Mammalian MutS homologue 5 is required for chromosome pairing in meiosis

hMSH4-hMSH5 Recognizes Holliday Junctions and Forms a Meiosis-Specific Sliding Clamp that Embraces Homologous Chromosomes

Five MutS homologs (MSH), which form three heterodimeric protein complexes, have been identified in eukaryotes. While the human hMSH2-hMSH3 and hMSH2-hMSH6 heterodimers operate primarily in mitotic mismatch repair (MMR), the biochemical function(s) of the meiosis-specific hMSH4-hMSH5 heterodimer is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that purified hMSH4-hMSH5 binds uniquely to Holliday Junctions. Holliday Junctions stimulate the hMSH4-hMSH5 ATP hydrolysis (ATPase) activity, which is controlled by Holliday Junction-provoked ADP-->ATP exchange. ATP binding by hMSH4-hMSH5 induces the formation of a hydrolysis-independent sliding clamp that dissociates from the Holliday Junction crossover region, embracing two homologous duplex DNA arms. Fundamental differences between hMSH2-hMSH6 and hMSH4-hMSH5 Holliday Junction recognition are detailed. Our results support the attractive possibility that hMSH4-hMSH5 stabilizes and preserves a meiotic bimolecular double-strand break repair (DSBR) intermediate.

The mouse “tool box” for meiotic studies

Besides availability, there are numerous advantages to using mice for meiotic studies: (1) techniques exist for enriching the population of spermatocytes at particular meiotic stages; (2) spermatogenesis in mice is highly synchronized and testis sections afford a highly accurate method of staging meiotic events; (3) knock-out mice provide a rich source of meiotic mutants. Coupled with antibody localization techniques these tools, singularly and in combination, provide multiple means of temporally and physically dissecting meiosis.

Crossover/noncrossover differentiation, synaptonemal complex formation, and regulatory surveillance at the leptotene/zygotene transition of meiosis

Yeast mutants lacking meiotic proteins Zip1, Zip2, Zip3, Mer3, and/or Msh5 (ZMMs) were analyzed for recombination, synaptonemal complex (SC), and meiotic progression. At 33 degrees C, recombination-initiating double-strand breaks (DSBs) and noncrossover products (NCRs) form normally while formation of single-end invasion strand exchange intermediates (SEIs), double Holliday junctions, crossover products (CRs), and SC are coordinately defective. Thus, during wild-type meiosis, recombinational interactions are differentiated into CR and NCR types very early, prior to onset of stable strand exchange and independent of SC. By implication, crossover interference does not require SC formation. We suggest that SC formation may require interference. Subsequently, CR-designated DSBs undergo a tightly coupled, ZMM-promoted transition that yields SEI-containing recombination complexes embedded in patches of SC. zmm mutant phenotypes differ strikingly at 33 degrees C and 23 degrees C, implicating higher temperature as a positive effector of recombination and identifying a checkpoint that monitors local CR-specific events, not SC formation, at late leptotene.

Irregular telomeres impair meiotic synapsis and recombination in mice

Telomere shortening can lead to chromosome instability, replicative senescence, and apoptosis in both somatic and male germ cells. To study roles for mammalian telomeres in homologous pairing and recombination, we characterized effects of telomere shortening on spermatogenesis and oogenesis in late-generation telomerase-deficient mice. We show that shortened telomeres of late-generation telomerase-deficient mice impair meiotic synapsis and decrease recombination, in particular, in females. In response to telomere shortening, male germ cells mostly undergo apoptosis, whereas female germ cells preferentially arrest in early meiosis, suggesting sexually dimorphic surveillance mechanisms for telomere dysfunction during meiosis in mice. Further, meiocytes of late-generation telomerase-deficient females with shortened telomeres, bred with early-generation males harboring relatively long telomeres, exhibit severely impaired chromosome pairing and synapsis and reduced meiotic recombination. These findings imply that functional telomeres are important in mammalian meiotic synapsis and recombination.

Chromatin dynamics in the male meiotic prophase

During the male meiotic prophase in mouse and man, pairing and recombination of homologous chromosomes is accompanied by changes in chromatin structure. In this review, the dynamics of assembly and disassembly of the chromatin-associated complexes that mediate sister chromatid cohesion (cohesin) and maintain chromosome pairing (the synaptonemal complex) are described. Special features of the meiotic S phase are discussed, and also the dynamics of several key players that act together after the S phase at sites of meiotic double-strand break DNA repair. Current knowledge on histone modifications that occur during the male meiotic prophase is discussed, with special attention for the inactive chromatin of the X and Y chromosomes that constitutes the sex body. Finally, it is discussed that in the future, it will be possible to view the true chromatin dynamics during male meiosis in time, in living cells, through analysis of fluorescent-tagged proteins expressed in transgenic mice, using advanced fluorescent microscopy techniques.

Mili, a mammalian member ofpiwifamily gene, is essential for spermatogenesis

The piwi family genes, which are defined by conserved PAZ and Piwi domains, play important roles in stem cell self-renewal, RNA silencing, and translational regulation in various organisms. To reveal the function of the mammalian homolog of piwi, we produced and analyzed mice with targeted mutations in the Mili gene, which is one of three mouse homologs of piwi. Spermatogenesis in the MILI-null mice was blocked completely at the early prophase of the first meiosis, from the zygotene to early pachytene, and the mice were sterile. However, primordial germ cell development and female germ cell production were not disturbed. Furthermore,MILI bound to MVH, which is an essential factor during the early spermatocyte stage. The similarities in the phenotypes of the MILI- and MVH-deficient mice and in the physical binding properties of MILI and MVH indicate a functional association of these proteins in post-transcriptional regulation. These data indicate that MILI is essential for the differentiation of spermatocytes.

The Hop2 protein has a direct role in promoting interhomolog interactions during mouse meiosis

The S. cerevisiae Hop2 protein and its fission yeast homolog Meu13 are required for proper homologous chromosome pairing and recombination during meiosis. The mechanism of this requirement is, however, not understood. The previous studies in Saccharomyces suggested that Hop2 is a guardian of meiotic chromosome synapsis with the ability to prevent or resolve deleterious associations between nonhomologous chromosomes. We have generated a Hop2 knockout mouse that shows profound meiotic defects with a distinct and novel phenotype. Hop2(-/-) spermatocytes arrest at the stage of pachytene-like chromosome condensation. Axial elements are fully developed, but synapsis of any kind is very limited. Immunofluorescence analysis of meiotic chromosome spreads indicates that while meiotic double-stranded breaks are formed and processed in the Hop2 knockout, they fail to be repaired. In aggregate, the Hop2 phenotype is consistent with a direct role for the mouse Hop2 protein in promoting homologous chromosome synapsis.

Integrated analysis of protein composition, tissue diversity, and gene regulation in mouse mitochondria

Mitochondria are tailored to meet the metabolic and signaling needs of each cell. To explore its molecular composition, we performed a proteomic survey of mitochondria from mouse brain, heart, kidney, and liver and combined the results with existing gene annotations to produce a list of 591 mitochondrial proteins, including 163 proteins not previously associated with this organelle. The protein expression data were largely concordant with large-scale surveys of RNA abundance and both measures indicate tissue-specific differences in organelle composition. RNA expression profiles across tissues revealed networks of mitochondrial genes that share functional and regulatory mechanisms. We also determined a larger "neighborhood" of genes whose expression is closely correlated to the mitochondrial genes. The combined analysis identifies specific genes of biological interest, such as candidates for mtDNA repair enzymes, offers new insights into the biogenesis and ancestry of mammalian mitochondria, and provides a framework for understanding the organelle's contribution to human disease.

Expression profiling of mammalian male meiosis and gametogenesis identifies novel candidate genes for roles in the regulation of fertility

We report a comprehensive large-scale expression profiling analysis of mammalian male germ cells undergoing mitotic growth, meiosis, and gametogenesis by using high-density oligonucleotide microarrays and highly enriched cell populations. Among 11,955 rat loci investigated, 1268 were identified as differentially transcribed in germ cells at subsequent developmental stages compared with total testis, somatic Sertoli cells as well as brain and skeletal muscle controls. The loci were organized into four expression clusters that correspond to somatic, mitotic, meiotic, and postmeiotic cell types. This work provides information about expression patterns of approximately 200 genes known to be important during male germ cell development. Approximately 40 of those are included in a group of 121 transcripts for which we report germ cell expression and lack of transcription in three somatic control cell types. Moreover, we demonstrate the testicular expression and transcriptional induction in mitotic, meiotic, and/or postmeiotic germ cells of 293 as yet uncharacterized transcripts, some of which are likely to encode factors involved in spermatogenesis and fertility. This group also contains potential germ cell-specific targets for innovative contraceptives. A graphical display of the data is conveniently accessible through the GermOnline database at http://www.germonline.org.

A Gene Encoding Sialic-Acid-Specific 9-O-Acetylesterase Found in Human Adult Testis

Using differential display RT-PCR, we identified a gene of 2750 bp from human adult testis, named H-Lse, which encoded a putative protein of 523 amino acids and molecular weight of 58 kd with structural characteristics similar to that of mouse lysosome sialic-acid-specific 9-O-acetylesterase. Northern blot analysis showed a widespread distribution of H-Lse in various human tissues with high expression in the testis, prostate, and colon. In situ hybridization results showed that while H-Lse was not detected in embryonic testis, positive signals were found in spermatocytes but not spermatogonia in adult testis of human. The subcellular localization of H-Lse was visualized by green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused to the amino terminus of H-Lse, showing compartmentalization of H-Lse in large dense-core vesicles, presumably lysosomes, in the cytoplasm. The developmentally regulated and spermatogenic stage-specific expression of H-Lse suggests its possible involvement in the development of the testis and/or differentiation of germ cells.

Death and more: DNA damage response pathways in the nematode C. elegans

Genotoxic stress is a threat to our cells' genome integrity. Failure to repair DNA lesions properly after the induction of cell proliferation arrest can lead to mutations or large-scale genomic instability. Because such changes may have tumorigenic potential, damaged cells are often eliminated via apoptosis. Loss of this apoptotic response is actually one of the hallmarks of cancer. Towards the effort to elucidate the DNA damage-induced signaling steps leading to these biological events, an easily accessible model system is required, where the acquired knowledge can reveal the mechanisms underlying more complex organisms. Accumulating evidence coming from studies in Caenorhabditis elegans point to its usefulness as such. In the worm's germline, DNA damage can induce both cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, two responses that are spatially separated. The latter is a tightly controlled process that is genetically indistinguishable from developmental programmed cell death. Upstream of the central death machinery, components of the DNA damage signaling cascade lie and act either as sensors of the lesion or as transducers of the initial signal detected. This review summarizes the findings of several studies that specify the elements of the DNA damage-induced responses, as components of the cell cycle control machinery, the repairing process or the apoptotic outcome. The validity of C. elegans as a tool to further dissect the complex signaling network of these responses and the high potential for it to reveal important links to cancer and other genetic abnormalities are addressed.

Positional cloning and characterization of Mei1, a vertebrate-specific gene required for normal meiotic chromosome synapsis in mice

The mouse meiotic mutant Mei1 was isolated in a screen for infertile mice descended from chemically mutagenized embryonic stem cells. Homozygotes of both sexes are sterile due to meiotic arrest caused by defects in chromosome synapsis. Notably, RAD51 protein does not load onto Mei1 mutant meiotic chromosomes, suggesting that there is a defect in either recombinational repair or the production of double-strand breaks (DSBs) that require such repair. Here, we show that treatment of mutant males with cisplatin restores RAD51 loading, suggesting that mutant spermatocytes have intact recombinational repair mechanisms. Levels of histone H2AX phosphorylation (gammaH2AX) at leptonema are significantly reduced compared with wild-type controls but comparable to that seen in animals deficient for SPO11, the molecule required for catalyzing DSB formation during meiosis. These observations provide evidence that genetically programmed DSB induction is defective in Mei1 leptotene spermatocytes. We also report the positional cloning of Mei1, which encodes a product without significant homology to any known protein. Expressed almost exclusively in gonads, Mei1 has no apparent homologs in yeast, worms, or flies. However, Mei1 orthologs are present in the genomes of mammals, chickens, and zebrafish. Thus, Mei1 is required for vertebrate meiosis. To our knowledge, Mei1 is the first meiosis-specific mutation identified by forward genetic approaches in mammals.

Toward the genetics of mammalian reproduction: induction and mapping of gametogenesis mutants in mice

The genetic control of mammalian gametogenesis is inadequately characterized because of a lack of mutations causing infertility. To further the discovery of genes required for mammalian gametogenesis, phenotype-driven screens were performed in mice using random chemical mutagenesis of whole animals and embryonic stem cells. Eleven initial mutations are reported here that affect proliferation of germ cells, meiosis, spermiogenesis, and spermiation. Nine of the mutations have been mapped genetically. These preliminary studies provide baselines for estimating the number of genes required for gametogenesis and offer guidance in conducting new genetic screens that will accelerate and optimize mutant discovery. This report demonstrates the efficacy and expediency of mutagenesis to identify new genes required for mammalian gamete development.

A single amino acid substitution in MSH5 results in DNA alkylation tolerance

DNA alkylation tolerance is a major concern in cancer chemotherapy. It has been suggested that mutations in DNA mismatch repair genes may result in alkylation tolerance. This alkylation tolerant phenotype is often manifested in cells lacking an O(6)-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase (MTase) activity. However, deletion of each mismatch repair gene in the MTase mutant of a model eukaryotic yeast does not result in alkylation tolerance. We previously isolated an alkylation tolerant mutant and mapped the mutation to MSH5. Here we present evidence that a single point mutation that results in a Y823H amino acid substitution, but not deletion, of the MSH5 gene is responsible for tolerance to killing by DNA alkylating agents. We also find that other preexisting amino acid variations may also enhance alkylation tolerance in the above mutation background. Since MSH5 encodes a protein homologous to DNA mismatch recognition proteins, mismatch repair genes are frequently mutated in cancers cells and, like mismatch repair genes, MSH5 is highly conserved from yeast to human, this observation suggests novel mechanisms of chemotherapeutic drug resistance that may occur in certain human cancer patients.

Synaptonemal complex assembly in C. elegans is dispensable for loading strand-exchange proteins but critical for proper completion of recombination

Here we probe the relationships between assembly of the synaptonemal complex (SC) and progression of recombination between homologous chromosomes during Caenorhabditis elegans meiosis. We identify SYP-2 as a structural component of the SC central region and show that central region assembly depends on proper morphogenesis of chromosome axes. We find that the SC central region is dispensable for initiation of recombination and for loading of DNA strand-exchange protein RAD-51, despite the fact that extensive RAD-51 loading normally occurs in the context of assembled SC. Further, persistence of RAD-51 foci and absence of crossover products in meiotic mutants suggests that SC central region components and recombination proteins MSH-4 and MSH-5 are required to promote conversion of resected double-strand breaks into stable post-strand exchange intermediates. Our data also suggest that early prophase barriers to utilization of sister chromatids as repair templates do not depend on central region assembly.

Continuous loss of oocytes throughout meiotic prophase in the normal mouse ovary

The number of germ cells reaches the maximum just prior to entry into meiosis, yet decreases dramatically by a few days after birth in the female mouse, rat, and human. Previous studies have reported a major loss at the pachytene stage of meiotic prophase during fetal development, leading to the hypothesis that chromosomal pairing abnormalities may be a signal for oocyte death. However, the identification as well as the quantification of germ cells in these studies have been questioned. A recent study using Mouse Vasa Homologue (MVH) as a germ cell marker reached a contradictory conclusion claiming that oocyte loss occurs in the mouse only after birth. In the present study, we established a new method to quantify murine germ cells by using Germ Cell Nuclear Antigen-1 (GCNA-1) as a germ cell marker. Comparison of GCNA-1 and MVH immunolabeling revealed that the two markers identify the same population of germ cells. However, nuclear labeling of GCNA-1 was better suited for counting germ cells in histological sections as well as for double labeling with the antibody against synaptonemal complex (SC) proteins in chromosome spreading preparations. The latter experiment demonstrated that the majority of GCNA-1-labeled cells entered and progressed through meiotic prophase during fetal development. The number of GCNA-1-positive cells in the ovary was estimated by counting the labeled cells retained in chromosome spreading preparations and also in histological sections by using the ratio estimation method. Both methods demonstrated a continuous decline in the number of GCNA-1-labeled cells during fetal development when the oocytes progress through meiotic prophase. These observations suggest that multiple causes are responsible for oocyte elimination.

White-cap mutants and meiotic apoptosis in the basidiomycete Coprinus cinereus

Among many white-cap mutants of Coprinus cinereus, four distinct classes have been identified cytologically. Mutants of one class progress through meiosis normally but fail to sporulate; the defect is post-meiotic and it triggers apoptosis in the tetrad stage. Mutants of the other three classes have defects in meiotic prophase and these are: (1) those that assemble synaptonemal complexes (SCs) normally; (2) those that assemble axial elements (AEs) but not SCs; and (3) those that assemble neither AEs nor SCs even though the chromosomes are condensed and also paired. All three meiotic mutant classes arrest at meiotic metaphase I and the arrest triggers meiosis-specific apoptosis showing characteristic chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation as shown by the TUNEL assay, cytoplasmic shrinkage, and finally total DNA degradation. Apoptosis is very cell-type specific; it occurs only in the basidia while the neighboring somatic cells are perfectly healthy and the mushroom continues to develop and mature with very few basidiospores produced. The meiotic apoptosis in C. cinereus is under strict cell cycle control rather than at any time after defect; apoptosis is triggered only after entry to meiotic metaphase. It is intriguing to note that C. cinereus has two checkpoints for arrest and entry to apoptosis: one is meiotic at the metaphase I spindle checkpoint regardless of the time of defects, and one is post-meiotic at the tetrad stage. This is in striking contrast to multiple checkpoint arrests and entries to meiotic apoptosis found in the mouse.

Inactivation of Exonuclease 1 in mice results in DNA mismatch repair defects, increased cancer susceptibility, and male and female sterility

Exonuclease 1 (Exo1) is a 5'-3' exonuclease that interacts with MutS and MutL homologs and has been implicated in the excision step of DNA mismatch repair. To investigate the role of Exo1 in mammalian mismatch repair and assess its importance for tumorigenesis and meiosis, we generated an Exo1 mutant mouse line. Analysis of Exo1(-/-) cells for mismatch repair activity in vitro showed that Exo1 is required for the repair of base:base and single-base insertion/deletion mismatches in both 5' and 3' nick-directed repair. The repair defect in Exo1(-/-) cells also caused elevated microsatellite instability at a mononucleotide repeat marker and a significant increase in mutation rate at the Hprt locus. Exo1(-/-) animals displayed reduced survival and increased susceptibility to the development of lymphomas. In addition, Exo1(-/-) male and female mice were sterile because of a meiotic defect. Meiosis in Exo1(-/-) animals proceeded through prophase I; however, the chromosomes exhibited dynamic loss of chiasmata during metaphase I, resulting in meiotic failure and apoptosis. Our results show that mammalian Exo1 functions in mutation avoidance and is essential for male and female meiosis.

Expression profiles and chromosomal localization of genes controlling meiosis and follicular development in the sheep ovary

In female sheep fetuses, two of the most crucial stages of ovarian development are prophase of meiosis I and follicle formation. In the present study, sheep ovaries collected on Days 25, 38, 49, 56, 67, 75, 94, and 120 of gestation, at birth, and in adulthood were tested by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the expression of 14 genes known to be involved in the ovarian differentiation in diverse organisms. The aim of this study was to determine 1) the expression pattern of six genes involved in germ cell development or meiosis (DMC1, SPO11, MSH4, MSH5, DAZL, and Boule) and five ovary-derived factors (OVOL1, SIAH2, DIAPH2, FOXL2, and FGF9), 2) the onset of gene expression for several members of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) pathway involved in follicular development (GDF9, BMP15, BMPR-IB), and 3) the chromosomal localization of seven of these genes in the sheep genome. The RT-PCR analysis revealed that the two germline-specific genes, DAZL and Boule, were expressed between 49 and 94 days postcoitum (dpc) with a similar pattern to typical meiosis genes (DMC1, MSH4, and MSH5), suggesting their possible participation in prophase of meiosis I. GDF9 and OVOL1 gene transcription started at 56 dpc and extended until birth, while BMP15 presented a more restricted window of expression between 94 dpc and birth, corresponding to the formation of first growing follicles. The homologous ovine genes for SPO11, DMC1, MSH5, DAZL, FGF9, DIAPH2, and SIAH2 were located on OAR 13q21-22, 3q35, 20q22, 19q13, 10q15, Xq44, and 1q41-42, respectively. In sheep, quantitative trait loci affecting female reproductive capacities are currently being detected. The ontology and precise mapping of ovarian genes will be useful to identify potential candidate genes that might underlie these effects.

Germline genomes--a biological fountain of youth?

The fusion of male- and female-derived gametes initiates the phenomenal process of producing a highly complex mammalian organism. Successful reproduction is so important that mammals invoke a battery of protective mechanisms for the germ cell lineages that function to maximize genetic integrity while still allowing genetic diversity and adaptation. Protective mechanisms likely include, but are not limited to, robust DNA repair to safeguard genetic integrity and apoptosis to remove cells with intolerable levels of DNA damage. Analyses of spontaneous mutant frequencies are generally consistent with germline DNA being stringently maintained relative to somatic tissues. Despite the rigorous protection afforded germ cells, genetic integrity is observed to decline with increased maternal and paternal age. It is not yet clear whether cells in the germ line truly age or whether other processes decline or become dysfunctional with age. For example, in a younger animal, the differentiation and/or utilization of germ cells with lower genetic integrity might be disallowed, whereas in an older animal, such cells might slip past these quality-control mechanisms.

MLH1 mutations differentially affect meiotic functions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

To test whether missense mutations in the cancer susceptibility gene MLH1 adversely affect meiosis, we examined 14 yeast MLH1 mutations for effects on meiotic DNA transactions and gamete viability in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mutations analogous to those associated with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) or those that reduce Mlh1p interactions with ATP or DNA all impair replicative mismatch repair as measured by increased mutation rates. However, their effects on meiotic heteroduplex repair, crossing over, chromosome segregation, and gametogenesis vary from complete loss of meiotic functions to no meiotic defect, and mutants defective in one meiotic process are not necessarily defective in others. DNA binding and ATP binding but not ATP hydrolysis are required for meiotic crossing over. The results reveal clear separation of different Mlh1p functions in mitosis and meiosis, and they suggest that some, but not all, MLH1 mutations may be a source of human infertility.

DNA repair defects in colon cancer

Defects in DNA-repair pathways lead to an accumulation of mutations in genomic DNA that result from non-repair or mis-repair of modifications introduced into the DNA by endogenous or exogenous agents or by the malfunction of DNA metabolic pathways. Until recently, only two repair pathways, postreplicative mismatch repair and nucleotide excision repair, have been linked to cancer in mammals, but these have been joined in recent months also by the damage-reversal and base-excision-repair processes, which have been shown to be inactivated, either through mutation or epigenetically, in human cancer.

X-Autosome translocations, meiotic synapsis, chromosome evolution and speciation

Several theories have been proposed to explain the often-noted sterility of both reciprocal and Robertsonian X-autosome translocations in male mammals. However, there are a number of species in which all members of the species carry a Robertsonian X-autosome translocation. Meiosis in spermatocytes from these sterile vs. fertile animals is compared within the context of these theories. New technologies and insights into underlying mechanisms are summarized and suggestions presented for further studies.

Sex-specific gene expression during meiotic prophase I: Xlr (X linked, lymphocyte regulated), not its male homologue Xmr (Xlr related, meiosis regulated), is expressed in mouse oocytes

The Xmr (Xlr related, meiosis regulated) gene product is abundantly expressed in primary spermatocytes and is notably associated with nonrecombining segments of sex chromosomes in the XY body. Here we determined whether Xmr was expressed in meiotic oocytes. This was done by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and cDNA sequencing, Western blot analysis, and immunocytochemistry. Unexpectedly, no Xmr message was detected in mouse fetal oocytes. Instead, Xlr (X linked, lymphocyte regulated), a closely related gene expressed in fetal thymus cells at the time of antigen-receptor gene rearrangement, was expressed in oocytes throughout meiotic prophase I. These findings indicate a sex-specific expression of two closely related members of the Xlr gene family during meiotic prophase I. The XLR protein may provide a useful marker for studies on chromatin condensation or DNA recombination in oocytes. In addition, because of the localization of the Xlr sequence family on the mouse X chromosome, the human equivalent of Xlr is a candidate gene for premature ovarian failure.

[Human infertility: meiotic genes as potential candidates]

Up to now, the identification of gene mutations causing infertility in humans remains poorly investigated. Temporal progression through meiosis and meiosis specific genes had been extensively characterized in yeast. Recently some mammalian homologous were found. The molecular mechanisms regulating entry into and progression through meiosis in mammals are still unknown. However, disruption of some meiotic genes in mouse showed an essential role of them in meiotic chromosome synapsis and gametogenesis. Moreover, the phenotype of gonads in null mutant mice for some meiotic genes (failure to initiate or blockage in meiosis, lack of gametes or small size of gonads...) could be strikingly similar to clinical observations found in human infertility. The aim of this study was to identify putative mutations in 5 meiotic genes of several clinically well-characterized patients who present unexplained infertility (normal karyotype, women with premature ovarian failure, men with azospermia and without Y micro-deletion). For this purpose, the exons of these 5 genes (DMC1, SPO11, MSH4, MSH5, CCNA1) were all amplified by PCR with specific primers and each amplified-exon was sequenced. Sequences were aligned in comparison to the human corresponding gene available in Genbank. Many heterozygous mutations were found in different genes. Two homozygous mutations were found in MSH4 and DMC1 genes in a young man presenting a testis vanishing syndrome and a woman presenting a premature ovarian failure, respectively. Consequences of such mutations will be examined and verified in model organisms (yeast, mouse) to check the relevance of the mutations in clinical setting.

Mouse models of male infertility

Spermatogenesis is a complex process that involves stem-cell renewal, genome reorganization and genome repackaging, and that culminates in the production of motile gametes. Problems at all stages of spermatogenesis contribute to human infertility, but few of them can be modelled in vitro or in cell culture. Targeted mutagenesis in the mouse provides a powerful method to analyse these steps and has provided new insights into the origins of male infertility.

Meiotic prophase abnormalities and metaphase cell death in MLH1-deficient mouse spermatocytes: insights into regulation of spermatogenic progress

The MLH1 protein is required for normal meiosis in mice and its absence leads to failure in maintenance of pairing between bivalent chromosomes, abnormal meiotic division, and ensuing sterility in both sexes. In this study, we investigated whether failure to develop foci of MLH1 protein on chromosomes in prophase would lead to elimination of prophase spermatocytes, and, if not, whether univalent chromosomes could align normally on the meiotic spindle and whether metaphase spermatocytes would be delayed and/or eliminated. In spite of the absence of MLH1 foci, no apoptosis of spermatocytes in prophase was detected. In fact, chromosomes of pachytene spermatocytes from Mlh1(-/-) mice were competent to condense metaphase chromosomes, both in vivo and in vitro. Most condensed chromosomes were univalents with spatially distinct FISH signals. Typical metaphase events, such as synaptonemal complex breakdown and the phosphorylation of Ser10 on histone H3, occurred in Mlh1(-/-) spermatocytes, suggesting that there is no inhibition of onset of meiotic metaphase in the face of massive chromosomal abnormalities. However, the condensed univalent chromosomes did not align correctly onto the spindle apparatus in the majority of Mlh1(-/-) spermatocytes. Most meiotic metaphase spermatocytes were characterized with bipolar spindles, but chromosomes radiated away from the microtubule-organizing centers in a prometaphase-like pattern rather than achieving a bipolar orientation. Apoptosis was not observed until after the onset of meiotic metaphase. Thus, spermatocytes are not eliminated in direct response to the initial meiotic defect, but are eliminated later. Taken together, these observations suggest that a spindle assembly checkpoint, rather than a recombination or chiasmata checkpoint, may be activated in response to meiotic errors, thereby ensuring elimination of chromosomally abnormal gamete precursors.

The MER3 DNA helicase catalyzes the unwinding of holliday junctions

The MER3 protein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is required for crossover in meiosis and has been suggested to act at the initiation of homologous pairing and the resolution of Holliday junctions. The purified MER3 protein is a DNA helicase that translocates along single-stranded DNA in the 3' to 5' direction displacing annealed DNA fragments. Here, MER3 was found to be able to unwind various double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) substrates, including a 30-bp dsDNA with a 20-nucleotide 3'-overhang, a 30-bp dsDNA with a 20-nucleotide 5'-overhang, a 50-bp dsDNA with blunt ends, and a Holliday junction with 25-bp arms, each of which had a blunt end. Efficient unwinding of the 3'-overhang substrate appeared to initiate by the binding of MER3 to the 3' single-stranded tail in a reaction that required six or more unpaired bases. Unwinding of the blunt end and 5'-overhang substrates appeared to initiate at the blunt ends of these substrates. Unwinding of the Holliday junction was more efficient than the unwinding of the blunt and 5'-overhang substrates and was influenced by Mg(2+) concentrations that cause changes in the structure of the junction. Possible roles for Holliday junction unwinding in meiotic crossover are discussed.

Meiotic arrest and aneuploidy in MLH3-deficient mice

MutL homolog 3 (Mlh3) is a member of a family of proteins conserved during evolution and having dual roles in DNA mismatch repair and meiosis. The pathway in eukaryotes consists of the DNA-binding components, which are the homologs of the bacterial MutS protein (MSH 2 6), and the MutL homologs, which bind to the MutS homologs and are essential for the repair process. Three of the six homologs of MutS that function in these processes, Msh2, Msh3 and Msh6, are involved in the mismatch repair of mutations, frameshifts and replication errors, and two others, Msh4 and Msh5, have specific roles in meiosis. Of the four MutL homologs, Mlh1, Mlh3, Pms1 and Pms2, three are involved in mismatch repair and at least two, Pms2 and Mlh1, are essential for meiotic progression in both yeast and mice. To assess the role of Mlh3 in mammalian meiosis, we have generated and characterized Mlh3(-/-) mice. Here we show that Mlh3(-/-) mice are viable but sterile. Mlh3 is required for Mlh1 binding to meiotic chromosomes and localizes to meiotic chromosomes from the mid pachynema stage of prophase I. Mlh3(-/-) spermatocytes reach metaphase before succumbing to apoptosis, but oocytes fail to complete meiosis I after fertilization. Our results show that Mlh3 has an essential and distinct role in mammalian meiosis.

Mouse models for human DNA mismatch-repair gene defects

The mammalian DNA mismatch-repair genes belong to a family of genes that comprise several homologs of the Escherichia coli mutS and mutL genes. The observation that mutations in the two human repair genes MSH2 and MLH1 are responsible for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer, as well as a significant number of sporadic colorectal cancers, raises several questions about the role of these proteins and their family members in the initiation and progression of colorectal cancer. To address these questions, mice with inactivating mutations in all the known mutS and mutL homologs have been generated. The development of these mouse lines has permitted the systematic analysis of the role of each gene in the repair process and has underscored their significance in mutation avoidance and cancer susceptibility. These analyses were critical for our understanding of the function of these genes at the organismal level and also revealed an essential role for some of the DNA mismatch-repair genes in mammalian meiosis.

Sex matters in meiosis

In mammals, fertilization typically involves the ovulation of one or a few eggs at one end of the female reproductive tract and the entry of millions of sperm at the other. Given this disparity in numbers, it might be expected that the more precious commodity-eggs-would be subject to more stringent quality-control mechanisms. However, information from engineered mutations of meiotic genes suggests just the opposite. Specifically, the available mutants demonstrate striking sexual dimorphism in response to meiotic disruption; for example, faced with adversity, male meiosis grinds to a halt, whereas female meiosis soldiers on. This female "robustness" comes with a cost, however, because aneuploidy appears to be increased in the resultant oocytes.

DNA methyltransferase deficiency modifies cancer susceptibility in mice lacking DNA mismatch repair

We have introduced DNA methyltransferase 1 (Dnmt1) mutations into a mouse strain deficient for the Mlh1 protein to study the interaction between DNA mismatch repair deficiency and DNA methylation. Mice harboring hypomorphic Dnmt1 mutations showed diminished RNA expression and DNA hypomethylation but developed normally and were tumor free. When crossed to Mlh1(-/-) homozygosity, they were less likely to develop the intestinal cancers that normally arise in this tumor-predisposed, mismatch repair-deficient background. However, these same mice developed invasive T- and B-cell lymphomas earlier and at a much higher frequency than their Dnmt1 wild-type littermates. Thus, the reduction of Dnmt1 activity has significant but opposing outcomes in the development of two different tumor types. DNA hypomethylation and mismatch repair deficiency interact to exacerbate lymphomagenesis, while hypomethylation protects against intestinal tumors. The increased lymphomagenesis in Dnmt1 hypomorphic, Mlh1(-/-) mice may be due to a combination of several mechanisms, including elevated mutation rates, increased expression of proviral sequences or proto-oncogenes, and/or enhanced genomic instability. We show that CpG island hypermethylation occurs in the normal intestinal mucosa, is increased in intestinal tumors in Mlh1(-/-) mice, and is reduced in the normal mucosa and tumors of Dnmt1 mutant mice, consistent with a role for Dnmt1-mediated CpG island hypermethylation in intestinal tumorigenesis.

The mouse meiotic mutation mei1 disrupts chromosome synapsis with sexually dimorphic consequences for meiotic progression

mei1 (meiosis defective 1) is the first meiotic mutation in mice derived by phenotype-driven mutagenesis. It was isolated by using a novel technology in which embryonic stem (ES) cells were chemically mutagenized and used to generate families of mice that were screened for infertility. We report here that mei1/mei1 spermatocytes arrest at the zygotene stage of meiosis I, exhibiting failure of homologous chromosomes to properly synapse. Notably, RAD51 failed to associate with meiotic chromosomes in mutant spermatocytes, despite evidence for the presence of chromosomal breaks. Transcription of genes that are markers for the leptotene and zygotene stages, but not genes that are markers for the pachytene stage, was observed. mei1/mei1 females are sterile, and their oocytes also show severe synapsis defects. Nevertheless, unlike arrested spermatocytes, a small number of mutant oocytes proved capable of progressing to metaphase I and attempting the first meiotic division. However, their chromosomes were unpaired and were not organized properly at the metaphase plate or along the spindle fibers during segregation. mei1 was genetically mapped to chromosome (Chr) 15 in an interval that is syntenic to human Chr 22q13. This region, which has been completely sequenced, contains no known homologs of genes specifically required for meiosis in model organisms. Thus, mei1 may be a novel meiotic gene.

Mechanism and control of meiotic recombination initiation

Homologous recombination is essential during meiosis in most sexually reproducing organisms. In budding yeast, and most likely in other organisms as well, meiotic recombination proceeds via the formation and repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). These breaks appear to be formed by the Spo11 protein, with assistance from a large number of other gene products, by a topoisomerase-like transesterase mechanism. Recent studies in fission yeast, multicellular fungi, flies, worms, plants, and mammals indicate that the role of Spo11 in meiotic recombination initiation is highly conserved. This chapter reviews the properties of Spo11 and the other gene products required for meiotic DSB formation in a number of organisms and discusses ways in which recombination initiation is coordinated with other events occurring in the meiotic cell.

DNA mismatch repair defects: role in colorectal carcinogenesis

The inactivation of the DNA mismah repair (MMR) system, which is associated with the predisposition to the hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), has also been documented in nearly 20% of the sporadic colorectal cancers. These tumors are characterized by a high frequency of microsatellite instability (MSI(+) phenotype), resulting from the accumulation of small insertions or deletions that frequently arise during replication of these short repeated sequences. A germline mutation of one of the two major MMR genes (hMSH2 or hMLH1) is found in half to two-thirds of the patients with HNPCC, whereas in sporadic cases hypermethylation of the hMLH1 promoter is the major cause of the MMR defect. Germline mutations in hMSH6 are rare and rather confer predisposition to late-onset familial colorectal cancer, and frequent extracolonic tumors. Yet, the genetic background of a number of HNPCC patients remains unexplained, indicating that other genes participate in MMR and play important roles in cancer susceptibility. The tumor-suppressor genes that are potential targets for the MSI-driven mutations because they contain hypermutable repeated sequences are likely to contribute to the etiology and tissue specificity of the MSI-associated carcinogenesis. Because the prognosis and the chemosensitivity of the MSI(+) colorectal tumors differ from those without instability, the determination of the MSI phenotype is expected to improve the clinical management of patients. This review gives an overview of various aspects of the biochemistry and genetics of the DNA mismah repair system, with particular emphasis in its role in colorectal carcinogenesis.

Regulation of meiotic recombination and prophase I progression in mammals

Meiosis is the process by which diploid germ cells divide to produce haploid gametes for sexual reproduction. The process is highly conserved in eukaryotes, however the recent availability of mouse models for meiotic recombination has revealed surprising regulatory differences between simple unicellular organisms and those with increasingly complex genomes. Moreover, in these higher eukaryotes, the intervention of physiological and sex-specific factors may also influence how meiotic recombination and progression are monitored and regulated. This review will focus on the recent studies involving mouse mutants for meiosis, and will highlight important differences between traditional model systems for meiosis (such as yeast) and those involving more complex cellular, physiological and genetic criteria.

The budding yeast Msh4 protein functions in chromosome synapsis and the regulation of crossover distribution

The budding yeast MSH4 gene encodes a MutS homolog produced specifically in meiotic cells. Msh4 is not required for meiotic mismatch repair or gene conversion, but it is required for wild-type levels of crossing over. Here, we show that a msh4 null mutation substantially decreases crossover interference. With respect to the defect in interference and the level of crossing over, msh4 is similar to the zip1 mutant, which lacks a structural component of the synaptonemal complex (SC). Furthermore, epistasis tests indicate that msh4 and zip1 affect the same subset of meiotic crossovers. In the msh4 mutant, SC formation is delayed compared to wild type, and full synapsis is achieved in only about half of all nuclei. The simultaneous defects in synapsis and interference observed in msh4 (and also zip1 and ndj1/tam1) suggest a role for the SC in mediating interference. The Msh4 protein localizes to discrete foci on meiotic chromosomes and colocalizes with Zip2, a protein involved in the initiation of chromosome synapsis. Both Zip2 and Zip1 are required for the normal localization of Msh4 to chromosomes, raising the possibility that the zip1 and zip2 defects in crossing over are indirect, resulting from the failure to localize Msh4 properly.

Telomere dysfunction triggers developmentally regulated germ cell apoptosis

Telomere dysfunction results in fertility defects in a number of organisms. Although data from fission yeast and Caenorhabditis elegans suggests that telomere dysfunction manifests itself primarily as defects in proper meiotic chromosome segregation, it is unclear how mammalian telomere dysfunction results in germ cell death. To investigate the specific effects of telomere dysfunction on mammalian germ cell development, we examined the meiotic progression and germ cell apoptosis in late generation telomerase null mice. Our results indicate that chromosome asynapsis and missegregation are not the cause of infertility in mice with shortened telomeres. Rather, telomere dysfunction is recognized at the onset of meiosis, and cells with telomeric defects are removed from the germ cell precursor pool. This germ cell telomere surveillance may be an important mechanism to protect against the transmission of dysfunctional telomeres and chromosomal abnormalities.

Expression of genes involved in mammalian meiosis during the transition from egg to embryo

The ooplasm of higher eukaryotes provides substances necessary for completing the last stages of meiosis and initiating the first mitotic division. These processes are firmly attuned to other events in the egg and newly formed embryo, such as switching from the use of maternal transcripts to the onset of zygotic transcription. In mammals little is known about the molecular mechanisms guiding this transition, largely due to the lack of information about genes expressed in the egg and early embryos. Studies of yeast mitosis have contributed much of what is known about the vertebrate cell cycle, and recent reports indicate that homologs of yeast DNA repair genes also function during mammalian gametogenesis. To examine whether this conservation can be expanded to include genes operative in oocyte meiosis, we performed a computer-based search for homologs of yeast genes that are induced during sporulation in C. elegans, Drosophila, and mammals. Results from this study suggest that yeast and higher eukaryotes share genes that coordinate the overall process of meiosis. However intriguing differences exist, reflecting the distinctive mechanisms governing the progression of meiosis in each organism. ESTs representing more than half of the mammalian homologs are present in mouse cDNA libraries that contains genes controlling the meiosis/mitosis transition. About 50% of these genes contain potential cis-elements for cytoplasmic polyadenylation in their 3'-UTR, suggesting the importance of controlled translation in the egg and zygote.

Checkpoint and DNA-repair proteins are associated with the cores of mammalian meiotic chromosomes

Meiotic checkpoints are manifested through protein complexes capable of detecting an abnormality in chromosome metabolism and signaling it to effector molecules that subsequently delay or arrest the progression of meiosis. Some checkpoints act during the first meiotic prophase to monitor the repair of chromosomal DSBs, predominantly by meiotic recombination, or to ensure the correct establishment of synapsis and its well-timed dissolution. In mammals, a number of checkpoint and repair proteins localize to the meiotic chromosomal cores, sometimes in the context of the synaptonemal complex (SC). Here we discuss possible functions of these proteins in the accomplishment of meiotic recombination and normal progression of the meiotic pathway. Also, we present arguments for a structural role of cores and SCs in the assembly of the repair and checkpoint protein complexes on the chromosomes.

Control of spermatogenesis in mice by the cyclin D-dependent kinase inhibitors p18(Ink4c) and p19(Ink4d)

Male mice lacking both the Ink4c and Ink4d genes, which encode two inhibitors of D-type cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks), are infertile, whereas female fecundity is unaffected. Both p18(Ink4c) and p19(Ink4d) are expressed in the seminiferous tubules of postnatal wild-type mice, being largely confined to postmitotic spermatocytes undergoing meiosis. Their combined loss is associated with the delayed exit of spermatogonia from the mitotic cell cycle, leading to the retarded appearance of meiotic cells that do not properly differentiate and instead undergo apoptosis at an increased frequency. As a result, mice lacking both Ink4c and Ink4d produce few mature sperm, and the residual spermatozoa have reduced motility and decreased viability. Whether or not Ink4d is present, animals lacking Ink4c develop hyperplasia of interstitial testicular Leydig cells, which produce reduced levels of testosterone. The anterior pituitary of fertile mice lacking Ink4c or infertile mice doubly deficient for Ink4c and Ink4d produces normal levels of luteinizing hormone (LH). Therefore, the failure of Leydig cells to produce testosterone is not secondary to defects in LH production, and reduced testosterone levels do not account for infertility in the doubly deficient strain. By contrast, Ink4d-null or double-null mice produce elevated levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Because Ink4d-null mice are fertile, increased FSH production by the anterior pituitary is also unlikely to contribute to the sterility observed in Ink4c/Ink4d double-null males. Our data indicate that p18(Ink4c) and p19(Ink4d) are essential for male fertility. These two Cdk inhibitors collaborate in regulating spermatogenesis, helping to ensure mitotic exit and the normal meiotic maturation of spermatocytes.

DNA mismatch repair and genetic instability

Mismatch repair (MMR) systems play a central role in promoting genetic stability by repairing DNA replication errors, inhibiting recombination between non-identical DNA sequences and participating in responses to DNA damage. The discovery of a link between human cancer and MMR defects has led to an explosion of research on eukaryotic MMR. The key proteins in MMR are highly conserved from bacteria to mammals, and this conservation has been critical for defining the components of eukaryotic MMR systems. In eukaryotes, there are multiple homologs of the key bacterial MutS and MutL MMR proteins, and these homologs form heterodimers that have discrete roles in MMR-related processes. This review describes the genetic and biochemical approaches used to study MMR, and summarizes the diverse roles that MMR proteins play in maintaining genetic stability.

Recombinational DNA double-strand breaks in mice precede synapsis

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, meiotic recombination is initiated by Spo11-dependent double-strand breaks (DSBs), a process that precedes homologous synapsis. Here we use an antibody specific for a phosphorylated histone (gamma-H2AX, which marks the sites of DSBs) to investigate the timing, distribution and Spo11-dependence of meiotic DSBs in the mouse. We show that, as in yeast, recombination in the mouse is initiated by Spo11-dependent DSBs that form during leptotene. Loss of gamma-H2AX staining (which in irradiated somatic cells is temporally linked with DSB repair) is temporally and spatially correlated with synapsis, even when this synapsis is 'non-homologous'.

Human DNA repair genes

DNA repair systems are essential for the maintenance of genome integrity. Consequently, the disregulation of repair genes can be expected to be associated with significant, detrimental health effects, which can include an increased prevalence of birth defects, an enhancement of cancer risk, and an accelerated rate of aging. Although original insights into DNA repair and the genes responsible were largely derived from studies in bacteria and yeast, well over 125 genes directly involved in DNA repair have now been identified in humans, and their cDNA sequence established. These genes function in a diverse set of pathways that involve the recognition and removal of DNA lesions, tolerance to DNA damage, and protection from errors of incorporation made during DNA replication or DNA repair. Additional genes indirectly affect DNA repair, by regulating the cell cycle, ostensibly to provide an opportunity for repair or to direct the cell to apoptosis. For about 70 of the DNA repair genes listed in Table I, both the genomic DNA sequence and the cDNA sequence and chromosomal location have been elucidated. In 45 cases single-nucleotide polymorphisms have been identified and, in some cases, genetic variants have been associated with specific disorders. With the accelerating rate of gene discovery, the number of identified DNA repair genes and sequence variants is quickly rising. This report tabulates the current status of what is known about these genes. The report is limited to genes whose function is directly related to DNA repair.

The core meiotic transcriptome in budding yeasts

We used high-density oligonucleotide microarrays to analyse the genomes and meiotic expression patterns of two yeast strains, SK1 and W303, that display distinct kinetics and efficiencies of sporulation. Hybridization of genomic DNA to arrays revealed numerous gene deletions and polymorphisms in both backgrounds. The expression analysis yielded approximately 1,600 meiotically regulated genes in each strain, with a core set of approximately 60% displaying similar patterns in both strains. Most of these (95%) are MATa/MATalpha-dependent and are not similarly expressed in near-isogenic meiosis-deficient controls. The transcript profiles correlate with the distribution of defined meiotic promoter elements and with the time of known gene function.

The mouse Spo11 gene is required for meiotic chromosome synapsis

The Spo11 protein initiates meiotic recombination by generating DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and is required for meiotic synapsis in S. cerevisiae. Surprisingly, Spo11 homologs are dispensable for synapsis in C. elegans and Drosophila yet required for meiotic recombination. Disruption of mouse Spo11 results in infertility. Spermatocytes arrest prior to pachytene with little or no synapsis and undergo apoptosis. We did not detect Rad51/Dmc1 foci in meiotic chromosome spreads, indicating DSBs are not formed. Cisplatin-induced DSBs restored Rad51/Dmc1 foci and promoted synapsis. Spo11 localizes to discrete foci during leptotene and to homologously synapsed chromosomes. Other mouse mutants that arrest during meiotic prophase (Atm -/-, Dmc1 -/-, mei1, and Morc(-/-)) showed altered Spo11 protein localization and expression. We speculate that there is an additional role for Spo11, after it generates DSBs, in synapsis.

Chromosome synapsis defects and sexually dimorphic meiotic progression in mice lacking Spo11

Spo11, a protein first identified in yeast, is thought to generate the chromosome breaks that initiate meiotic recombination. We now report that disruption of mouse Spo11 leads to severe gonadal abnormalities from defective meiosis. Spermatocytes suffer apoptotic death during early prophase; oocytes reach the diplotene/dictyate stage in nearly normal numbers, but most die soon after birth. Consistent with a conserved function in initiating meiotic recombination, Dmc1/Rad51 focus formation is abolished. Spo11(-/-) meiocytes also display homologous chromosome synapsis defects, similar to fungi but distinct from flies and nematodes. We propose that recombination initiation precedes and is required for normal synapsis in mammals. Our results also support the view that mammalian checkpoint responses to meiotic recombination and/or synapsis defects are sexually dimorphic.

FIGalpha, a germ cell-specific transcription factor required for ovarian follicle formation

Primordial follicles are formed perinatally in mammalian ovaries and at birth represent the lifetime complement of germ cells. With cyclic periodicity, cohorts enter into a growth phase that culminates in ovulation of mature eggs, but little is known about the regulatory cascades that govern these events. FIGalpha, a transcription factor implicated in postnatal oocyte-specific gene expression, is detected as early as embryonic day 13. Mouse lines lacking FIGalpha were established by targeted mutagenesis in embryonic stem cells. Although embryonic gonadogenesis appeared normal, primordial follicles were not formed at birth, and massive depletion of oocytes resulted in shrunken ovaries and female sterility. Fig(α) (the gene for FIGalpha null males have normal fertility. The additional observation that null females do not express Zp1, Zp2 or Zp3 indicates that FIGalpha plays a key regulatory role in the expression of multiple oocyte-specific genes, including those that initiate folliculogenesis and those that encode the zona pellucida required for fertilization and early embryonic survival. The persistence of FIGalpha in adult females suggests that it may regulate additional pathways that are essential for normal ovarian development.