-ME could alleviate gastritis and relieve the protein expression of p-Src, p-Syk, and COX-2, as well as the gene expression of COX-2 and TNF-α. In summary, this study implied that Mb-ME performs an anti-inflammatory role by suppressing Syk and Src in the NF-κB signaling pathway, both in vivo and in vitro.

De Novo Biosynthesis of Oleanane-Type Ginsenosides in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Using Two Types of Glycosyltransferases from Panax ginseng

Oleanane-type ginsenosides are highly biologically active substances in Panax ginseng, a popular Chinese dietary plant. Lack of key enzymes for glycosylation reactions has hindered de novo synthesis of these bioactive molecules. We mined candidate glycosyltransferases (GTs) of the ginseng database by combining key metabolites and transcriptome coexpression analyses and verified their function using in vitro enzymatic assays. The PgCSyGT1, a cellulose synthase-like GT rather than a UDP-dependent glucuronosyltransferase (UGT), was verified as the key enzyme for transferring a glucuronosyl moiety to the free C3-OH of oleanolic acid to synthesize calenduloside E. Two UGTs (PgUGT18 and PgUGT8) were first identified as, respectively, catalyzing the glycosylation reaction of the second sugar moiety of C3 and the C28 in the oleanane-type ginsenoside biosynthetic pathway. Then, we integrated these GTs in combinations into Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome and realized de novo biosynthesis of oleanane-type ginsenosides with a yield of 1.41 μg/L ginsenoside Ro in shake flasks. This report provides a basis for effective biosynthesis of diverse oleanane-type ginsenosides in microbial cell factories.

Effect and Mechanism of Herbal Medicines on Cisplatin-Induced Anorexia

Cisplatin is a well-known chemotherapeutic agent used to treat various types of cancers; however, it can also induce anorexia, which results in reduced food intake, loss of body weight, and lower quality of life. Although drugs such as megestrol acetate and cyproheptadine are used to decrease this severe feeding disorder, they can also induce side effects, such as diarrhea and somnolence, which limit their widespread use. Various types of herbal medicines have long been used to prevent and treat numerous gastrointestinal tract diseases; however, to date, no study has been conducted to analyze and summarize their effects on cisplatin-induced anorexia. In this paper, we analyze 12 animal studies that used either a single herbal medicine extract or mixtures thereof to decrease cisplatin-induced anorexia. Among the herbal medicines, Ginseng Radix was the most used, as it was included in seven studies, whereas both Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma and Angelicae Gigantis Radix were used in four studies. As for the mechanisms of action, the roles of serotonin and its receptors, cytokines, white blood cells, ghrelin, and leptin were investigated. Based on these results, we suggest that herbal medicines could be considered a useful treatment method for cisplatin-induced anorexia.

Panax ginseng and aging related disorders: A systematic review

The aging process predisposes numerous homeostatic disorders, metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Changes in diet and lifestyle and therapeutic adjuvants are essential to minimize the effects of comorbidities associated with aging. Natural products such as Panax ginseng have been used to treat and prevent diseases related to aging. This review aims to investigate the effects of Panax ginseng in various conditions associated with aging, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, neurodegenerative and metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. The ginsenosides, chemical constituents found in Panax ginseng, can inhibit the effects of inflammatory cytokines, inhibit signaling pathways that induce inflammation, and inhibit cells that participate in inflammatory processes. Besides, ginsenosides are involved in neuroprotective effects on the central nervous system due to anti-apoptotic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. The use of ginseng extract showed actions on lipid homeostasis, positively regulating high-density lipoprotein, down-regulating low-density lipoprotein and triglyceride levels, and producing beneficial effects on vascular endothelial function. The use of this plant in cancer resulted in improved quality of life and mood. It decreased symptoms of fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and dyspnea, reducing anxiety. Panax ginseng has been shown to exert potent therapeutic benefits that can act as a complementary treatment in managing patients with chronic diseases related to aging.

Pharmacokinetics of Ginsenoside Rb1, Rg3, Rk1, Rg5, F2, and Compound K from Red Ginseng Extract in Healthy Korean Volunteers

Individual differences in ginsenoside pharmacokinetics following ginseng administration in humans are still unclear. We aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetic properties of various ginsenosides, including Rb1, Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, F2, and compound K (CK), after a single oral administration of red ginseng (RG) and bioconverted red ginseng extract (BRG). This was a randomized, open-label, single-dose, single-sequence crossover study with washout every 1 week, and 14 healthy Korean men were enrolled. All subjects were equally assigned to two groups and given RG or BRG capsules. The pharmacokinetic parameters of ginsenosides were measured from the plasma drug concentration-time curve of individual subjects. Ginsenosides Rg3, Rk1 + Rg5, F2, and CK in the BRG group showed a higher C _max, AUC_(0-t), and AUC_(0-∞) and shorter T _max (for CK) than those in the RG group. These results suggest that BRG may lead to a higher absorption rate of bioactive ginsenosides. This study provides valuable information on the pharmacokinetics of various bioactive ginsenosides, which is needed to enhance the therapeutic efficacy and pharmacological activity of ginseng.

Korean red ginseng saponin fraction exerts anti-inflammatory effects by targeting the NF-κB and AP-1 pathways

Background

Although ginsenosides and saponins in Korea red ginseng (KRG) shows various pharmacological roles, their roles in the inflammatory response are little known. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory role of ginsenosides identified from KRG saponin fraction (RGSF) and the potential mechanism in macrophages.

Methods

The ginsenoside composition of RGSF was identified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. An anti-inflammatory effect of RGSF and its mechanisms were studied using nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) production assays, mRNA expression analyses of inflammatory genes and cytokines, luciferase reporter gene assays of transcription factors, and Western blot analyses of inflammatory signaling pathways using the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 cells.

Results

HPLC analysis identified the types and amounts of various panaxadiol ginsenosides in RGSF. RGSF reduced the generation of inflammatory molecules and mRNA levels of inflammatory enzymes and cytokines in LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells. Additionally, RGSF inhibited the signaling pathways of NF-κB and AP-1 by suppressing both transcriptional factors and signaling molecules in LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells.

Conclusion

RGSF contains ginsenosides that have anti-inflammatory action via restraining the NF-κB and AP-1 signaling pathways in macrophages during inflammatory responses.

Ingredients with anti-inflammatory effect from medicine food homology plants

Inflammation occurs when the immune system responses to external harmful stimuli and infection. Chronic inflammation induces various diseases. A variety of foods are prescribed in the traditional medicines of many countries all over the world, which gave birth to the concept of medicine food homology. Over the past few decades, a number of secondary metabolites from medicine food homology plants have been demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory effects. In the present review, the effects and mechanisms of the medicine food homology plants-derived active components on relieving inflammation and inflammation-mediated diseases were summarized and discussed. The information provided in this review is valuable to future studies on anti-inflammatory ingredients derived from medicine food homology plants as drugs or food supplements.

Ginseng extract and ginsenosides improve neurological function and promote antioxidant effects in rats with spinal cord injury: A meta-analysis and systematic review

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is defined as damage to the spinal cord that temporarily or permanently changes its function. There is no definite treatment established for neurological complete injury patients. This study investigated the effect of ginseng extract and ginsenosides on neurological recovery and antioxidant efficacies in rat models following SCI and explore the appropriate dosage. Searches were done on PubMed, Embase, and Chinese databases, and animal studies matches the inclusion criteria were selected. Pair-wise meta-analysis and subgroup analysis were performed. Ten studies were included, and the overall methodological qualities were low quality. The result showed ginseng extract and ginsenosides significantly improve neurological function, through the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating scale (pooled MD = 4.40; 95% CI = 3.92 to 4.88; p < 0.00001), significantly decrease malondialdehyde (MDA) (n = 290; pooled MD = −2.19; 95% CI = −3.16 to −1.22; p < 0.0001) and increase superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels (n = 290; pooled MD = 2.14; 95% CI = 1.45 to 2.83; p < 0.00001). Both low (<25 mg/kg) and high dosage (≥25 mg/kg) showed significant improvement in the motor function recovery in SCI rats. Collectively, this review suggests ginseng extract and ginsenosides has a protective effect on SCI, with good safety and a clear mechanism of action and may be suitable for future clinical trials and applications.

Structural analysis of Panax ginseng glycoproteins and its anti-oligoasthenozoospermia effect in vivo

A component from ginseng in which sugars and proteins are covalently bound is named Panax ginseng glycoproteins (PGG). The contents of neutral carbohydrate, acid carbohydrate, and protein were 45.4%, 4.3% and 51.1%. The average molecular weight was 12,690 Da. The structure analysis showed that PGG had more than 1100 glycoproteins with molecular weight between 308.13 Da and 9991.52 Da, it was divided into two parts: long chain structure and short chain structure. These two parts were compared in molecular mass, number of amino acids, theoretical pI, instability index, aliphatic index and GRAVY. The in vivo distribution test of mice showed that PGG was enriched in mice testis, testicular tissue sections showed strong fluorescence signal expression on the surface of seminiferous tubules. We used cyclophosphamide (CP) to establish a mice model of oligoasthenozoospermia to investigate the anti-oligoasthenozoospermic effect of PGG. The results showed that PGG increased the levels of sex hormones T, FSH, PRL and sperm quality. Histopathology demonstrated that PGG promoted the differentiation process. The organ coefficient indicated that PGG had no obvious toxic and side effects. And the mechanism may be to affect the expression of protein levels such as p-ERK/ERK, p-AKT/AKT, Caspase-3, Bcl-2 and Bax. Therefore, PGG has the potential to develop into drugs for improving spermatogenic disorders.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Prevents Cognitive Impairment and Hippocampal Neuronal Apoptosis in Experimental Vascular Dementia Mice by Promoting GPR30 Expression

This study is aimed at investigating the potential roles of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER, also known as GPR30) in the preventive effect of ginsenoside Rg1 against cognitive impairment and hippocampal cell apoptosis in experimental vascular dementia (VD) in mice. The effects of bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS) on GPR30 expression at mRNA level were evaluated. Thereafter, the BCAS mouse model was utilized to evaluate the protection of Rg1 (0.1, 1, 10 mg/kg, 14 days, ip). Spatial memory was evaluated by water Morris Maze 7 days post BCAS. After behavioral tests, neuronal apoptosis was detected by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay, and potential mechanisms were determined using western blotting and quantitative real-time PCR. Our results showed that GPR30 expression in the hippocampal region at mRNA level was promoted 30 min, 3 h, 6 h, and 24 h following BCAS. Ginsenoside Rg1 (1 or 10 mg/kg, 14 days, ip) promoted GPR30 expression in the hippocampus of model mice (after behavioral tests) but did not alter GPR30 expression in the hippocampus of control mice. Moreover, treatment of ginsenoside Rg1 (10 mg/kg) or G1 (5 μg/kg), a GPR30 agonist, prevented BCAS-induced memory impairment and hippocampal neuronal loss and apoptosis and promoted the ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax expression in the hippocampus (after behavioral tests). On the contrary, G15 (185 μg/kg), an antagonist of GPR30, aggravated BCAS-induced hippocampal neuronal loss and apoptosis. Finally, drug-target molecular docking pointed that Rg1 had a lower binding energy with GPR30 compared with Bax and Bcl-2. Together, our data implicate that ginsenoside Rg1 prevents cognitive impairment and hippocampal neuronal apoptosis in VD mice, likely through promoting GPR30 expression. These results would provide important implications for the application of Rg1 in the treatment of VD.

Ginsenosides Rd monomer inhibits proinflammatory cytokines production and alleviates DSS-colitis by NF-κB and P38MAPK pathways in mice

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is dramatically increasing worldwide, cannot be thoroughly cured, and reduces patients' quality of life. Excessive activation of macrophages and over-production of cytokines play an important role in the pathogenesis of UC. Therefore, for its treatment, inhibiting macrophages' hyperactivation would be effective to develop new treatment approaches. Ginsenosides, extracted from ginseng, show an anti-inflammatory effect on the immunologic process. Our study used ginsenosides Rd monomer (GRd) to intervene in DSS-induced colitis mouse models and tested the immunological effect of macrophages.

METHOD

We observed body weights, weights of colons, colonic lengths, and inflammatory scores, as well as histological changes of DSS/DSS-GRd mice. We also isolated intestinal and peritoneal macrophages, performed qRT-PCR and ELISA to detect cytokines production by macrophages, and screened possible involved pathways by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Administering 20 mg/Kg GRd to DSS mice for 7-14 days reduced colonic inflammation. Moreover, both in vivo and in vitro, levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-12/23p40, and IL-17A were all inhibited by GRd at 14 days in intestinal macrophages, and 20 μmol/L GRd at 12 h in peritoneal macrophages, respectively, but longer time made no more benefit. Western blotting showed GRd could decrease expression of pJNK, p-p38, pIκBα, and P65 in nuclear.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that GRd could down-regulate cytokines production in macrophages and alleviate DSS-colitis in mice, which may be related to NF-κB and P38MAPK pathways. These results suggest that GRd has an anti-inflammatory effect on experimental colitis and may have potential efficacy in the treatment of UC alone or in combination.

The promising therapeutic potentials of ginsenosides mediated through p38 MAPK signaling inhibition

The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38 MAPK) is a 38kD polypeptide recognized as the target for many potential anti-inflammatory agents. Accumulating evidence indicates that p38 MAPK could perform many roles in human disease pathophysiology. Therefore, great therapeutic benefits can be attained from p38 MAPK inhibitors. Ginseng is an exceptionally valued medicinal plant of the family Araliaceae (Panax genus). Recently, several studies targeted the therapeutic effects of purified individual ginsenoside, the most significant active ingredient of ginseng, and studied its particular molecular mechanism(s) of action rather than whole-plant extracts. Interestingly, several ginsenosides: ginsenosides compound K, F1, Rb1, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, Rg3, Rg5, Rh1, Rh2, Ro, notoginsenoside R1, and protopanaxadiol have shown to possess great therapeutic potentials mediated by their ability to downregulate p38 MAPK signaling in different cell lines and experimental animal models. Our review compiles the research findings of various ginsenosides as potent anti-inflammatory agents, highlighting the crucial role of p38 MAPK suppression in their pharmacological actions. In addition, in silico studies were conducted to explore the probable binding of these ginsenosides to p38 MAPK. The results obtained proposed p38 MAPK involvement in the beneficial pharmacological activities of ginsenosides in different ailments.

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p38 MAPK plays many roles in human disease pathophysiology. Therefore, great therapeutic benefits can be attained from p38 MAPK inhibitors.

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Several ginsenosides showed to possess great therapeutic potentials mediated by its ability to downregulate p38 MAPK signaling.

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in silico ​studies were conducted to explore the binding of these ginsenosides to p38 MAPK and evidenced the promising their inhibitory effect.

Ginsenoside F1 Attenuates Eosinophilic Inflammation in Chronic Rhinosinusitis by Promoting NK Cell Function

Background

Ginsenosides have beneficial effects on several airway inflammatory disorders primarily through glucocorticosteroid-like anti-inflammatory activity. Among inflammatory cells, eosinophils play a major pathogenic role in conferring a risk of severe refractory diseases including chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). However, the role of ginsenosides in reducing eosinophilic inflammation and CRS pathogenesis is unexplored.

Methods

We investigated the therapeutic efficacy and underlying mechanism of ginsenoside F1 (G-F1) in comparison with those of dexamethasone, a representative glucocorticosteroid, in a murine model of CRS. The effects of G-F1 or dexamethasone on sinonasal abnormalities and infiltration of eosinophils and mast cells were evaluated by histological analyses. The changes in inflammatory cytokine levels in sinonasal tissues, macrophages, and NK cells were assessed by qPCR, ELISA, and immunohistochemistry.

Results

We found that G-F1 significantly attenuated eosinophilic inflammation, mast cell infiltration, epithelial hyperplasia, and mucosal thickening in the sinonasal mucosa of CRS mice. Moreover, G-F1 reduced the expression of IL-4 and IL-13, as well as hematopoietic prostaglandin D synthase required for prostaglandin D₂ production. This therapeutic efficacy was associated with increased NK cell function, without suppression of macrophage inflammatory responses. In comparison, dexamethasone potently suppressed macrophage activation. NK cell depletion nullified the therapeutic effects of G-F1, but not dexamethasone, in CRS mice, supporting a causal link between G-F1 and NK cell activity.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that potentiating NK cell activity, for example with G-F1, is a promising strategy for resolving eosinophilic inflammation in CRS.

Total ginsenosides promote the IEC-6 cell proliferation via affecting the regulatory mechanism mediated by polyamines

Epithelial cell proliferation has been demonstrated to be a critical modality for mucosal repair after gastrointestinal mucosal injury. This research aimed to investigate the effect of total ginsenosides upon the proliferation of intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6), and elucidate its potential mechanisms through polyamine-regulated pathway including the expression of proliferation-related proteins. Total ginsenosides (PGE3) were extracted from Panax ginseng, a Chinese herbal medicine, whose chromatogram was obtained by high performance liquid chromatographic method with evaporative light scattering detection (HPLC-ELSD). The cell proliferation, cell cycle distribution and the level of c-Myc, RhoA, Cdk2 proteins were detected to determine the effects of PGE3 at 25, 50 and100 mg/l doses on IEC-6. Furthermore, rats model of intestinal mucosal injury were induced by the subcutaneous injection of indomethacin, and the effect of Panax ginseng aqueous extracts (PGE1) on intestinal mucosal injury was observed. PGE3 could promote IEC-6 cell proliferation, reduce the proportion of G0/G1 phase cells and elevate the proportion of G2/M + S phase cells, and revert the proliferation and cell cycle arrest induced by DFMO (DL-a-difluoromethylornithine, an inhibitor of polyamines synthesis). PGE3 exposure enhanced the level of c-Myc, RhoA and Cdk2 proteins, and reversed the inhibition of these proteins expression induced by DFMO. The results of gross and pathological scores showed administration of PGE1 significantly alleviated intestinal mucosal injury of rats. Our findings indicate that total ginsenosides promoted the IEC-6 proliferation presumably via its regulation on cell cycle and the expression of proliferation-related proteins regulated by polyamines, and provided a novel perspective for exploring the repair effect of Panax ginseng upon gastrointestinal mucosal injury.

Korean Red Ginseng exerts anti-inflammatory and autophagy-promoting activities in aged mice

BACKGROUND

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a traditional herb that has several beneficial properties including anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and autophagy regulatory effects. However, the mechanisms of these effects are not well understood. In this report, the underlying mechanisms of anti-inflammatory and autophagy-promoting effects were investigated in aged mice treated with KRG-water extract (WE) over a long period.

METHODS

The mechanisms of anti-inflammatory and autophagy-promoting activities of KRG-WE were evaluated in kidney, lung, liver, stomach, and colon of aged mice using semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

KRG-WE significantly suppressed the mRNA expression levels of inflammation-related genes such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and IL-6 in kidney, lung, liver, stomach, and colon of the aged mice. Furthermore, KRG-WE downregulated the expression of transcription factors and their protein levels associated with inflammation in lung and kidney of aged mice. KRG-WE also increased the expression of autophagy-related genes and their protein levels in colon, liver, and stomach.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that KRG can suppress inflammatory responses and recover autophagy activity in aged mice.

COVID-19, cytokines, inflammation, and spices: How are they related?

BACKGROUND

Cytokine storm is the exaggerated immune response often observed in viral infections. It is also intimately linked with the progression of COVID-19 disease as well as associated complications and mortality. Therefore, targeting the cytokine storm might help in reducing COVID-19-associated health complications. The number of COVID-19 associated deaths (as of January 15, 2021; https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/) in the USA is high (1199/million) as compared to countries like India (110/million). Although the reason behind this is not clear, spices may have some role in explaining this difference. Spices and herbs are used in different traditional medicines, especially in countries such as India to treat various chronic diseases due to their potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

AIM

To evaluate the literature available on the anti-inflammatory properties of spices which might prove beneficial in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 associated cytokine storm.

METHOD

A detailed literature search has been conducted on PubMed for collecting information pertaining to the COVID-19; the history, origin, key structural features, and mechanism of infection of SARS-CoV-2; the repurposed drugs in use for the management of COVID-19, and the anti-inflammatory role of spices to combat COVID-19 associated cytokine storm.

KEY FINDINGS

The literature search resulted in numerous in vitro, in vivo and clinical trials that have reported the potency of spices to exert anti-inflammatory effects by regulating crucial molecular targets for inflammation.

SIGNIFICANCE

As spices are derived from Mother Nature and are inexpensive, they are relatively safer to consume. Therefore, their anti-inflammatory property can be exploited to combat the cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients. This review thus focuses on the current knowledge on the role of spices for the treatment of COVID-19 through suppression of inflammation-linked cytokine storm.

New mechanisms of ginseng saponin-mediated anti-inflammatory action via targeting canonical inflammasome signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng is an ethnopharmacological herbal plant in Asian countries, particularly in Korea, China, and Japan. Ginseng saponins, including ginsenosides, are major active components in ginseng and have been demonstrated to have numerous pharmacological effects on various human diseases.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

Many previous studies investigating the anti-inflammatory effect of ginseng saponins have mostly focused on the 'priming' step rather than the 'triggering' step. This review aims to discuss the studies investigating an inhibitory role of ginseng saponins in inflammasome activation of the triggering step.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The literature was explored using the search strings, such as "ginseng saponins and inflammasomes" and "ginsenosides and inflammasomes" in several resources, such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases.

RESULTS

Various ginseng saponins of Panax ginseng, Panax japonicas, and Panax quinquefolius alleviated inflammatory responses and diseases by inhibiting the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NLR) P3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation. Also, ginseng saponin, Rg1 of Panax ginseng alleviated neuroinflammation and diseases by inhibiting NLRP1 inflammasome activation. Finally, ginseng saponins, Rh1 and Rg3 in Korea red ginseng (KRG) of Panax ginseng ameliorated sepsis by inhibiting absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome activation.

CONCLUSION

The studies discussed in this review provide insight into the new paradigm of the ginseng saponins as the promising anti-inflammatory agents that could be ethnopharmacologically used to prevent and treat inflammatory and inflammation-induced disorders via targeting inflammasomes.

Design, Synthesis, and Antibacterial Evaluation of Novel Ocotillol Derivatives and Their Synergistic Effects with Conventional Antibiotics

The improper use of antibiotics has led to the development of bacterial resistance, resulting in fewer antibiotics for many bacterial infections. Especially, the drug resistance of hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA) is distinctly serious. This research designed and synthesized two series of 3-substituted ocotillol derivatives in order to improve their anti-HA-MRSA potency and synergistic antibacterial activity. Among the synthesized compounds, 20–31 showed minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 1–64 µg/mL in vitro against HA-MRSA 18–19, 18–20, and S. aureus ATCC29213. Compound 21 showed the best antibacterial activity, with an MIC of 1 μg/mL and had synergistic inhibitory effects. The fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) value was 0.375, when combined with chloramphenicol (CHL) or kanamycin (KAN). The structure–activity relationships (SARs) of ocotillol-type derivatives were also summarized. Compound 21 has the potential to be developed as a novel antibacterial agent or potentiator against HA-MRSA.

Ginsenoside Rg1 prevents bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell senescence via NRF2 and PI3K/Akt signaling

Senescence limits the characteristics and functionality of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), thereby severely restricting their application in tissue engineering. Here, we investigated ways to prevent MSCs from entering a state of senescence. We found that Rg1, an extract of natural ginseng, can reduce the expression of senescence markers in cultured cells in vitro and in various tissues in vivo. Simultaneously, ginsenoside Rg1 improved the antioxidant capacity of cells, and the senescence-inhibiting and antioxidant effect of Rg1 were associated with the activation of the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) signaling pathway. Furthermore, Rg1 may activate the NRF2 pathway by increasing the interaction between P62 and KEAP1through P62 upregulation and AKT activation. Taken together, our findings indicate that Rg1 prevents cell senescence via NRF2 and AKT, and activation of AKT or NRF2 may thus represent therapeutic targets for preventing cell senescence.

Effects of G-Rh2 on mast cell-mediated anaphylaxis via AKT-Nrf2/NF-κB and MAPK-Nrf2/NF-κB pathways

Background

The effect of ginsenoside Rh2 (G-Rh2) on mast cell-mediated anaphylaxis remains unclear. Herein, we investigated the effects of G-Rh2 on OVA-induced asthmatic mice and on mast cell-mediated anaphylaxis.

Methods

Asthma model was established for evaluating airway changes and ear allergy. RPMCs and RBL-2H3 were used for in vitro experiments. Calcium uptake, histamine release and degranulation were detected. ELISA and Western blot measured cytokine and protein levels, respectively.

Results

G-Rh2 inhibited OVA-induced airway remodeling, the production of TNF-α, IL-4, IL-8, IL-1β and the degranulation of mast cells of asthmatic mice. G-Rh2 inhibited the activation of Syk and Lyn in lung tissue of OVA-induced asthmatic mice. G-Rh2 inhibited serum IgE production in OVA induced asthmatic mice. Furthermore, G-Rh2 reduced the ear allergy in IgE-sensitized mice. G-Rh2 decreased the ear thickness. In vitro experiments G-Rh2 significantly reduced calcium uptake and inhibited histamine release and degranulation in RPMCs. In addition, G-Rh2 reduced the production of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-8, and IL-4 in IgE-sensitized RBL-2H3 cells. Interestingly, G-Rh2 was involved in the FcεRI pathway activation of mast cells and the transduction of the Lyn/Syk signaling pathway. G-Rh2 inhibited PI3K activity in a dose-dependent manner. By blocking the antigen-induced phosphorylation of Lyn, Syk, LAT, PLCγ2, PI3K ERK1/2 and Raf-1 expression, G-Rh2 inhibited the NF-κB, AKT-Nrf2, and p38MAPK-Nrf2 pathways. However, G-Rh2 up-regulated Keap-1 expression. Meanwhile, G-Rh2 reduced the levels of p-AKT, p38MAPK and Nrf2 in RBL-2H3 sensitized IgE cells and inhibited NF-κB signaling pathway activation by activating the AKT-Nrf2 and p38MAPK-Nrf2 pathways.

Conclusion

G-Rh2 inhibits mast cell-induced allergic inflammation, which might be mediated by the AKT-Nrf2/NF-κB and p38MAPK-Nrf2/NF-κB signaling pathways.

Lizhong Decoction () Ameliorates Ulcerative Colitis in Mice via Regulation of Plasma and Urine Metabolic Profiling

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the mechanism of Lizhong Decoction (LZD, ) in treating dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in mice based on metabonomics.

METHODS

Thirty-six mice were randomly divided into 6 groups, including normal, model, low- (1.365 g/kg), medium- (4.095 g/kg) and high dose (12.285 g/kg) LZD and salazosulfadimidine (SASP) groups, 6 mice in each group. Colitis model mice were induced by DSS admistration for 7 days, and treated with low, medium and high dose LZD extract and positive drug SASP. Metabolic comparison of DSS-induced colitis and normal mice was investigated by using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) combined with Metabolynx™ software.

RESULTS

The metabolic profiles of plasma and urine in colitis mice were distinctly ameliorated after LZD treatment (P<0.05). Potential biomarkers (9 in serum and 4 in urine) were screened and tentatively identified. The endogenous metabolites were mainly involved in primary bile acid, sphingolipid, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, amino acids (alanine, aspartate, and glutamate), butanoate and glycerophospholipid metabolism in plasma, and terpenoid backbone biosynthesis, glycerophospholipid and tryptophan metabolism in urine. After LZD treatment, these markers notably restored to normal levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The study revealed the underlying mechanism of LZD on amelioration of ulcerative colitis based on metabonomics, which laid a foundation for further exploring the pathological and physiological mechanism, early diagnosis, and corresponding drug development of colitis.

Wound Healing Effect of Gintonin Involves Lysophosphatidic Acid Receptor/Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Signaling Pathway in Keratinocytes

Gintonin, a novel compound of ginseng, is a ligand of the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor. The in vitro and in vivo skin wound healing effects of gintonin remain unknown. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of gintonin on wound healing-linked responses, especially migration and proliferation, in skin keratinocytes HaCaT. In this study, 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide assay, Boyden chamber migration assay, scratch wound healing assay, and Western blot assay were performed. A tail wound mouse model was used for the in vivo test. Gintonin increased proliferation, migration, and scratch closure in HaCaT cells. It also increased the release of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in HaCaT cells. However, these increases, induced by gintonin, were markedly blocked by treatment with Ki16425, an LPA inhibitor, PD98059, an ERK inhibitor, 1,2-Bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid tetrakis (acetoxymethyl ester), a calcium chelator, and U73122, a PLC inhibitor. The VEGF receptor inhibitor axitinib also attenuated gintonin-enhanced HaCaT cell proliferation. Gintonin increased the phosphorylation of AKT and ERK1/2 in HaCaT cells. In addition, gintonin improved tail wound healing in mice. These results indicate that gintonin may promote wound healing through LPA receptor activation and/or VEGF release-mediated downstream signaling pathways. Thus, gintonin could be a beneficial substance to facilitate skin wound healing.

Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria on the Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism of Ginsenosides in Mice

This study aims to investigate the effect of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on in vitro and in vivo metabolism and the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in mice. When the in vitro fermentation test of RGE with LAB was carried out, protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxadiol (PPD), which are final metabolites of ginsenosides but not contained in RGE, were greatly increased. Compound K (CK), ginsenoside Rh1 (GRh1), and GRg3 also increased by about 30%. Other ginsenosides with a sugar number of more than 2 showed a gradual decrease by fermentation with LAB for 7 days, suggesting the involvement of LAB in the deglycosylation of ginsenosides. Incubation of single ginsenoside with LAB produced GRg3, CK, and PPD with the highest formation rate and GRd, GRh2, and GF with the lower rate among PPD-type ginsenosides. Among PPT-type ginsenosides, GRh1 and PPT had the highest formation rate. The amoxicillin pretreatment (20 mg/kg/day, twice a day for 3 days) resulted in a significant decrease in the fecal recovery of CK, PPD, and PPT through the blockade of deglycosylation of ginsenosides after single oral administrations of RGE (2 g/kg) in mice. The plasma concentrations of CK, PPD, and PPT were not detectable without change in GRb1, GRb2, and GRc in this group. LAB supplementation (1 billion CFU/2 g/kg/day for 1 week) after the amoxicillin treatment in mice restored the ginsenoside metabolism and the plasma concentrations of ginsenosides to the control level. In conclusion, the alterations in the gut microbiota environment could change the ginsenoside metabolism and plasma concentrations of ginsenosides. Therefore, the supplementation of LAB with oral administrations of RGE would help increase plasma concentrations of deglycosylated ginsenosides such as CK, PPD, and PPT.

Inhibition of extracellular regulated kinase (ERK)-1/2 signaling pathway in the prevention of ALS: Target inhibitors and influences on neurological dysfunctions

Cell signal transduction pathways are essential modulators of several physiological and pathological processes in the brain. During overactivation, these signaling processes may lead to disease progression. Abnormal protein kinase activation is associated with several biological dysfunctions that facilitate neurodegeneration under different biological conditions. As a result, these signaling pathways are essential in understanding brain disorders' development or progression. Recent research findings indicate the crucial role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/2 (ERK-1/2) signaling during the neuronal development process. ERK-1/2 is a key component of its mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) group, controlling certain neurological activities by regulating metabolic pathways, cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. ERK-1/2 also influences neuronal elastic properties, nerve growth, and neurological and cognitive processing during brain injuries. The primary goal of this review is to elucidate the activation of ERK1/2 signaling, which is involved in the development of several ALS-related neuropathological dysfunctions. ALS is a rare neurological disorder category that mainly affects the nerve cells responsible for regulating voluntary muscle activity. ALS is progressive, which means that the symptoms are getting worse over time, and there is no cure for ALS and no effective treatment to avoid or reverse. Genetic abnormalities, oligodendrocyte degradation, glial overactivation, and immune deregulation are associated with ALS progression. Furthermore, the current review also identifies ERK-1/2 signaling inhibitors that can promote neuroprotection and neurotrophic effects against the clinical-pathological presentation of ALS. As a result, in the future, the potential ERK-1/2 signaling inhibitors could be used in the treatment of ALS and related neurocomplications.

Gut Microbiota: Novel Therapeutic Target of Ginsenosides for the Treatment of Obesity and Its Complications

Obesity, generally characterized by excessive lipid accumulation, is a metabolic threat worldwide due to its rapid growth in global prevalence. Ginsenosides are crucial components derived from natural plants that can confer metabolic benefits for obese patients. Considering the low bioavailability and degradable properties of ginsenosides in vivo, it should be admitted that the mechanism of ginsenosides on anti-obesity contribution is still obscure. Recently, studies have indicated that ginsenoside intervention has beneficial metabolic effects on obesity and its complications because it allows for the correction of gut microbiota dysbiosis and regulates the secretion of related endogenous metabolites. In this review, we summarize the role of gut microbiota in the pathogenetic process of obesity, and explore the mechanism of ginsenosides for ameliorating obesity, which can modulate the composition of gut microbiota by improving the metabolism of intestinal endogenous substances and alleviating the level of inflammation. Ginsenosides are expected to become a promising anti-obesity medical intervention in the foreseeable clinical settings.

Pharmacological activities of ginsenoside Rg5 (Review)

Ginseng, a perennial plant belonging to genus Panax, has been widely used in traditional herbal medicine in East Asia and North America. Ginsenosides are the most important pharmacological component of ginseng. Variabilities in attached positions, inner and outer residues and types of sugar moieties may be associated with the specific pharmacological activities of each ginsenoside. Ginsenoside Rg5 (Rg5) is a minor ginsenoside synthesized during ginseng steaming treatment that exhibits superior pharmaceutical activity compared with major ginsenosides. With high safety and various biological functions, Rg5 may act as a potential therapeutic candidate for diverse diseases. To date, there have been no systematic studies on the activity of Rg5. Therefore, in this review, all available literature was reviewed and discussed to facilitate further research on Rg5.

Syringaresinol derived from Panax ginseng berry attenuates oxidative stress-induced skin aging via autophagy

Background

In aged skin, reactive oxygen species (ROS) induces degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM), leading to visible aging signs. Collagens in the ECM are cleaved by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Syringaresinol (SYR), isolated from Panax ginseng berry, has various physiological activities, including anti-inflammatory action. However, the anti-aging effects of SYR via antioxidant and autophagy regulation have not been elucidated.

Methods

The preventive effect of SYR on skin aging was investigated in human HaCaT keratinocytes in the presence of H₂O₂, and the keratinocyte cells were treated with SYR (0–200 μg/mL). mRNA and protein levels of MMP-2 and -9 were determined by real-time PCR and Western blotting, respectively. Radical scavenging activity was researched by 2,2 diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assays. LC3B level was assessed by Western blotting and confocal microscopy.

Results

SYR significantly reduced gene expression and protein levels of MMP-9 and -2 in both H₂O₂-treated and untreated HaCaT cells. SYR did not show cytotoxicity to HaCaT cells. SYR exhibited DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities with an EC₅₀ value of 10.77 and 10.35 μg/mL, respectively. SYR elevated total levels of endogenous and exogenous LC3B in H₂O₂-stimulated HaCaT cells. 3-Methyladenine (3-MA), an autophagy inhibitor, counteracted the inhibitory effect of SYR on MMP-2 expression.

Conclusion

SYR showed antioxidant activity and up-regulated autophagy activity in H₂O₂-stimulated HaCaT cells, lowering the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 associated with skin aging. Our results suggest that SYR has potential value as a cosmetic additive for prevention of skin aging.

Ginsenoside Rg1 attenuates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury due to inhibition of NOX2-mediated calcium homeostasis dysregulation in mice

Background

The incidence of ischemic cerebrovascular disease is increasing in recent years and has been one of the leading causes of neurological dysfunction and death. Ginsenoside Rg1 has been found to protect against neuronal damage in many neurodegenerative diseases. However, the effect and mechanism by which Rg1 protects against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) are not fully understood. Here, we report the neuroprotective effects of Rg1 treatment on CIRI and its possible mechanisms in mice.

Methods

A bilateral common carotid artery ligation was used to establish a chronic CIRI model in mice. HT22 cells were treated with Rg1 after OGD/R to study its effect on [Ca²⁺]_i. The open-field test and pole-climbing experiment were used to detect behavioral injury. The laser speckle blood flowmeter was used to measure brain blood flow. The Nissl and H&E staining were used to examine the neuronal damage. The Western blotting was used to examine MAP2, PSD95, Tau, p-Tau, NOX2, PLC, p-PLC, CN, NFAT1, and NLRP1 expression. Calcium imaging was used to test the level of [Ca²⁺]_i.

Results

Rg1 treatment significantly improved cerebral blood flow, locomotion, and limb coordination, reduced ROS production, increased MAP2 and PSD95 expression, and decreased p-Tau, NOX2, p-PLC, CN, NFAT1, and NLRP1 expression. Calcium imaging results showed that Rg1 could inhibit calcium overload and resist the imbalance of calcium homeostasis after OGD/R in HT22 cells.

Conclusion

Rg1 plays a neuroprotective role in attenuating CIRI by inhibiting oxidative stress, calcium overload, and neuroinflammation.

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Rg1 ameliorates I/R-induced motor dysfunction and neuronal damage in mice.

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Rg1 decreases NOX2 expression and ROS accumulation in cerebral I/R mice.

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Rg1 inhibits calcium overload and CN-NFAT1 signaling in cerebral I/R mice.

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Rg1 down-regulates NLRP1 inflammasome in cerebral I/R mice.

Anti-Cancer Effect of Panax Ginseng and Its Metabolites: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Drug Discovery

Cancer incidence and mortality rate are growing worldwide. The effectiveness of cancer therapy depends on the degree of cancer development. Anticancer prevention, screening tests, detection of precancerous conditions or cancers at an early stage of development help to prevent the development of cancer, and in the event of cancer development, they provide the best chance for a full recovery. However, in most cases of advanced cancer, there is no method that can fully cure this disease. Recently, natural products have gained more attention in cancer therapy. Panax ginseng (PG), one of the most popular natural products, is reported to have a wide range of pharmacological activities in cancer. Therefore, the anti-cancer effects and mechanisms of PG and its metabolites (compound K, Ginsenoside Rh1, Rh2, Rh3 and F1) in five major cancers (lung cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, prostate cancer and stomach cancer) are reviewed in this study. It is confirmed that PG and its metabolites regulated apoptosis, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis, cell cycle arrest and multidrug resistance (MDR) in vitro and in vivo cancer models. In particular, ginsenoside Rh2 showed anticancer effects in all five major cancers. This review could improve the understanding of anticancer mechanisms of PG and its metabolites against major five cancers. Further clinical studies are needed for development anti-cancer drugs using PG and its metabolites.

Phytochemistry of ginsenosides: Recent advancements and emerging roles

Ginsenosides, a group of tetracyclic saponins, accounts for the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical relevance of the ginseng (Panax sp.) herb. Owing to the associated therapeutic potential of ginsenosides, their demand has been increased significantly in the last two decades. However, a slow growth cycle, low seed production, and long generation time of ginseng have created a gap between the demand and supply of ginsenosides. The biosynthesis of ginsenosides involves an intricate network of pathways with multiple oxidation and glycosylation reactions. However, the exact functions of some of the associated genes/proteins are still not completely deciphered. Moreover, ginsenoside estimation and extraction using analytical techniques are not feasible with high efficiency. The present review is a step forward in recapitulating the comprehensive aspects of ginsenosides including their distribution, structural diversity, biotransformation, and functional attributes in both plants and animals including humans. Moreover, ginsenoside biosynthesis in the potential plant sources and their metabolism in the human body along with major regulators and stimulators affecting ginsenoside biosynthesis have also been discussed. Furthermore, this review consolidates biotechnological interventions to enhance the biosynthesis of ginsenosides in their potential sources and advancements in the development of synthetic biosystems for efficient ginsenoside biosynthesis to meet their rising industrial demands.

Pharmacological Efficacy of Ginseng against Respiratory Tract Infections

Respiratory tract infections are underestimated, as they are mild and generally not incapacitating. In clinical medicine, however, these infections are considered a prevalent problem. By 2030, the third most comprehensive reason for death worldwide will be chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), according to the World Health Organization. The current arsenal of anti-inflammatory drugs shows little or no benefits against COPD. For thousands of years, herbal drugs have been used to cure numerous illnesses; they exhibit promising results and enhance physical performance. Ginseng is one such herbal medicine, known to alleviate pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8) formed by macrophages and epithelial cells. Furthermore, the mechanisms of action of ginsenoside are still not fully understood. Various clinical trials of ginseng have exhibited a reduction of repeated colds and the flu. In this review, ginseng’s structural features, the pathogenicity of microbial infections, and the immunomodulatory, antiviral, and anti-bacterial effects of ginseng were discussed. The focus was on the latest animal studies and human clinical trials that corroborate ginseng’s role as a therapy for treating respiratory tract infections. The article concluded with future directions and significant challenges. This review would be a valuable addition to the knowledge base for researchers in understanding the promising role of ginseng in treating respiratory tract infections. Further analysis needs to be re-focused on clinical trials to study ginseng’s efficacy and safety in treating pathogenic infections and in determining ginseng-drug interactions.

Improved Hygroscopicity and Bioavailability of Solid Dispersion of Red Ginseng Extract with Silicon Dioxide

This study aims to develop a powder formulation for the Korean red ginseng extract (RGE) and to evaluate its in vitro and in vivo formulation characteristics. The solid dispersion of RGE was prepared with hydrophilic carriers using a freeze-drying method. After conducting the water sorption–desorption isothermogram (relative humidity between 30 and 70% RH), differential scanning calorimetry thermal behavior, dissolution test, and intestinal permeation study, a solid dispersion formulation of RGE and silicon dioxide (RGE-SiO₂) was selected. RGE-SiO₂ formulation increased intestinal permeability of ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1), GRb2, GRc, and GRd by 1.6-fold in rat jejunal segments as measured by the Ussing chamber system. A 1.6- to 1.8-fold increase in plasma exposure of GRb1, GRb2, GRc, and GRd in rats was observed following oral administration of RGE-SiO₂ (375 mg/kg as RGE). No significant difference was observed in the time to reach maximum concentration (T_max) and half-life in comparison to those in RGE administered rats (375 mg/kg). In conclusion, formulating solid dispersion of RGE with amorphous SiO₂, the powder formulation of RGE was successfully formulated with improved hygroscopicity, increased intestinal permeability, and enhanced oral bioavailability and is therefore suitable for processing solid formulations of RGE product.

TAK1/AP-1-Targeted Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Barringtonia augusta Methanol Extract

Barringtonia augusta methanol extract (Ba-ME) is a folk medicine found in the wetlands of Thailand that acts through an anti-inflammatory mechanism that is not understood fully. Here, we examine how the methanol extract of Barringtonia augusta (B. augusta) can suppress the activator protein 1 (AP-1) signaling pathway and study the activities of Ba-ME in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 macrophage cell line and an LPS-induced peritonitis mouse model. Non-toxic concentrations of Ba-ME downregulated the mRNA expression of cytokines, such as cyclooxygenase and chemokine ligand 12, in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Transfection experiments with the AP-1-Luc construct, HEK293T cells, and luciferase assays were used to assess whether Ba-ME suppressed the AP-1 functional activation. A Western blot assay confirmed that C-Jun N-terminal kinase is a direct pharmacological target of Ba-ME action. The anti-inflammatory effect of Ba-ME, which functions by β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) inhibition, was confirmed by using an overexpression strategy and a cellular thermal shift assay. In vivo experiments in a mouse model of LPS-induced peritonitis showed the anti-inflammatory effect of Ba-ME on LPS-stimulated macrophages and acute inflammatory mouse models. We conclude that Ba-ME is a promising anti-inflammatory drug targeting TAK1 in the AP-1 pathway.

Ginsenosides in vascular remodeling: Cellular and molecular mechanisms of their therapeutic action

Evidence is mounting that abnormal vascular remodeling (VR) is a vital pathological event that precedes many cardiovascular diseases (CVD). This provides us with a new research perspective that VR can be a pivotal target for CVD treatment and prevention. However, the current drugs for treating CVD do not fundamentally reverse VR and repair vascular function. The reason may be that a complicated regulatory network is formed between the various signaling pathways involved in VR. Recently, ginsenoside, the main active substance of ginseng, has become increasingly the focus of many researchers for its multiple targets, multiple pathways, and few side effects. Several data have revealed that ginsenosides can improve VR caused by vasodilation dysfunction, abnormal vascular structure and blood pressure. This review is intended to discuss the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of ginsenosides in some diseases involved in VR. Besides, we herein also give a new and contradictory insight into intracellular and molecular signaling of ginsenosides in all kinds of vascular cells. Most importantly, we also discuss the feasibility of ginsenosides Rb1/Rg1/Rg3 in drug development by combining the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides, and provide a pharmacological basis for the development of ginsenosides in clinical applications.