251
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Kulminski AM, Philipp I, Loika Y, He L, Culminskaya I. Haplotype architecture of the Alzheimer's risk in the APOE region via co-skewness. ALZHEIMER'S & DEMENTIA (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2020; 12:e12129. [PMID: 33204816 PMCID: PMC7656174 DOI: 10.1002/dad2.12129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION As a multifactorial polygenic disorder, Alzheimer's disease (AD) can be associated with complex haplotypes or compound genotypes. METHODS We examined associations of 4960 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) triples, comprising 32 SNPs from five genes in the apolipoprotein E gene (APOE) region with AD in a sample of 2789 AD-affected and 16,334 unaffected subjects. RESULTS We identified a large number of 1127 AD-associated triples, comprising SNPs from all five genes, in support of definitive roles of complex haplotypes in predisposition to AD. These haplotypes may not include the APOE ε4 and ε2 alleles. For triples with rs429358 or rs7412, which encode these alleles, AD is characterized mainly by strengthening connections of the ε4 allele and weakening connections of the ε2 allele with the other alleles in this region. DISCUSSION Dissecting heterogeneity attributed to AD-associated complex haplotypes in the APOE region will target more homogeneous polygenic profiles of people at high risk of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M. Kulminski
- Biodemography of Aging Research UnitSocial Science Research InstituteDuke UniversityDurhamNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Ian Philipp
- Biodemography of Aging Research UnitSocial Science Research InstituteDuke UniversityDurhamNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Yury Loika
- Biodemography of Aging Research UnitSocial Science Research InstituteDuke UniversityDurhamNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Liang He
- Biodemography of Aging Research UnitSocial Science Research InstituteDuke UniversityDurhamNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Irina Culminskaya
- Biodemography of Aging Research UnitSocial Science Research InstituteDuke UniversityDurhamNorth CarolinaUSA
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252
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Emrani S, Arain HA, DeMarshall C, Nuriel T. APOE4 is associated with cognitive and pathological heterogeneity in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2020; 12:141. [PMID: 33148345 PMCID: PMC7643479 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-020-00712-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Possession of the ε4 allele of apolipoprotein E (APOE) is the primary genetic risk factor for the sporadic form of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). While researchers have extensively characterized the impact that APOE ε4 (APOE4) has on the susceptibility of AD, far fewer studies have investigated the phenotypic differences of patients with AD who are APOE4 carriers vs. those who are non-carriers. In order to understand these differences, we performed a qualitative systematic literature review of the reported cognitive and pathological differences between APOE4-positive (APOE4+) vs. APOE4-negative (APOE4−) AD patients. The studies performed on this topic to date suggest that APOE4 is not only an important mediator of AD susceptibility, but that it likely confers specific phenotypic heterogeneity in AD presentation, as well. Specifically, APOE4+ AD patients appear to possess more tau accumulation and brain atrophy in the medial temporal lobe, resulting in greater memory impairment, compared to APOE4− AD patients. On the other hand, APOE4− AD patients appear to possess more tau accumulation and brain atrophy in the frontal and parietal lobes, resulting in greater impairment in executive function, visuospatial abilities, and language, compared to APOE4+ AD patients. Although more work is necessary to validate and interrogate these findings, these initial observations of pathological and cognitive heterogeneity between APOE4+ vs. APOE4− AD patients suggest that there is a fundamental divergence in AD manifestation related to APOE genotype, which may have important implications in regard to the therapeutic treatment of these two patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheina Emrani
- Department of Psychology, Rowan University, 201 Mullica Hill Road, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
| | - Hirra A Arain
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA.,Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Cassandra DeMarshall
- Department of Geriatrics and Gerontology, Rowan University School of Osteopathic Medicine, One Medical Center Drive, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA
| | - Tal Nuriel
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA. .,Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA.
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253
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Li Z, Shue F, Zhao N, Shinohara M, Bu G. APOE2: protective mechanism and therapeutic implications for Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:63. [PMID: 33148290 PMCID: PMC7640652 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00413-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Investigations of apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene, the major genetic risk modifier for Alzheimer's disease (AD), have yielded significant insights into the pathogenic mechanism. Among the three common coding variants, APOE*ε4 increases, whereas APOE*ε2 decreases the risk of late-onset AD compared with APOE*ε3. Despite increased understanding of the detrimental effect of APOE*ε4, it remains unclear how APOE*ε2 confers protection against AD. Accumulating evidence suggests that APOE*ε2 protects against AD through both amyloid-β (Aβ)-dependent and independent mechanisms. In addition, APOE*ε2 has been identified as a longevity gene, suggesting a systemic effect of APOE*ε2 on the aging process. However, APOE*ε2 is not entirely benign; APOE*ε2 carriers exhibit increased risk of certain cerebrovascular diseases and neurological disorders. Here, we review evidence from both human and animal studies demonstrating the protective effect of APOE*ε2 against AD and propose a working model depicting potential underlying mechanisms. Finally, we discuss potential therapeutic strategies designed to leverage the protective effect of APOE2 to treat AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zonghua Li
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Francis Shue
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Na Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Mitsuru Shinohara
- Department of Aging Neurobiology, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, 7-430 Morioka, Obu, Aichi, 474-8511, Japan.
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
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254
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Franzmeier N, Suárez-Calvet M, Frontzkowski L, Moore A, Hohman TJ, Morenas-Rodriguez E, Nuscher B, Shaw L, Trojanowski JQ, Dichgans M, Kleinberger G, Haass C, Ewers M. Higher CSF sTREM2 attenuates ApoE4-related risk for cognitive decline and neurodegeneration. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:57. [PMID: 33032659 PMCID: PMC7545547 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00407-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Apolipoprotein E ε4 allele (i.e. ApoE4) is the strongest genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD). TREM2 (i.e. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2) is a microglial transmembrane protein brain that plays a central role in microglia activation in response to AD brain pathologies. Whether higher TREM2-related microglia activity modulates the risk to develop clinical AD is an open question. Thus, the aim of the current study was to assess whether higher sTREM2 attenuates the effects of ApoE4-effects on future cognitive decline and neurodegeneration. Methods We included 708 subjects ranging from cognitively normal (CN, n = 221) to mild cognitive impairment (MCI, n = 414) and AD dementia (n = 73) from the Alzheimer’s disease Neuroimaging Initiative. We used linear regression to test the interaction between ApoE4-carriage by CSF-assessed sTREM2 levels as a predictor of longitudinally assessed cognitive decline and MRI-assessed changes in hippocampal volume changes (mean follow-up of 4 years, range of 1.7-7 years). Results Across the entire sample, we found that higher CSF sTREM2 at baseline was associated with attenuated effects of ApoE4-carriage (i.e. sTREM2 x ApoE4 interaction) on longitudinal global cognitive (p = 0.001, Cohen’s f2 = 0.137) and memory decline (p = 0.006, Cohen’s f2 = 0.104) as well as longitudinally assessed hippocampal atrophy (p = 0.046, Cohen’s f2 = 0.089), independent of CSF markers of primary AD pathology (i.e. Aβ1–42, p-tau181). While overall effects of sTREM2 were small, exploratory subanalyses stratified by diagnostic groups showed that beneficial effects of sTREM2 were pronounced in the MCI group. Conclusion Our results suggest that a higher CSF sTREM2 levels are associated with attenuated ApoE4-related risk for future cognitive decline and AD-typical neurodegeneration. These findings provide further evidence that TREM2 may be protective against the development of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolai Franzmeier
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University (LMU), Munich, Germany.
| | - M Suárez-Calvet
- Barcelonaβeta Brain Research Center (BBRC), Pasqual Maragall Foundation, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Servei de Neurologia, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lukas Frontzkowski
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Annah Moore
- Vanderbilt Memory & Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, USA
| | - Timothy J Hohman
- Vanderbilt Memory & Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, USA
| | - Estrella Morenas-Rodriguez
- Chair of Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Center (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Brigitte Nuscher
- Chair of Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Center (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Leslie Shaw
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Institute on Aging, Perelman School of Medicine University, Philadelphia, USA
| | - John Q Trojanowski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Martin Dichgans
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University (LMU), Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany
| | | | - Christian Haass
- Chair of Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Center (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany
| | - Michael Ewers
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University (LMU), Munich, Germany. .,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany.
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255
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Diniz Pereira J, Gomes Fraga V, Morais Santos AL, Carvalho MDG, Caramelli P, Braga Gomes K. Alzheimer's disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review of proteomic studies. J Neurochem 2020; 156:753-776. [PMID: 32909269 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Similar to dementia, the risk for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) increases with age, and T2DM also increases the risk for dementia, particularly Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although T2DM is primarily a peripheral disorder and AD is a central nervous system disease, both share some common features as they are chronic and complex diseases, and both show involvement of oxidative stress and inflammation in their progression. These characteristics suggest that T2DM may be associated with AD, which gave rise to a new term, type 3 diabetes (T3DM). In this study, we searched for matching peripheral proteomic biomarkers of AD and T2DM based in a systematic review of the available literature. We identified 17 common biomarkers that were differentially expressed in both patients with AD or T2DM when compared with healthy controls. These biomarkers could provide a useful workflow for screening T2DM patients at risk to develop AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Diniz Pereira
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Gomes Fraga
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Anna Luiza Morais Santos
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Maria das Graças Carvalho
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Paulo Caramelli
- Departamento de Clínica Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Karina Braga Gomes
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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256
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Henson RN, Suri S, Knights E, Rowe JB, Kievit RA, Lyall DM, Chan D, Eising E, Fisher SE. Effect of apolipoprotein E polymorphism on cognition and brain in the Cambridge Centre for Ageing and Neuroscience cohort. Brain Neurosci Adv 2020; 4:2398212820961704. [PMID: 33088920 PMCID: PMC7545750 DOI: 10.1177/2398212820961704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Polymorphisms in the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene have been associated with individual differences in cognition, brain structure and brain function. For example, the ε4 allele has been associated with cognitive and brain impairment in old age and increased risk of dementia, while the ε2 allele has been claimed to be neuroprotective. According to the ‘antagonistic pleiotropy’ hypothesis, these polymorphisms have different effects across the lifespan, with ε4, for example, postulated to confer benefits on cognitive and brain functions earlier in life. In this stage 2 of the Registered Report – https://osf.io/bufc4, we report the results from the cognitive and brain measures in the Cambridge Centre for Ageing and Neuroscience cohort (www.cam-can.org). We investigated the antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis by testing for allele-by-age interactions in approximately 600 people across the adult lifespan (18–88 years), on six outcome variables related to cognition, brain structure and brain function (namely, fluid intelligence, verbal memory, hippocampal grey-matter volume, mean diffusion within white matter and resting-state connectivity measured by both functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography). We found no evidence to support the antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis. Indeed, Bayes factors supported the null hypothesis in all cases, except for the (linear) interaction between age and possession of the ε4 allele on fluid intelligence, for which the evidence for faster decline in older ages was ambiguous. Overall, these pre-registered analyses question the antagonistic pleiotropy of APOE polymorphisms, at least in healthy adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard N Henson
- MRC Cognition & Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sana Suri
- Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ethan Knights
- MRC Cognition & Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - James B Rowe
- MRC Cognition & Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Rogier A Kievit
- MRC Cognition & Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Donald M Lyall
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Dennis Chan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
| | - Else Eising
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Simon E Fisher
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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257
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Sierksma A, Escott-Price V, De Strooper B. Translating genetic risk of Alzheimer’s disease into mechanistic insight and drug targets. Science 2020; 370:61-66. [DOI: 10.1126/science.abb8575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
To provide better prevention and treatment, we need to understand the environmental and genetic risks of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, the definition of AD has been confounded with dementia in many studies. Thus, overinterpretation of genetic findings with regard to mechanisms and drug targets may explain, in part, controversies in the field. Here, we analyze the different forms of genetic risk of AD and how these can be used to model disease. We stress the importance of studying gene variants in the right cell types and in the right pathological context. The lack of mechanistic understanding of genetic variation has become the major bottleneck in the search for new drug targets for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annerieke Sierksma
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
| | - Valentina Escott-Price
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, UK
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258
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Sasaki T, Nishimoto Y, Abe Y, Takayama M, Hirose N, Okano H, Arai Y. Sex-Specific Effects of Apolipoprotein ε4 Allele on Mortality in Very Old and Centenarian Japanese Men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2020; 75:1874-1879. [PMID: 31603980 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glz242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The apolipoprotein E4 (APOE ε4) allele has attracted attention as an age-related genetic factor, both in neurology and gerontology. To understand the effects of the APOE ε4 allele on mortality in elderly individuals, we combined Japanese prospective cohort studies comprising 535 very old individuals (85-99 years of age) and 930 centenarians (over 100 years of age) and analyzed the association between mortality rates and candidate factors, including the APOE ε4 allele. APOE genotyping revealed an inverse correlation between the APOE ε4 allele carrier rate and age. Additionally, APOE ε4 allele carrier rate in centenarian men was significantly lower than that in centenarian women. The association analysis between APOE ε4 allele carriers and all-cause mortality indicated that APOE ε4 carriers showed significantly higher mortality rates than the APOE ε4 noncarriers among men in the very old group. Further analysis using Cox proportional hazard models indicated that cause-specific mortalities, including pneumonia and severe dementia, were associated with APOE ε4 carriers. These findings indicate that the APOE ε4 allele shows phenotypic male-specific adverse effects in the very old, which would explain the high mortality rate observed in this group, resulting in a low APOE ε4 allele carrier rate in centenarian men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Sasaki
- Center for Supercentenarian Medical Research, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Yukiko Abe
- Center for Supercentenarian Medical Research, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Michiyo Takayama
- Center for Supercentenarian Medical Research, Tokyo, Japan.,Center for Preventive Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Hideyuki Okano
- Center for Supercentenarian Medical Research, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasumichi Arai
- Center for Supercentenarian Medical Research, Tokyo, Japan
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259
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Shea JM, Villeda SA. Dampening the Power of the Brain-When Aging Meets Cognition. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2020; 75:1607-1608. [PMID: 32936914 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glaa170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M Shea
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco
| | - Saul A Villeda
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco.,The Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, San Francisco, California
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260
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Young JK. Neurogenesis Makes a Crucial Contribution to the Neuropathology of Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2020; 4:365-371. [PMID: 33163897 PMCID: PMC7592839 DOI: 10.3233/adr-200218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
One unexplained feature of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is that the lateral entorhinal cortex undergoes neurodegeneration before other brain areas. However, this brain region does not have elevated levels of amyloid peptides in comparison with undamaged regions. What is the cause of this special vulnerability of the entorhinal cortex? One special feature of the lateral entorhinal cortex is that it projects to newborn neurons that have undergone adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Neurogenesis is abnormal in human AD brains, and modulation of neurogenesis in experimental animals influences the course of AD. This complex process of neurogenesis may expose axon terminals originating from neurons of the entorhinal cortex to a unique combination of molecules that can enhance toxic effects of amyloid. Retrograde degeneration of neurons with axons terminating in the dentate gyrus provides a likely explanation for the spatial patterns of neuronal cell death seen in AD. Specialized astrocytes in the dentate gyrus participate in adult neurogenesis and produce fatty acid binding protein7 (FABP7). These FABP7+ cells undergo an aging-related mitochondrial pathology that likely impairs their functions. This age-related abnormality may contribute to the impairment in neurogenesis seen in aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Also, a compromised function of these astrocytes likely results in local elevations of palmitic acid, iron, copper, and glucose, which all enhance the toxicity of amyloid peptides. Treatments that modulate neurogenesis or diminish the production of these toxic substances may prove more successful than treatments that are solely aimed at reducing the amyloid burden alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- John K Young
- Professor Emeritus, Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
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261
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Gavrilova SI, Alvarez A. Cerebrolysin in the therapy of mild cognitive impairment and dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: 30 years of clinical use. Med Res Rev 2020; 41:2775-2803. [PMID: 32808294 DOI: 10.1002/med.21722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurocognitive disorder and a global health problem. The prevalence of AD is growing dramatically, especially in low- and middle-income countries, and will reach 131.5 million cases worldwide by 2050. Therefore, developing a disease-modifying therapy capable of delaying or even preventing the onset and progression of AD has become a world priority, and is an unmet need. The pathogenesis of AD, considered as the result of an imbalance between resilience and risk factors, begins many years before the typical clinical picture develops and involves multiple pathophysiological mechanisms. Since the pathophysiology of AD is multifactorial, it is not surprising that all attempts done to modify the disease course with drugs directed towards a single therapeutic target have been unsuccessful. Thus, combined modality therapy, using multiple drugs with a single mechanism of action or multi-target drugs, appears as the most promising strategy for both effective AD therapy and prevention. Cerebrolysin, acting as a multitarget peptidergic drug with a neurotrophic mode of action, exerts long-lasting therapeutic effects on AD that could reflect its potential utility for disease modification. Clinical trials demonstrated that Cerebrolysin is safe and efficacious in the treatment of AD, and may enhance and prolong the efficacy of cholinergic drugs, particularly in moderate to advanced AD patients. In this review, we summarize advances of therapeutic relevance in the pathogenesis and the biomarkers of AD, paying special attention to neurotrophic factors, and present results of preclinical and clinical investigations with Cerebrolysin in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana I Gavrilova
- Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, Cognitive Disorders and Alzheimer's Disease Unit, Mental Health Research Center, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anton Alvarez
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Medinova Institute of Neurosciences, Clinica RehaSalud, A Coruña, Spain.,Clinical Research Department, QPS Holdings, A Coruña, Spain
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262
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Koychev I, Hofer M, Friedman N. Correlation of Alzheimer Disease Neuropathologic Staging with Amyloid and Tau Scintigraphic Imaging Biomarkers. J Nucl Med 2020; 61:1413-1418. [PMID: 32764121 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.119.230458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
PET neuroimaging of amyloid-β (Aβ) provides an in vivo biomarker for pathologic changes associated with Alzheimer disease (AD). Aβ-targeted agents have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration, with additional agents, most notably targeting tau, currently under clinical investigation and one approved in May 2020. These agents, along with nonscintigraphic biomarkers from blood and cerebrospinal fluid, have provided an opportunity to investigate the pathogenesis, prodromal changes, and time course of the disease in living individuals. The current understanding is that the neuropathologic changes of the AD continuum begin up to 25 y before the onset of clinical symptomatology. The opportunities afforded by in vivo biomarkers of AD, whether by serum, cerebrospinal fluid examination or PET, have transformed the design of AD therapeutic trials by shifting focus to the preclinical stages of disease. Future disease-modifying therapies, should they be forthcoming, will rely heavily on the use of approved biomarkers or biomarkers currently under investigation to confirm the presence of target pathology. Understanding the progressive neuropathologic changes that occur in AD-and how scintigraphic findings relate to these changes-will help the interpreting physician to fully appreciate the implications of the scintigraphic findings and provide a basis to interpret the examinations. The recently adopted National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer Association guidelines define postmortem AD neuropathologic changes as a composite score based on 3 elements. These elements are the extent of involvement (spread) by cerebral Aβ based on the progression model defined by the Thal Aβ phases, the extent of involvement (spread) by neurofibrillary tangles (composed of hyperphosphorylated tau proteins) based on the progression model defined by Braak, and the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease score, which describes the density of neuritic plaques based on certain key locations in the neocortex. This paper will review the 3 elements that define the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association scoring system and discusses current evidence on how these elements relate to findings based on Aβ and tau PET scintigraphy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Koychev
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Monika Hofer
- Department of Neuropathology, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, United Kingdom; and
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263
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Saddiki H, Fayosse A, Cognat E, Sabia S, Engelborghs S, Wallon D, Alexopoulos P, Blennow K, Zetterberg H, Parnetti L, Zerr I, Hermann P, Gabelle A, Boada M, Orellana A, de Rojas I, Lilamand M, Bjerke M, Van Broeckhoven C, Farotti L, Salvadori N, Diehl-Schmid J, Grimmer T, Hourregue C, Dugravot A, Nicolas G, Laplanche JL, Lehmann S, Bouaziz-Amar E, Hugon J, Tzourio C, Singh-Manoux A, Paquet C, Dumurgier J. Age and the association between apolipoprotein E genotype and Alzheimer disease: A cerebrospinal fluid biomarker-based case-control study. PLoS Med 2020; 17:e1003289. [PMID: 32817639 PMCID: PMC7446786 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ε4 allele of apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene and increasing age are two of the most important known risk factors for developing Alzheimer disease (AD). The diagnosis of AD based on clinical symptoms alone is known to have poor specificity; recently developed diagnostic criteria based on biomarkers that reflect underlying AD neuropathology allow better assessment of the strength of the associations of risk factors with AD. Accordingly, we examined the global and age-specific association between APOE genotype and AD by using the A/T/N classification, relying on the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of β-amyloid peptide (A, β-amyloid deposition), phosphorylated tau (T, pathologic tau), and total tau (N, neurodegeneration) to identify patients with AD. METHODS AND FINDINGS This case-control study included 1,593 white AD cases (55.4% women; mean age 72.8 [range = 44-96] years) with abnormal values of CSF biomarkers from nine European memory clinics and the American Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) study. A total of 11,723 dementia-free controls (47.1% women; mean age 65.6 [range = 44-94] years) were drawn from two longitudinal cohort studies (Whitehall II and Three-City), in which incident cases of dementia over the follow-up were excluded from the control population. Odds ratio (OR) and population attributable fraction (PAF) for AD associated with APOE genotypes were determined, overall and by 5-year age categories. In total, 63.4% of patients with AD and 22.6% of population controls carried at least one APOE ε4 allele. Compared with non-ε4 carriers, heterozygous ε4 carriers had a 4.6 (95% confidence interval 4.1-5.2; p < 0.001) and ε4/ε4 homozygotes a 25.4 (20.4-31.2; p < 0.001) higher OR of AD in unadjusted analysis. This association was modified by age (p for interaction < 0.001). The PAF associated with carrying at least one ε4 allele was greatest in the 65-70 age group (69.7%) and weaker before 55 years (14.2%) and after 85 years (22.6%). The protective effect of APOE ε2 allele for AD was unaffected by age. Main study limitations are that analyses were based on white individuals and AD cases were drawn from memory centers, which may not be representative of the general population of patients with AD. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we found that AD diagnosis based on biomarkers was associated with APOE ε4 carrier status, with a higher OR than previously reported from studies based on only clinical AD criteria. This association differs according to age, with the strongest effect at 65-70 years. These findings highlight the need for early interventions for dementia prevention to mitigate the effect of APOE ε4 at the population level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Saddiki
- Université de Paris, Inserm U1153, Epidemiology of Ageing and Neurodegenerative diseases, Paris, France
| | - Aurore Fayosse
- Université de Paris, Inserm U1153, Epidemiology of Ageing and Neurodegenerative diseases, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Cognat
- Cognitive Neurology Center, Lariboisiere—Fernand Widal Hospital, AP-HP, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Séverine Sabia
- Université de Paris, Inserm U1153, Epidemiology of Ageing and Neurodegenerative diseases, Paris, France
| | - Sebastiaan Engelborghs
- Department of Neurology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - David Wallon
- Inserm U1245, Rouen University Hospital, Department of Neurology and CNR-MAJ, Normandy Center for Genomic and Personalized Medicine, Rouen, France
| | - Panagiotis Alexopoulos
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Faculty of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, Institute of Neurology, University College London, UK Dementia Research Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lucilla Parnetti
- Center for Memory Disturbances-Lab of Clinical Neurochemistry, Section of Neurology, University of Perugia, Italy
| | - Inga Zerr
- Department of Neurology, Clinical Dementia Center, University Medical Center Göttingen and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Peter Hermann
- Department of Neurology, Clinical Dementia Center, University Medical Center Göttingen and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Audrey Gabelle
- Department of Neurology, Memory Research and Resources Centre, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Mercè Boada
- Research Center and Memory Clinic, Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurciències Aplicades, Universitat International de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Adelina Orellana
- Research Center and Memory Clinic, Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurciències Aplicades, Universitat International de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Itziar de Rojas
- Research Center and Memory Clinic, Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurciències Aplicades, Universitat International de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Matthieu Lilamand
- Cognitive Neurology Center, Lariboisiere—Fernand Widal Hospital, AP-HP, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Maria Bjerke
- VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, Institute Born-Bunge and Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Christine Van Broeckhoven
- VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, Institute Born-Bunge and Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Lucia Farotti
- Center for Memory Disturbances-Lab of Clinical Neurochemistry, Section of Neurology, University of Perugia, Italy
| | - Nicola Salvadori
- Center for Memory Disturbances-Lab of Clinical Neurochemistry, Section of Neurology, University of Perugia, Italy
| | - Janine Diehl-Schmid
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Faculty of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Timo Grimmer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Faculty of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Claire Hourregue
- Cognitive Neurology Center, Lariboisiere—Fernand Widal Hospital, AP-HP, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Aline Dugravot
- Université de Paris, Inserm U1153, Epidemiology of Ageing and Neurodegenerative diseases, Paris, France
| | - Gaël Nicolas
- Inserm U1245, Rouen University Hospital, Department of Neurology and CNR-MAJ, Normandy Center for Genomic and Personalized Medicine, Rouen, France
| | - Jean-Louis Laplanche
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Lariboisière Hospital, APHP, Paris, France
| | - Sylvain Lehmann
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Elodie Bouaziz-Amar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Lariboisière Hospital, APHP, Paris, France
| | | | - Jacques Hugon
- Cognitive Neurology Center, Lariboisiere—Fernand Widal Hospital, AP-HP, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Tzourio
- Bordeaux Population Health Research Center, Team HEALTHY, UMR1219, University of Bordeaux, Inserm, Bordeaux, France
| | - Archana Singh-Manoux
- Université de Paris, Inserm U1153, Epidemiology of Ageing and Neurodegenerative diseases, Paris, France
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Paquet
- Cognitive Neurology Center, Lariboisiere—Fernand Widal Hospital, AP-HP, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Julien Dumurgier
- Université de Paris, Inserm U1153, Epidemiology of Ageing and Neurodegenerative diseases, Paris, France
- Cognitive Neurology Center, Lariboisiere—Fernand Widal Hospital, AP-HP, Université de Paris, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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Mounier N, Kutalik Z. bGWAS: an R package to perform Bayesian genome wide association studies. Bioinformatics 2020; 36:4374-4376. [PMID: 32470106 PMCID: PMC7520046 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btaa549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY Increasing sample size is not the only strategy to improve discovery in Genome Wide Association Studies (GWASs) and we propose here an approach that leverages published studies of related traits to improve inference. Our Bayesian GWAS method derives informative prior effects by leveraging GWASs of related risk factors and their causal effect estimates on the focal trait using multivariable Mendelian randomization. These prior effects are combined with the observed effects to yield Bayes Factors, posterior and direct effects. The approach not only increases power, but also has the potential to dissect direct and indirect biological mechanisms. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION bGWAS package is freely available under a GPL-2 License, and can be accessed, alongside with user guides and tutorials, from https://github.com/n-mounier/bGWAS. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ninon Mounier
- Department of Training, Research and Innovation, University Center for Primary Care and Public Health, Lausanne 1010, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Zoltán Kutalik
- Department of Training, Research and Innovation, University Center for Primary Care and Public Health, Lausanne 1010, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
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265
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Huang M, Wang Y, Wang L, Chen B, Wang X, Hu Y. APOE rs405509 polymorphism and Parkinson's disease risk in the Chinese population. Neurosci Lett 2020; 736:135256. [PMID: 32682842 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Revised: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder with complex etiology involving both genetic and environmental factors. Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) rs405509 (-219 T/G), a promoter SNP, controls the expression of APOE gene, and plays a modifier effect of APOE ε4 on the susceptibility of Alzheimer's disease. In this study, we investigate the association between APOE rs405509 polymorphism and the susceptibility of PD in a Chinese population. A total of 1020 subjects were collected including 510 sporadic PD patients (mean age: 63.11 ± 9.28 years) and 510 healthy control subjects (mean age: 62.97 ± 9.09 years). APOE rs405509 polymorphism was genotyped using a TaqMan genotyping method. The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) was calculated for the control group by Chi-square (χ2) test. The strength of this association between the APOE rs405509 polymorphism and PD risk was evaluated with crude odds ratios (ORs) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) using a logistic regression analysis. The T allele frequency was 0.84 and 0.70 in the PD and control groups, respectively. T allele carriers of rs405509 were associated with an increased overall risk of PD and in male subjects in the allele, recessive, and additive genetic models. Similar results in female subjects were found in the allele and recessive genetic models. In conclusion, our study suggests that the APOE rs405509 T allele is correlated with increased susceptibility of PD in a Chinese population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Huang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
| | - Lu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Brain Research of Henan Province, Sino-UK Joint Laboratory of Brain Function and Injury of Henan Province, Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, China.
| | - Bo Chen
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
| | - Xiong Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
| | - Yu Hu
- Institute of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030 China.
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266
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Gutiérrez-de Pablo V, Gómez C, Poza J, Maturana-Candelas A, Martins S, Gomes I, Lopes AM, Pinto N, Hornero R. Relationship between the Presence of the ApoE ε4 Allele and EEG Complexity along the Alzheimer's Disease Continuum. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E3849. [PMID: 32664228 PMCID: PMC7411888 DOI: 10.3390/s20143849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent cause of dementia, being considered a major health problem, especially in developed countries. Late-onset AD is the most common form of the disease, with symptoms appearing after 65 years old. Genetic determinants of AD risk are vastly unknown, though, ε 4 allele of the ApoE gene has been reported as the strongest genetic risk factor for AD. The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between brain complexity and the presence of ApoE ε 4 alleles along the AD continuum. For this purpose, resting-state electroencephalography (EEG) activity was analyzed by computing Lempel-Ziv complexity (LZC) from 46 healthy control subjects, 49 mild cognitive impairment subjects, 45 mild AD patients, 44 moderate AD patients and 33 severe AD patients, subdivided by ApoE status. Subjects with one or more ApoE ε 4 alleles were included in the carriers subgroups, whereas the ApoE ε 4 non-carriers subgroups were formed by subjects without any ε 4 allele. Our results showed that AD continuum is characterized by a progressive complexity loss. No differences were observed between AD ApoE ε 4 carriers and non-carriers. However, brain activity from healthy subjects with ApoE ε 4 allele (carriers subgroup) is more complex than from non-carriers, mainly in left temporal, frontal and posterior regions (p-values < 0.05, FDR-corrected Mann-Whitney U-test). These results suggest that the presence of ApoE ε 4 allele could modify the EEG complexity patterns in different brain regions, as the temporal lobes. These alterations might be related to anatomical changes associated to neurodegeneration, increasing the risk of suffering dementia due to AD before its clinical onset. This interesting finding might help to advance in the development of new tools for early AD diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Gutiérrez-de Pablo
- Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. de Telecomunicación, Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain; (V.G.-d.P.); (J.P.); (A.M.-C.); (R.H.)
| | - Carlos Gómez
- Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. de Telecomunicación, Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain; (V.G.-d.P.); (J.P.); (A.M.-C.); (R.H.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Poza
- Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. de Telecomunicación, Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain; (V.G.-d.P.); (J.P.); (A.M.-C.); (R.H.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación en Matemáticas (IMUVA), Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Aarón Maturana-Candelas
- Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. de Telecomunicación, Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain; (V.G.-d.P.); (J.P.); (A.M.-C.); (R.H.)
| | - Sandra Martins
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (S.M.); (I.G.); (A.M.L.); (N.P.)
- Institute of Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Iva Gomes
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (S.M.); (I.G.); (A.M.L.); (N.P.)
- Institute of Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Alexandra M. Lopes
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (S.M.); (I.G.); (A.M.L.); (N.P.)
- Institute of Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nádia Pinto
- Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (S.M.); (I.G.); (A.M.L.); (N.P.)
- Institute of Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Center of Mathematics of the University of Porto (CMUP), 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Roberto Hornero
- Biomedical Engineering Group, E.T.S.I. de Telecomunicación, Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain; (V.G.-d.P.); (J.P.); (A.M.-C.); (R.H.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación en Matemáticas (IMUVA), Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
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267
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Mullane K, Williams M. Alzheimer’s disease beyond amyloid: Can the repetitive failures of amyloid-targeted therapeutics inform future approaches to dementia drug discovery? Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 177:113945. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.113945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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268
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Ingala S, Mazzai L, Sudre CH, Salvadó G, Brugulat-Serrat A, Wottschel V, Falcon C, Operto G, Tijms B, Gispert JD, Molinuevo JL, Barkhof F. The relation between APOE genotype and cerebral microbleeds in cognitively unimpaired middle- and old-aged individuals. Neurobiol Aging 2020; 95:104-114. [PMID: 32791423 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Positive associations between cerebral microbleeds (CMBs) and APOE-ε4 (apolipoprotein E) genotype have been reported in Alzheimer's disease, but show conflicting results. We investigated the effect of APOE genotype on CMBs in a cohort of cognitively unimpaired middle- and old-aged individuals enriched for APOE-ε4 genotype. Participants from ALFA (Alzheimer and Families) cohort were included and their magnetic resonance scans assessed (n = 564, 50% APOE-ε4 carriers). Quantitative magnetic resonance analyses included visual ratings, atrophy measures, and white matter hyperintensity (WMH) segmentations. The prevalence of CMBs was 17%, increased with age (p < 0.05), and followed an increasing trend paralleling APOE-ε4 dose. The number of CMBs was significantly higher in APOE-ε4 homozygotes compared to heterozygotes and non-carriers (p < 0.05). This association was driven by lobar CMBs (p < 0.05). CMBs co-localized with WMH (p < 0.05). No associations between CMBs and APOE-ε2, gray matter volumes, and cognitive performance were found. Our results suggest that cerebral vessels of APOE-ε4 homozygous are more fragile, especially in lobar locations. Co-occurrence of CMBs and WMH suggests that such changes localize in areas with increased vascular vulnerability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Ingala
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Linda Mazzai
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Medicine (DiMED), Institute of Radiology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Carole H Sudre
- Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London, UK; Dementia Research Centre, University College London, London, UK; Centre for Medical Imaging Computing, Faculty of Engineering, University College London, London, UK
| | - Gemma Salvadó
- Barcelonaβeta Brain Research Center (BBRC), Pasqual Maragall Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Anna Brugulat-Serrat
- Barcelonaβeta Brain Research Center (BBRC), Pasqual Maragall Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Viktor Wottschel
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Carles Falcon
- Barcelonaβeta Brain Research Center (BBRC), Pasqual Maragall Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Grégory Operto
- Barcelonaβeta Brain Research Center (BBRC), Pasqual Maragall Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Betty Tijms
- Department of Neurology, Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Juan Domingo Gispert
- Barcelonaβeta Brain Research Center (BBRC), Pasqual Maragall Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - José Luis Molinuevo
- Barcelonaβeta Brain Research Center (BBRC), Pasqual Maragall Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Madrid, Spain
| | - Frederik Barkhof
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Institutes of Neurology and Healthcare Engineering, UCL, London, UK
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269
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Schwabe T, Srinivasan K, Rhinn H. Shifting paradigms: The central role of microglia in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 143:104962. [PMID: 32535152 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent human genetic studies have challenged long standing hypotheses about the chain of events in Alzheimer's disease (AD), as the identification of genetic risk factors in microglial genes supports a causative role for microglia in the disease. Parallel transcriptome and histology studies at the single-cell level revealed a rich palette of microglial states affected by disease status and genetic risk factors. Taken together, those findings support microglia dysfunction as a central mechanism in AD etiology and thus the therapeutic potential of modulating microglial activity for AD treatment. Here we review how human genetic studies discovered microglial AD risk genes, such as TREM2, CD33, MS4A and APOE, and how experimental studies are beginning to decipher the cellular functions of some of these genes. Our review also focuses on recent transcriptomic studies of human microglia from postmortem tissue to critically assess areas of similarity and dissimilarity between human and mouse models currently in use in order to better understand the biology of innate immunity in AD.
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270
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Kuo CL, Pilling LC, Atkins JL, Kuchel GA, Melzer D. ApoE e2 and aging-related outcomes in 379,000 UK Biobank participants. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:12222-12233. [PMID: 32511104 PMCID: PMC7343499 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The Apolipoprotein E (APOE) e4 allele is associated with reduced longevity and increased Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) and Alzheimer’s disease, with e4e4 having markedly larger effect sizes than e3e4. The e2 longevity promoting variant is less studied. We conducted a phenome-wide association study of ApoE e2e3 and e2e2 with aging phenotypes, to assess their potential as targets for anti-aging interventions. Data were from 379,000 UK Biobank participants, aged 40 to 70 years. e2e3 (n=46,535) had mostly lower lipid-related biomarker levels including reduced total and LDL-cholesterol, and lower risks of CAD (Odds Ratio=0.87, 95% CI: 0.83 to 0.90, p=4.92×10-14) and hypertension (OR=0.94, 95% CI: 0.92 to 0.97, p=7.28×10-7) versus e3e3. However, lipid changes in e2e2 (n=2,398) were more extreme, including a marked increase in triglyceride levels (0.41 Standard Deviations, 95% CI: 0.37 to 0.45, p=5.42×10-92), with no associated changes in CAD risks. There were no associations with biomarkers of kidney function. The effects of both e2e2 and e2e3 were minimal on falls, muscle mass, grip strength or frailty. In conclusion, e2e3 has protective effects on some health outcomes, but the effects of e2e2 are not similar, complicating the potential usefulness of e2 as a target for anti-aging intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Ling Kuo
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, CT 06032, USA.,Connecticut Convergence Institute for Translation in Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, CT 06032, USA.,Center on Aging, School of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, CT 06030, USA
| | - Luke C Pilling
- Center on Aging, School of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, CT 06030, USA.,College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon, UK
| | - Janice L Atkins
- College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon, UK
| | - George A Kuchel
- Center on Aging, School of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, CT 06030, USA
| | - David Melzer
- Center on Aging, School of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health, Farmington, CT 06030, USA.,College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon, UK
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Functional connectivity between the entorhinal and posterior cingulate cortices underpins navigation discrepancies in at-risk Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2020; 90:110-118. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Wisniewski T, Drummond E. APOE-amyloid interaction: Therapeutic targets. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 138:104784. [PMID: 32027932 PMCID: PMC7118587 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder that is growing in prevalence globally. It is the only major cause of death without any effective pharmacological means to treat or slow progression. Inheritance of the ε4 allele of the Apolipoprotein (APO) E gene is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset AD. The interaction between APOE and amyloid β (Aβ) plays a key role in AD pathogenesis. The APOE-Aβ interaction regulates Aβ aggregation and clearance and therefore directly influences the development of amyloid plaques, congophilic amyloid angiopathy and subsequent tau related pathology. Relatively few AD therapeutic approaches have directly targeted the APOE-Aβ interaction thus far. Here we review the critical role of APOE in the pathogenesis of AD and some of the most promising therapeutic approaches that focus on the APOE-Aβ interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wisniewski
- Departments of Neurology, Pathology and Psychiatry, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30(th) Street, New York, NY 10016, USA.
| | - Eleanor Drummond
- Brain & Mind Centre and Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Engel S, Graetz C, Salmen A, Muthuraman M, Toenges G, Ambrosius B, Bayas A, Berthele A, Heesen C, Klotz L, Kümpfel T, Linker RA, Meuth SG, Paul F, Stangel M, Tackenberg B, Then Bergh F, Tumani H, Weber F, Wildemann B, Zettl UK, Antony G, Bittner S, Groppa S, Hemmer B, Wiendl H, Gold R, Zipp F, Lill CM, Luessi F. Is APOE ε4 associated with cognitive performance in early MS? NEUROLOGY-NEUROIMMUNOLOGY & NEUROINFLAMMATION 2020; 7:7/4/e728. [PMID: 32358224 PMCID: PMC7217661 DOI: 10.1212/nxi.0000000000000728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Objective To assess the impact of APOE polymorphisms on cognitive performance in patients newly diagnosed with clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) or relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). Methods This multicenter cohort study included 552 untreated patients recently diagnosed with CIS or RRMS according to the 2005 revised McDonald criteria. The single nucleotide polymorphisms rs429358 (ε4) and rs7412 (ε2) of the APOE haplotype were assessed by allelic discrimination assays. Cognitive performance was evaluated using the 3-second paced auditory serial addition test and the Multiple Sclerosis Inventory Cognition (MUSIC). Sum scores were calculated to approximate the overall cognitive performance and memory-centered cognitive functions. The impact of the APOE carrier status on cognitive performance was assessed using multiple linear regression models, also including demographic, clinical, MRI, and lifestyle factors. Results APOE ε4 homozygosity was associated with lower overall cognitive performance, whereas no relevant association was observed for APOE ε4 heterozygosity or APOE ε2 carrier status. Furthermore, higher disability levels, MRI lesion load, and depressive symptoms were associated with lower cognitive performance. Patients consuming alcohol had higher test scores than patients not consuming alcohol. Female sex, lower disability, and alcohol consumption were associated with better performance in the memory-centered subtests of MUSIC, whereas no relevant association was observed for APOE carrier status. Conclusion Along with parameters of a higher disease burden, APOE ε4 homozygosity was identified as a potential predictor of cognitive performance in this large cohort of patients with CIS and early RRMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinah Engel
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Christiane Graetz
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Anke Salmen
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Muthuraman Muthuraman
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Gerrit Toenges
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Björn Ambrosius
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Antonios Bayas
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Achim Berthele
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Christoph Heesen
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Luisa Klotz
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Tania Kümpfel
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Ralf A Linker
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Sven G Meuth
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Friedemann Paul
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Martin Stangel
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Björn Tackenberg
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Florian Then Bergh
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Hayrettin Tumani
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Frank Weber
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Brigitte Wildemann
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Uwe K Zettl
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Gisela Antony
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Stefan Bittner
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Sergiu Groppa
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hemmer
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Heinz Wiendl
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Ralf Gold
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Frauke Zipp
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Christina M Lill
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Felix Luessi
- From the Department of Neurology and Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN) (S.E., C.G., M.M., S.B., S.G., F.Z., C.M.L., F.L.), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany; Department of Neurology (A.S.), Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Neurology (A.S., B.A., R.G.), St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum; Institute of Medical Biostatistics (G.T.), Epidemiology and Informatics (IMBEI), University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Department of Neurology (A. Bayas), Klinikum Augsburg; Department of Neurology (A. Berthele, B.H.), Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich; Institut für Neuroimmunologie und Multiple Sklerose (C.H.), Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf; Clinic of Neurology (L.K., S.G.M., H.W.), University Hospital Münster, Westphalian-Wilhelms-University Münster; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (T.K.), Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich; Department of Neurology (R.A.L.), University Hospital Erlangen; NeuroCure Clinical Research Center and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Hannover Medical School; Department of Neurology (B.T.), Philipps-University Marburg; Department of Neurology (F.T.B.), University of Leipzig; Department of Neurology (H.T.), University of Ulm; Clinic of Neurology Dietenbronn (H.T.), Schwendi; Neurology (F.W.), Max-Planck-Institute of Psychiatry, Munich; Neurological Clinic (F.W.), Sana Kliniken des Landkreises Cham; Department of Neurology (B.W.), University of Heidelberg; Department. of Neurology (U.K.Z.), University of Rostock; Central Information Office (CIO) (G.A.), Philipps-University Marburg; and Genetic and Molecular Epidemiology Group (C.M.L.), Lübeck Interdisciplinary Platform for Genome Analytics, Institutes of Neurogenetics and Cardiogenetics, University of Lübeck, Germany.
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274
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Bellou E, Baker E, Leonenko G, Bracher-Smith M, Daunt P, Menzies G, Williams J, Escott-Price V. Age-dependent effect of APOE and polygenic component on Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2020; 93:69-77. [PMID: 32464432 PMCID: PMC7308803 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative condition with significant genetic heritability. Several genes have been implicated in the onset of AD with the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene being the strongest single genetic risk loci. Evidence suggests that the effect of APOE alters with age during disease progression. Here, we aim to investigate the impact of APOE and other variants outside the APOE region on AD risk in younger and older participants. Using data from both the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative and the UK Biobank, we computed the polygenic risk score of each individual informed by the latest genetic study from the International Genomics of Alzheimer's Project. Our analysis showed that the effect of APOE on the disease risk is greater in younger participants and reduces as participants' age increases. Our findings indicate the increased impact of polygenic risk score as participants' age increases. Therefore, AD in older individuals can potentially be triggered by the cumulative effect of genes which are outside the APOE region. Polygenic risk score analysis was used in ADNI and the UK Biobank data sets. APOE's effect on Alzheimer's disease risk was greater in the younger group (age<80 years). Genes outside APOE region could trigger Alzheimer's disease in older ages (age≥80 years). No considerable reduction of APOE ε4 alleles in ages less than and more than 80 years old. Age-specific genetic scores could aid in clinical trials and personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eftychia Bellou
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Emily Baker
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Ganna Leonenko
- UK Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Bracher-Smith
- UK Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Paula Daunt
- Cytox Ltd, Work.life, Core, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Georgina Menzies
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Julie Williams
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; UK Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Valentina Escott-Price
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; UK Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.
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275
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Javor J, Ďurmanová V, Párnická Z, Minárik G, Králová M, Pečeňák J, Vašečková B, Režnáková V, Šutovský S, Gmitterová K, Hromádka T, Peterajová Ľ, Shawkatová I. Association of CD33 rs3865444:C˃A polymorphism with a reduced risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease in Slovaks is limited to subjects carrying the APOE ε4 allele. Int J Immunogenet 2020; 47:397-405. [PMID: 32333488 DOI: 10.1111/iji.12489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
CD33 rs3865444:C>A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) has been previously associated with the risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD); however, the results have been inconsistent across different populations. CD33 is a transmembrane receptor that plays an important role in AD pathogenesis by inhibiting amyloid β42 uptake by microglial cells. In this study, we aimed to validate the association between rs3865444 and LOAD risk in the Slovak population and to evaluate whether it was affected by the carrier status of the major LOAD risk allele apolipoprotein (APOE) ε4. CD33 rs3865444 and APOE variants were genotyped in 206 LOAD patients and 487 control subjects using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism method and direct sequencing, respectively. Logistic regression analysis revealed a significant association of rs3865444 A allele with a reduced LOAD risk that was only present in APOE ε4 allele carriers (AA + CA versus CC: p = .0085; OR = 0.45; 95% CI = 0.25-0.82). On the other hand, no such association was found in subjects without the APOE ε4 (p = .75; OR = 0.93; 95% CI = 0.61-1.42). Moreover, regression analysis detected a significant interaction between CD33 rs3865444 A and APOE ε4 alleles (p = .021 for APOE ε4 allele dosage and p = .051 for APOE ε4 carriage status), with synergy factor (SF) value of 0.49 indicating an antagonistic effect between the two alleles in LOAD risk. In conclusion, our results suggest that CD33 rs3865444:C˃A substitution may reduce the risk of LOAD in Slovaks by antagonizing the effect conferred by the major susceptibility allele APOE ε4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juraj Javor
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Vladimíra Ďurmanová
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Zuzana Párnická
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Gabriel Minárik
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Mária Králová
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava and University Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ján Pečeňák
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava and University Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Barbora Vašečková
- Psychiatry Outpatient Clinic, University Hospital with Polyclinic the Brothers of Saint John of God, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | | | - Stanislav Šutovský
- 1st Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava and University Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Karin Gmitterová
- 2nd Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava and University Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Tomáš Hromádka
- Institute of Neuroimmunology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ľubica Peterajová
- Haematology Outpatient Clinic, University Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ivana Shawkatová
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
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276
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DNA Microsystems for Biodiagnosis. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11040445. [PMID: 32340280 PMCID: PMC7231314 DOI: 10.3390/mi11040445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Researchers are continuously making progress towards diagnosis and treatment of numerous diseases. However, there are still major issues that are presenting many challenges for current medical diagnosis. On the other hand, DNA nanotechnology has evolved significantly over the last three decades and is highly interdisciplinary. With many potential technologies derived from the field, it is natural to begin exploring and incorporating its knowledge to develop DNA microsystems for biodiagnosis in order to help address current obstacles, such as disease detection and drug resistance. Here, current challenges in disease detection are presented along with standard methods for diagnosis. Then, a brief overview of DNA nanotechnology is introduced along with its main attractive features for constructing biodiagnostic microsystems. Lastly, suggested DNA-based microsystems are discussed through proof-of-concept demonstrations with improvement strategies for standard diagnostic approaches.
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277
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Baldacci F, Mazzucchi S, Della Vecchia A, Giampietri L, Giannini N, Koronyo-Hamaoui M, Ceravolo R, Siciliano G, Bonuccelli U, Elahi FM, Vergallo A, Lista S, Giorgi FS. The path to biomarker-based diagnostic criteria for the spectrum of neurodegenerative diseases. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2020; 20:421-441. [PMID: 32066283 PMCID: PMC7445079 DOI: 10.1080/14737159.2020.1731306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: The postmortem examination still represents the reference standard for detecting the pathological nature of chronic neurodegenerative diseases (NDD). This approach displays intrinsic conceptual limitations since NDD represent a dynamic spectrum of partially overlapping phenotypes, shared pathomechanistic alterations that often give rise to mixed pathologies.Areas covered: We scrutinized the international clinical diagnostic criteria of NDD and the literature to provide a roadmap toward a biomarker-based classification of the NDD spectrum. A few pathophysiological biomarkers have been established for NDD. These are time-consuming, invasive, and not suitable for preclinical detection. Candidate screening biomarkers are gaining momentum. Blood neurofilament light-chain represents a robust first-line tool to detect neurodegeneration tout court and serum progranulin helps detect genetic frontotemporal dementia. Ultrasensitive assays and retinal scans may identify Aβ pathology early, in blood and the eye, respectively. Ultrasound also represents a minimally invasive option to investigate the substantia nigra. Protein misfolding amplification assays may accurately detect α-synuclein in biofluids.Expert opinion: Data-driven strategies using quantitative rather than categorical variables may be more reliable for quantification of contributions from pathophysiological mechanisms and their spatial-temporal evolution. A systems biology approach is suitable to untangle the dynamics triggering loss of proteostasis, driving neurodegeneration and clinical evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Baldacci
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Sorbonne University, GRC n° 21, Alzheimer Precision Medicine (APM), AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Boulevard de l’hôpital, Paris, France
| | - Sonia Mazzucchi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Linda Giampietri
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Nicola Giannini
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Maya Koronyo-Hamaoui
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Roberto Ceravolo
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Gabriele Siciliano
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Ubaldo Bonuccelli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Fanny M. Elahi
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Andrea Vergallo
- Sorbonne University, GRC n° 21, Alzheimer Precision Medicine (APM), AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Boulevard de l’hôpital, Paris, France
- Brain & Spine Institute (ICM), INSERM U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Boulevard de l’hôpital, Paris, France
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Memory and Alzheimer’s Disease (IM2A), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Simone Lista
- Sorbonne University, GRC n° 21, Alzheimer Precision Medicine (APM), AP-HP, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Boulevard de l’hôpital, Paris, France
- Brain & Spine Institute (ICM), INSERM U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Boulevard de l’hôpital, Paris, France
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Memory and Alzheimer’s Disease (IM2A), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Filippo Sean Giorgi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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Moos WH, Faller DV, Glavas IP, Harpp DN, Kanara I, Mavrakis AN, Pernokas J, Pernokas M, Pinkert CA, Powers WR, Sampani K, Steliou K, Vavvas DG, Zamboni RJ, Kodukula K, Chen X. Klotho Pathways, Myelination Disorders, Neurodegenerative Diseases, and Epigenetic Drugs. Biores Open Access 2020; 9:94-105. [PMID: 32257625 PMCID: PMC7133426 DOI: 10.1089/biores.2020.0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In this review we outline a rationale for identifying neuroprotectants aimed at inducing endogenous Klotho activity and expression, which is epigenetic action, by definition. Such an approach should promote remyelination and/or stimulate myelin repair by acting on mitochondrial function, thereby heralding a life-saving path forward for patients suffering from neuroinflammatory diseases. Disorders of myelin in the nervous system damage the transmission of signals, resulting in loss of vision, motion, sensation, and other functions depending on the affected nerves, currently with no effective treatment. Klotho genes and their single-pass transmembrane Klotho proteins are powerful governors of the threads of life and death, true to the origin of their name, Fates, in Greek mythology. Among its many important functions, Klotho is an obligatory co-receptor that binds, activates, and/or potentiates critical fibroblast growth factor activity. Since the discovery of Klotho a little over two decades ago, it has become ever more apparent that when Klotho pathways go awry, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction take over, and age-related chronic disorders are likely to follow. The physiological consequences can be wide ranging, potentially wreaking havoc on the brain, eye, kidney, muscle, and more. Central nervous system disorders, neurodegenerative in nature, and especially those affecting the myelin sheath, represent worthy targets for advancing therapies that act upon Klotho pathways. Current drugs for these diseases, even therapeutics that are disease modifying rather than treating only the symptoms, leave much room for improvement. It is thus no wonder that this topic has caught the attention of biomedical researchers around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter H. Moos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
- ShangPharma Innovation, Inc., South San Francisco, California
| | - Douglas V. Faller
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
- Cancer Research Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ioannis P. Glavas
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - David N. Harpp
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Anastasios N. Mavrakis
- Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, St. Elizabeth's Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Julie Pernokas
- Advanced Dental Associates of New England, Woburn, Massachusetts
| | - Mark Pernokas
- Advanced Dental Associates of New England, Woburn, Massachusetts
| | - Carl A. Pinkert
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
| | - Whitney R. Powers
- Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Anatomy, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Konstantina Sampani
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Beetham Eye Institute, Joslin Diabetes Center, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Kosta Steliou
- Cancer Research Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
- PhenoMatriX, Inc., Natick, Massachusetts
| | - Demetrios G. Vavvas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Retina Service, Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | | | - Xiaohong Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
- Retina Service, Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, Massachusetts
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280
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Moore AM, Mahoney E, Dumitrescu L, De Jager PL, Koran MEI, Petyuk VA, Robinson RA, Ruderfer DM, Cox NJ, Schneider JA, Bennett DA, Jefferson AL, Hohman TJ. APOE ε4-specific associations of VEGF gene family expression with cognitive aging and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2020; 87:18-25. [PMID: 31791659 PMCID: PMC7064375 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Literature suggests vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) is protective among those at highest risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 allele carriers represent a highly susceptible population for cognitive decline, and VEGF may confer distinct protection among APOE-ε4 carriers. We evaluated interactions between cortical expression of 10 VEGF gene family members and APOE-ε4 genotype to clarify which VEGF genes modify the association between APOE-ε4 and cognitive decline. Data were obtained from the Religious Orders Study and Rush Memory and Aging Project (N = 531). Linear regression assessed interactions on global cognition. VEGF genes NRP1 and VEGFA interacted with APOE-ε4 on cognitive performance (p.fdr < 0.05). Higher NRP1 expression correlated with worse outcomes among ε4 carriers but better outcomes among ε4 noncarriers, suggesting NRP1 modifies the risk for poor cognitive scores based on APOE-ε4 status. NRP1 regulates angiogenesis, and literature suggests vessels in APOE-ε4 brains are more prone to leaking, perhaps placing young vessels at risk for ischemia. Results suggest that future therapeutics targeting brain angiogenesis should also consider ε4 allele status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annah M Moore
- Vanderbilt Memory and Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Emily Mahoney
- Vanderbilt Memory and Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Logan Dumitrescu
- Vanderbilt Memory and Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Philip L De Jager
- Center for Translational & Computational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Cell Circuits Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge MA, USA
| | | | - Vladislav A Petyuk
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Renã As Robinson
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Douglas M Ruderfer
- Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Nancy J Cox
- Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Julie A Schneider
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - David A Bennett
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Angela L Jefferson
- Vanderbilt Memory and Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Timothy J Hohman
- Vanderbilt Memory and Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
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281
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Liu H, Ye M, Guo H. An Updated Review of Randomized Clinical Trials Testing the Improvement of Cognitive Function of Ginkgo biloba Extract in Healthy People and Alzheimer's Patients. Front Pharmacol 2020; 10:1688. [PMID: 32153388 PMCID: PMC7047126 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease, mainly manifested by cognitive dysfunction. It seriously reduces the quality of life, and there is no ideal treatment strategy in clinical practice. Clinical studies on the treatment of AD with Ginkgo biloba L. leaf extract (EGb) have been reported since 1980s, and many clinical studies have been carried out during the following 30 years. However, the benefits of EGb on the treatment of AD are still controversial. In this review, we collected the clinical trial reports of EGb on cognitive function from Pubmed, Elsevier, Europe PMC, and other database since the 1980s. Through analysis and comparison, we consider that EGb may be able to improve the cognitive function in patients who suffered from mild dementia during long-term administration (more than 24 weeks) and appropriate dosage (240 mg per day). The main evidences and existing problems of the negative and positive experimental results were summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haolong Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute for Drug Control, NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Traditional Chinese Patent Medicine), Beijing Key Laboratory of Analysis and Evaluation on Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Min Ye
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Hongzhu Guo
- Beijing Institute for Drug Control, NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Traditional Chinese Patent Medicine), Beijing Key Laboratory of Analysis and Evaluation on Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
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282
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Kagerer SM, van Bergen JMG, Li X, Quevenco FC, Gietl AF, Studer S, Treyer V, Meyer R, Kaufmann PA, Nitsch RM, van Zijl PCM, Hock C, Unschuld PG. APOE4 moderates effects of cortical iron on synchronized default mode network activity in cognitively healthy old-aged adults. ALZHEIMER'S & DEMENTIA (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2020; 12:e12002. [PMID: 32211498 PMCID: PMC7085281 DOI: 10.1002/dad2.12002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Apolipoprotein E ε4 (APOE4)-related genetic risk for sporadic Alzheimer's disease is associated with an early impairment of cognitive brain networks. The current study determines relationships between APOE4 carrier status, cortical iron, and cortical network-functionality. METHODS Sixty-nine cognitively healthy old-aged individuals (mean age [SD] 66.1 [± 7.2] years; Mini-Mental State Exam [MMSE] 29.3 ± 1.1) were genotyped for APOE4 carrier-status and received 3 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for blood oxygen level-dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at rest, three-dimensional (3D)-gradient echo (six echoes) for cortical gray-matter, non-heme iron by quantitative susceptibility mapping, and 18F-flutemetamol positron emission tomography for amyloid-β. RESULTS A spatial pattern consistent with the default mode network (DMN) could be identified by independent component analysis. DMN activity was enhanced in APOE4 carriers and related to cortical iron burden. APOE4 and cortical iron synergistically interacted with DMN activity. Secondary analysis revealed a positive, APOE4 associated, relationship between cortical iron and DMN connectivity. DISCUSSION Our findings suggest that APOE4 moderates effects of iron on brain functionality prior to manifestation of cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja M. Kagerer
- Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Department of Psychogeriatric MedicinePsychiatric University Hospital Zurich (PUK)ZurichSwitzerland
| | | | - Xu Li
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological ScienceDivision of MR ResearchThe Johns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- F.M. Kirby Research Center for Functional Brain ImagingKennedy Krieger InstituteBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | | | - Anton F. Gietl
- Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Department of Psychogeriatric MedicinePsychiatric University Hospital Zurich (PUK)ZurichSwitzerland
| | - Sandro Studer
- Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Valerie Treyer
- Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Department of Nuclear MedicineUniversity Hospital Zurich and University of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Rafael Meyer
- Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Department of Psychogeriatric MedicinePsychiatric University Hospital Zurich (PUK)ZurichSwitzerland
| | - Philipp A. Kaufmann
- Department of Nuclear MedicineUniversity Hospital Zurich and University of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Roger M. Nitsch
- Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Neuroscience Center ZurichUniversity of Zurich and ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- NeurimmuneSchlierenSwitzerland
| | - Peter C. M. van Zijl
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological ScienceDivision of MR ResearchThe Johns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- F.M. Kirby Research Center for Functional Brain ImagingKennedy Krieger InstituteBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Christoph Hock
- Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Neuroscience Center ZurichUniversity of Zurich and ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- NeurimmuneSchlierenSwitzerland
| | - Paul G. Unschuld
- Institute for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Department of Psychogeriatric MedicinePsychiatric University Hospital Zurich (PUK)ZurichSwitzerland
- Neuroscience Center ZurichUniversity of Zurich and ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
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283
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Abstract
The past two centuries have witnessed an unprecedented rise in human life expectancy. Sustaining longer lives with reduced periods of disability will require an understanding of the underlying mechanisms of ageing, and genetics is a powerful tool for identifying these mechanisms. Large-scale genome-wide association studies have recently identified many loci that influence key human ageing traits, including lifespan. Multi-trait loci have been linked with several age-related diseases, suggesting shared ageing influences. Mutations that drive accelerated ageing in prototypical progeria syndromes in humans point to an important role for genome maintenance and stability. Together, these different strands of genetic research are highlighting pathways for the discovery of anti-ageing interventions that may be applicable in humans.
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284
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" Bridging the Gap" Everything that Could Have Been Avoided If We Had Applied Gender Medicine, Pharmacogenetics and Personalized Medicine in the Gender-Omics and Sex-Omics Era. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 21:ijms21010296. [PMID: 31906252 PMCID: PMC6982247 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Gender medicine is the first step of personalized medicine and patient-centred care, an essential development to achieve the standard goal of a holistic approach to patients and diseases. By addressing the interrelation and integration of biological markers (i.e., sex) with indicators of psychological/cultural behaviour (i.e., gender), gender medicine represents the crucial assumption for achieving the personalized health-care required in the third millennium. However, ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ are often misused as synonyms, leading to frequent misunderstandings in those who are not deeply involved in the field. Overall, we have to face the evidence that biological, genetic, epigenetic, psycho-social, cultural, and environmental factors mutually interact in defining sex/gender differences, and at the same time in establishing potential unwanted sex/gender disparities. Prioritizing the role of sex/gender in physiological and pathological processes is crucial in terms of efficient prevention, clinical signs’ identification, prognosis definition, and therapy optimization. In this regard, the omics-approach has become a powerful tool to identify sex/gender-specific disease markers, with potential benefits also in terms of socio-psychological wellbeing for each individual, and cost-effectiveness for National Healthcare systems. “Being a male or being a female” is indeed important from a health point of view and it is no longer possible to avoid “sex and gender lens” when approaching patients. Accordingly, personalized healthcare must be based on evidence from targeted research studies aimed at understanding how sex and gender influence health across the entire life span. The rapid development of genetic tools in the molecular medicine approaches and their impact in healthcare is an example of highly specialized applications that have moved from specialists to primary care providers (e.g., pharmacogenetic and pharmacogenomic applications in routine medical practice). Gender medicine needs to follow the same path and become an established medical approach. To face the genetic, molecular and pharmacological bases of the existing sex/gender gap by means of omics approaches will pave the way to the discovery and identification of novel drug-targets/therapeutic protocols, personalized laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures (sex/gender-omics). In this scenario, the aim of the present review is not to simply resume the state-of-the-art in the field, rather an opportunity to gain insights into gender medicine, spanning from molecular up to social and psychological stances. The description and critical discussion of some key selected multidisciplinary topics considered as paradigmatic of sex/gender differences and sex/gender inequalities will allow to draft and design strategies useful to fill the existing gap and move forward.
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285
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Lipid class composition of membrane and raft fractions from brains of individuals with Alzheimer's disease. Biochem Biophys Rep 2019; 20:100704. [PMID: 31867447 PMCID: PMC6895748 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2019.100704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Perturbation of the homeostasis of brain membrane lipids has been implicated in the pathomechanism of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene (APOE) confers an increased risk, in a dosage-dependent manner, for brain amyloid-β accumulation and the development of sporadic AD. An effect of the APOE genotype on brain lipid homeostasis may underlie the AD risk associated with the ε4 allele. In this research, we examined an effect of APOE ε4 on the lipid class composition of crude membranes and raft-enriched fractions of brains. We applied enzymatic reaction-based methods for the quantification of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidic acid, and sphingomyelin. Our results indicate that brain lipid class composition was neither significantly altered in AD subjects nor affected by the presence of the APOE ε4 allele. No change was found in the composition of lipid classes of brains with Alzheimer's disease. The APOE ε4 allele did not affect lipid class composition of the brain membrane or rafts. The enzymatic measurement of phospholipids is applicable to brain tissues.
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286
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Altmann A, Scelsi MA, Shoai M, de Silva E, Aksman LM, Cash DM, Hardy J, Schott JM. A comprehensive analysis of methods for assessing polygenic burden on Alzheimer's disease pathology and risk beyond APOE. Brain Commun 2019; 2:fcz047. [PMID: 32226939 PMCID: PMC7100005 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcz047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies have identified dozens of loci that alter the risk to develop Alzheimer's disease. However, with the exception of the APOE-ε4 allele, most variants bear only little individual effect and have, therefore, limited diagnostic and prognostic value. Polygenic risk scores aim to collate the disease risk distributed across the genome in a single score. Recent works have demonstrated that polygenic risk scores designed for Alzheimer's disease are predictive of clinical diagnosis, pathology confirmed diagnosis and changes in imaging biomarkers. Methodological innovations in polygenic risk modelling include the polygenic hazard score, which derives effect estimates for individual single nucleotide polymorphisms from survival analysis, and methods that account for linkage disequilibrium between genomic loci. In this work, using data from the Alzheimer's disease neuroimaging initiative, we compared different approaches to quantify polygenic disease burden for Alzheimer's disease and their association (beyond the APOE locus) with a broad range of Alzheimer's disease-related traits: cross-sectional CSF biomarker levels, cross-sectional cortical amyloid burden, clinical diagnosis, clinical progression, longitudinal loss of grey matter and longitudinal decline in cognitive function. We found that polygenic scores were associated beyond APOE with clinical diagnosis, CSF-tau levels and, to a minor degree, with progressive atrophy. However, for many other tested traits such as clinical disease progression, CSF amyloid, cognitive decline and cortical amyloid load, the additional effects of polygenic burden beyond APOE were of minor nature. Overall, polygenic risk scores and the polygenic hazard score performed equally and given the ease with which polygenic risk scores can be derived; they constitute the more practical choice in comparison with polygenic hazard scores. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that incomplete adjustment for the APOE locus, i.e. only adjusting for APOE-ε4 carrier status, can lead to overestimated effects of polygenic scores due to APOE-ε4 homozygous participants. Lastly, on many of the tested traits, the major driving factor remained the APOE locus, with the exception of quantitative CSF-tau and p-tau measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Altmann
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Centre for Medical Image Computing (CMIC), University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - Marzia A Scelsi
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Centre for Medical Image Computing (CMIC), University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - Maryam Shoai
- Reta Lilla Research Laboratories, Department of Neurodegeneration, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - Eric de Silva
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Centre for Medical Image Computing (CMIC), University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK.,Institute for Health Informatics, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - Leon M Aksman
- Department of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Centre for Medical Image Computing (CMIC), University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - David M Cash
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK.,Dementia Research Centre, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - John Hardy
- Reta Lilla Research Laboratories, Department of Neurodegeneration, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - Jonathan M Schott
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK.,Dementia Research Centre, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London WC1V 6LJ, UK
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287
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Badea A, Wu W, Shuff J, Wang M, Anderson RJ, Qi Y, Johnson GA, Wilson JG, Koudoro S, Garyfallidis E, Colton CA, Dunson DB. Identifying Vulnerable Brain Networks in Mouse Models of Genetic Risk Factors for Late Onset Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neuroinform 2019; 13:72. [PMID: 31920610 PMCID: PMC6914731 DOI: 10.3389/fninf.2019.00072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The major genetic risk for late onset Alzheimer’s disease has been associated with the presence of APOE4 alleles. However, the impact of different APOE alleles on the brain aging trajectory, and how they interact with the brain local environment in a sex specific manner is not entirely clear. We sought to identify vulnerable brain circuits in novel mouse models with homozygous targeted replacement of the mouse ApoE gene with either human APOE3 or APOE4 gene alleles. These genes are expressed in mice that also model the human immune response to age and disease-associated challenges by expressing the human NOS2 gene in place of the mouse mNos2 gene. These mice had impaired learning and memory when assessed with the Morris water maze (MWM) and novel object recognition (NOR) tests. Ex vivo MRI-DTI analyses revealed global and local atrophy, and areas of reduced fractional anisotropy (FA). Using tensor network principal component analyses for structural connectomes, we inferred the pairwise connections which best separate APOE4 from APOE3 carriers. These involved primarily interhemispheric connections among regions of olfactory areas, the hippocampus, and the cerebellum. Our results also suggest that pairwise connections may be subdivided and clustered spatially to reveal local changes on a finer scale. These analyses revealed not just genotype, but also sex specific differences. Identifying vulnerable networks may provide targets for interventions, and a means to stratify patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Badea
- Department of Radiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States.,Department of Neurology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States.,Brain Imaging and Analysis Center, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Wenlin Wu
- Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Jordan Shuff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Michele Wang
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Trinity College of Arts & Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | | | - Yi Qi
- Department of Radiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - G Allan Johnson
- Department of Radiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Joan G Wilson
- Department of Neurology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Serge Koudoro
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Engineering, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Eleftherios Garyfallidis
- School of Informatics, Computing, and Engineering, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Carol A Colton
- Department of Neurology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - David B Dunson
- Department of Statistical Science, Trinity College of Arts & Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
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288
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Díaz-Guerra E, Rodríguez-Traver E, Moreno-Jiménez EP, de Rojas I, Rodríguez C, Orera M, Hernández I, Ruiz A, Vicario C. An integration-free iPSC line, ICCSICi007-A, derived from a female Alzheimer's disease patient with the APOE-ε4/ε4 alleles. Stem Cell Res 2019; 41:101588. [PMID: 31698192 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2019.101588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The epsilon4 (ε4) allele of the APOE gene, which encodes the apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4), is the strongest genetic risk factor known for late-onset Alzheimer´s disease (LOAD). Here, we present the characterization of an iPSC line generated from dermal fibroblasts of a female AD patient using Sendai viral vectors encoding the transcription factors OCT4, SOX2, KLF4 and c-MYC. The iPSCs maintained the original genotype, a normal karyotype, were free from Sendai viral vectors and reprogramming factors, presented a normal morphology, expressed endogenous pluripotency markers, and could be differentiated into ectodermal, mesodermal and endodermal cells, confirming its pluripotency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Díaz-Guerra
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva Rodríguez-Traver
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena P Moreno-Jiménez
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Itziar de Rojas
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Fundació ACE-Barcelona Alzheimer Treatment and Research Center, Barcelona, Spain
| | - César Rodríguez
- Servicio de Bioquímica Clínica, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Orera
- Servicio de Bioquímica Clínica, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Hernández
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Fundació ACE-Barcelona Alzheimer Treatment and Research Center, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Agustín Ruiz
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Fundació ACE-Barcelona Alzheimer Treatment and Research Center, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Vicario
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.
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289
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Hildre AS, Solvang SEH, Aarsland D, Midtun Ø, McCann A, Ervik AO, Nygård O, Ueland PM, Nordrehaug JE, Giil LM. Components of the choline oxidation pathway modify the association between the apolipoprotein ε4 gene variant and cognitive decline in patients with dementia. Brain Res 2019; 1726:146519. [PMID: 31654640 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 10/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metabolites involved in one-carbon metabolism (OCM) may predict cognitive prognosis in dementia. The link between OCM, apolipoprotein E (APOE), and DNA methylation creates a biologically plausible mechanism of interaction. AIM To assess OCM metabolites as predictors of 5-year cognitive prognosis in patients with mild dementia, and in subgroups defined by the APOEε4 allele variant. METHODS We followed one-hundred and fifty-two patients with mild dementia (86 with Alzheimer's disease, 66 with Lewy body dementia, including 90 with at least one APOEε4 allele) for 5 years with annual Mini-Mental State Examinations (MMSE). Total homocysteine, methionine, choline, betaine, dimethylglycine, sarcosine, folate, cobalamin and pyridoxal 5'-phoshate were measured in serum at baseline. We used linear mixed models to assess metabolite-MMSE associations, including 3-way interactions between metabolites, time, and APOEε4. False-discovery rate adjusted p-values (Q-values) are reported. RESULTS Metabolite concentrations were not different in patients with dementia according to the presence of APOEε4. Overall, serum concentration of total homocysteine was inversely associated with MMSE performance, while betaine was positively associated with MMSE (Q < 0.05), but neither was associated with MMSE decline. Serum concentrations of betaine, dimethylglycine and sarcosine, however, were associated with slower MMSE decline in patients with APOEε4, but with faster MMSE decline in patients without the allele (all 3-way interactions: Q < 0.05). CONCLUSION Components of the choline oxidation pathway are associated with a better cognitive prognosis in APOEε4 carriers and a worse cognitive prognosis in non-carriers. Further research investigating targeted metabolic interventions according to APOE allele status is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stein-Erik Hafstad Solvang
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Department of Internal Medicine, Haraldsplass Deaconess Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Dag Aarsland
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry, King's College University, London, UK
| | | | | | - Arne Olav Ervik
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Ottar Nygård
- Department of Heart Disease, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - Jan Erik Nordrehaug
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Department of Internal Medicine, Haraldsplass Deaconess Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Lasse Melvaer Giil
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Department of Internal Medicine, Haraldsplass Deaconess Hospital, Bergen, Norway.
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290
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Liang Y, Zhou Z, Wang H, Cheng X, Zhong S, Zhao C. Association of apolipoprotein E genotypes with epilepsy risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsy Behav 2019; 98:27-35. [PMID: 31299529 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to identify the association between certain genotypes or alleles of the APOE (Apolipoprotein E) gene and the epilepsy risk. METHODS All studies on human APOE genotypes associated with epilepsy were included. Separate meta-analyses were conducted between the patients with epilepsy and the control group from the following three aspects: ε4 carriers or ε2 carriers vs ε3/ε3 (the ε2/ε4 genotype was excluded), ε4 carriers vs ε2 carriers, and five genotypes vs ε3/ε3. The subgroup analysis was conducted on the ethnicity, the control group was healthy or not, and type of epilepsy. RESULTS Nine studies with 2210 individuals were included. Compared with ε3/ε3 genotype, ε4 carriers increased the epilepsy risk (odds ratios [ORs]: 1.27; 95% confidence intervals [CI]: 1.01 to 1.59; P = 0.042), while ε2 carriers had no association with epilepsy risk (OR: 0.88; 95% CI: 0.66 to 1.18; P = 0.184). The risk of epilepsy was 1.45 times greater in ε4 carriers compared with ε2 carriers (OR: 1.45; 95% CI: 1.02 to 2.04; P = 0.037). When the number of APOE ε4 allele increased, the ORs increased progressively (no ε4 alleles, OR: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.66 to 1.18; one ε4 allele, OR: 1.25, 95% CI: 0.99 to 1.57; two ε4 alleles, OR: 1.84, 95% CI: 0.83 to 4.10). Apolipoprotein E ε4 carriers had a higher epilepsy risk in the population without primary diseases (OR: 1.43; 95% CI: 1.09 to 1.88), and a higher risk in Asian populations (OR: 1.67; 95% CI: 1.12 to 2.49). CONCLUSIONS Apolipoprotein E ε4 allele genotype was associated with an increased epilepsy risk, which was more prominent in the Asian and the population without primary diseases. These findings may be used to guide the directions of prevention and treatment on epilepsy. Larger clinical studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Liang
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhike Zhou
- Department of Geriatrics, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Huibin Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xi Cheng
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Shanshan Zhong
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Chuansheng Zhao
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.
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291
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Díaz-Guerra E, Moreno-Jiménez EP, de Rojas I, Rodríguez C, Rodríguez-Traver E, Arribas-González E, Orera M, Hernández I, Ruiz A, Vicario C. A collection of four integration-free iPSC lines derived from diagnosed sporadic Alzheimer's disease patients with different APOE alleles. Stem Cell Res 2019; 39:101522. [PMID: 31401456 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2019.101522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic polymorphism of apolipoprotein E (APOE) confers differential susceptibility to late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). The ε3 allele of APOE, the most common isoform, does not represent a risk factor for LOAD. In contrast, the ε4 allele is the strongest genetic risk factor for this disease. Here, we present the characterization of four iPSC lines generated from dermal fibroblasts of diagnosed sporadic AD patients using Sendai viral vectors encoding OCT4, SOX2, KLF4 and c-MYC. The iPSCs expressed endogenous pluripotency markers, could be differentiated into the three germ layers, maintained the original genotypes, and were free from Sendai vectors and reprogramming factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Díaz-Guerra
- Instituto Cajal-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena P Moreno-Jiménez
- Instituto Cajal-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Itziar de Rojas
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Fundació ACE-Barcelona Alzheimer Treatment and Research Center, Barcelona, Spain
| | - César Rodríguez
- Servicio de Bioquímica Clínica, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva Rodríguez-Traver
- Instituto Cajal-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Esther Arribas-González
- Instituto Cajal-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - María Orera
- Servicio de Bioquímica Clínica, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Hernández
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Fundació ACE-Barcelona Alzheimer Treatment and Research Center, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Agustín Ruiz
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain; Fundació ACE-Barcelona Alzheimer Treatment and Research Center, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Vicario
- Instituto Cajal-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.
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292
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Vogels T, Murgoci AN, Hromádka T. Intersection of pathological tau and microglia at the synapse. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2019; 7:109. [PMID: 31277708 PMCID: PMC6612163 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-019-0754-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tauopathies are a heterogenous class of diseases characterized by cellular accumulation of aggregated tau and include diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), progressive supranuclear palsy and chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Tau pathology is strongly linked to neurodegeneration and clinical symptoms in tauopathy patients. Furthermore, synapse loss is an early pathological event in tauopathies and is the strongest correlate of cognitive decline. Tau pathology is additionally associated with chronic neuroinflammatory processes, such as reactive microglia, astrocytes, and increased levels of pro-inflammatory molecules (e.g. complement proteins, cytokines). Recent studies show that as the principal immune cells of the brain, microglia play a particularly important role in the initiation and progression of tau pathology and associated neurodegeneration. Furthermore, AD risk genes such as Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) and Apolipoprotein E (APOE) are enriched in the innate immune system and modulate the neuroinflammatory response of microglia to tau pathology. Microglia can play an active role in synaptic dysfunction by abnormally phagocytosing synaptic compartments of neurons with tau pathology. Furthermore, microglia are involved in synaptic spreading of tau – a process which is thought to underlie the progressive nature of tau pathology propagation through the brain. Spreading of pathological tau is also the predominant target for tau-based immunotherapy. Active tau vaccines, therapeutic tau antibodies and other approaches targeting the immune system are actively explored as treatment options for AD and other tauopathies. This review describes the role of microglia in the pathobiology of tauopathies and the mechanism of action of potential therapeutics targeting the immune system in tauopathies.
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293
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Hsu M, Dedhia M, Crusio WE, Delprato A. Sex differences in gene expression patterns associated with the APOE4 allele. F1000Res 2019; 8:387. [PMID: 31448102 PMCID: PMC6685458 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.18671.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The
APOE gene encodes apolipoprotein ε (ApoE), a protein that associates with lipids to form lipoproteins that package and traffic cholesterol and lipids through the bloodstream. There are at least three different alleles of the
APOE gene:
APOE2,
APOE3, and
APOE4. The
APOE4 allele increases an individual's risk for developing late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD) in a dose-dependent manner. Sex differences have been reported for AD susceptibility, age of onset, and symptom progression, with females being more affected than males. Methods: In this study, we use a systems biology approach to examine gene expression patterns in the brains of aged female and male individuals who are positive for the
APOE4 allele in order to identify possible sex-related differences that may be relevant to AD. Results: Based on correlation analysis, we identified a large number of genes with an expression pattern similar to that of
APOE in
APOE4-positive individuals. The number of these genes was much higher in
APOE4-positive females than in
APOE4-positive males, who in turn had more of such genes than
APOE4-negative control groups. Our findings also indicate a significant sex* genotype interaction for the CNTNAP2 gene, a member of the neurexin family and a significant interaction for brain area*sex* genotype for PSEN2, a risk factor gene for AD. Conclusions: Profiling of these genes using Gene Ontology (GO) term classification, pathway enrichment, and differential expression analysis supports the idea of a transcriptional role of
APOE with respect to sex differences and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Hsu
- Department of Research and Education, BioScience Project, Wakefield, MA, 01880, USA
| | - Mehek Dedhia
- Department of Research and Education, BioScience Project, Wakefield, MA, 01880, USA
| | - Wim E Crusio
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d'Aquitaine, UMR, CNRS and University of Bordeaux, UMR 5287, Pessac cedex, Aquitaine, 33615, France
| | - Anna Delprato
- Department of Research and Education, BioScience Project, Wakefield, MA, 01880, USA
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294
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Hsu M, Dedhia M, Crusio WE, Delprato A. Sex differences in gene expression patterns associated with the APOE4 allele. F1000Res 2019; 8:387. [PMID: 31448102 PMCID: PMC6685458 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.18671.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The APOE gene encodes apolipoprotein ε (ApoE), a protein that associates with lipids to form lipoproteins that package and traffic cholesterol and lipids through the bloodstream. There are at least three different alleles of the APOE gene: APOE2, APOE3, and APOE4. The APOE4 allele increases an individual's risk for developing late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD) in a dose-dependent manner. Sex differences have been reported for AD susceptibility, age of onset, and symptom progression, with females being more affected than males. Methods: In this study, we use a systems biology approach to examine gene expression patterns in the brains of aged female and male individuals who are positive for the APOE4 allele in order to identify possible sex-related differences that may be relevant to AD. Results: Based on correlation analysis, we identified a large number of genes with an expression pattern similar to that of APOE in APOE4-positive individuals. The number of these genes was much higher in APOE4-positive females than in APOE4-positive males, who in turn had more of such genes than APOE4-negative control groups. Our findings also indicate a significant sex* genotype interaction for the CNTNAP2 gene, a member of the neurexin family and a significant interaction for brain area*sex* genotype for PSEN2, a risk factor gene for AD. Conclusions: Profiling of these genes using Gene Ontology (GO) term classification, pathway enrichment, and differential expression analysis supports the idea of a transcriptional role of APOE with respect to sex differences and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Hsu
- Department of Research and Education, BioScience Project, Wakefield, MA, 01880, USA
| | - Mehek Dedhia
- Department of Research and Education, BioScience Project, Wakefield, MA, 01880, USA
| | - Wim E Crusio
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d'Aquitaine, UMR, CNRS and University of Bordeaux, UMR 5287, Pessac cedex, Aquitaine, 33615, France
| | - Anna Delprato
- Department of Research and Education, BioScience Project, Wakefield, MA, 01880, USA
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295
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Wisniewski T, Drummond E. Future horizons in Alzheimer's disease research. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2019; 168:223-241. [PMID: 31699317 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2019.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
There are growing genetic, transcriptomic and proteomic data pointing to the complexity of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Unbiased "omics" approaches are essential for the future development of effective AD research, which will need to be combined and personalized, given that multiple distinct pathways can drive AD pathology. It is essential to gain a better understanding of the AD pathogenesis subtype variety and to develop several distinct therapeutic approaches tailored to address this diversity, as well as the common presence of mixed pathologies. These nonmutually exclusive therapeutic approaches include the targeting of multiple toxic oligomeric species concurrently, targeting the apolipoprotein E/amyloid β interaction and the modulation of innate immunity, as well as more "out of the box" ideas such as targeting infectious agents that may play a role in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wisniewski
- Departments of Neurology, Pathology and Psychiatry, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States.
| | - Eleanor Drummond
- Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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296
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Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia refers to a particular onset and course of cognitive and functional decline associated with age together with a particular neuropathology. It was first described by Alois Alzheimer in 1906 about a patient whom he first encountered in 1901. Modern clinical diagnostic criteria have been developed, and criteria have also been proposed to recognize preclinical (or presymptomatic) stages of the disease with the use of biomarkers. The primary neuropathology was described by Alzheimer, and in the mid-1980s subsequently evolved into a more specific neuropathologic definition that recognizes the comorbid neuropathologies that frequently contribute to clinical dementia. Alzheimer's disease is now the most common form of neurodegenerative dementia in the United States with a disproportionate disease burden in minority populations. Deficits in the ability to encode and store new memories characterizes the initial stages of the disease. Subsequent progressive changes in cognition and behavior accompany the later stages. Changes in amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleavage and production of the APP fragment beta-amyloid (Aβ) along with hyperphosphorylated tau protein aggregation coalesce to cause reduction in synaptic strength, synaptic loss, and neurodegeneration. Metabolic, vascular, and inflammatory changes, as well as comorbid pathologies are key components of the disease process. Symptomatic treatment offers a modest, clinically measurable effect in cognition, but disease-modifying therapies are desperately needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose A Soria Lopez
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States; Shiley-Marcos Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Hector M González
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States; Shiley-Marcos Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Gabriel C Léger
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States; Shiley-Marcos Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.
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