Boredom proneness: its relationship to psychological- and physical-health symptoms

Examining the Association Between Boredom Proneness and Bedtime Procrastination Among Chinese College Students: A Sequential Mediation Model with Mobile Phone Addiction and Negative Emotions

Purpose

The phenomenon of bedtime procrastination has become very common in China in recent years, especially among college students, and it can have numerous negative implications for both physical and mental health. However, the impacting factors and possible underlying mechanisms of bedtime procrastination have not yet been fully clarified. The present study aims to explore the relationship between boredom proneness and bedtime procrastination in Chinese college students, and propose a multiple mediation model to further explore the mediating effects of mobile phone addiction and negative emotions in this link.

Participants and Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 668 Chinese college students aged 18 to 32 years old (M=20.36 years [SD=1.69]; 35.03% male). A series of self-rating questionnaires measuring degrees of boredom proneness, mobile phone addiction, bedtime procrastination, as well as negative emotions (depression, anxiety and stress) were administered.

Results

The results showed that boredom proneness, mobile phone addiction, negative emotions and bedtime procrastination were significantly and positively correlated with each other in college students. Mobile phone addiction and negative emotions separately played partial mediating roles in the relationship between boredom proneness and bedtime procrastination. Furthermore, a sequential mediation pathway was significant whereby boredom proneness predicted mobile phone addiction, which was associated with higher levels of negative emotions, which were then associated with more bedtime procrastination behaviors.

Conclusion

The present findings indicate that both mobile phone addiction and negative emotions are important risk-enhancing mediators in the association between boredom proneness and bedtime procrastination in Chinese college students. Therefore, intervention management that concentrating on reducing mobile phone addiction as well as improving negative emotions may be useful for decreasing bedtime procrastination among college students.

Mindfulness facets differentially relate to self-reported negative and positive emotional eating types in treatment-seeking adults with overweight/obesity

BACKGROUND

Mindfulness is a meaningful therapeutic target in the treatment of emotional eating in adults with overweight/obesity. Descriptive research mapping relations between mindfulness facets and emotional eating types in treatment-seeking adults with overweight/obesity is needed.

METHODS

Cross-sectional relations between mindfulness facets (i.e., acting with awareness, describe, non-judgment, non-reactive, and observe; Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form) and emotional eating types (i.e., self-reported negative and positive emotional eating; Emotional Eating Scale-Revised, Emotional Appetite Questionnaire) were examined in a treatment-seeking sample of adults with overweight/obesity (N = 63).

RESULTS

Significant bivariate correlations revealed negative relations between mindfulness facets and emotional eating types. Multiple regressions revealed that higher describe (β = - 0.42, p = 0.004) mindfulness was associated with lower self-reported emotional eating-anger/anxiety; higher non-reactive (β = - 0.31, p = 0.01) and non-judgment (β = - 0.28, p = 0.02) mindfulness were associated with lower self-reported emotional eating-depression; and higher non-judgment (β = 0.26, p = 0.04) mindfulness was associated with higher self-reported emotional eating-positive.

CONCLUSIONS

Describe, non-judgment, and non-reactive mindfulness were uniquely and significantly associated with eating in response to negative and positive emotions. Results suggest the potential need for intervention programs to be sensitive to the multidimensional nature of mindfulness in the treatment of distinct types of emotional eating in adults with overweight/obesity.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Mesolimbic dopamine release precedes actively sought aversive stimuli in mice

In some models, animals approach aversive stimuli more than those housed in an enriched environment. Here, we found that male mice in an impoverished and unstimulating (i.e., boring) chamber without toys sought aversive air puffs more often than those in an enriched chamber. Using this animal model, we identified the insular cortex as a regulator of aversion-seeking behavior. Activation and inhibition of the insular cortex increased and decreased the frequencies of air-puff self-stimulation, respectively, and the firing patterns of insular neuron ensembles predicted the self-stimulation timing. Dopamine levels in the ventrolateral striatum decreased with passive air puffs but increased with actively sought puffs. Around 20% of mice developed intense self-stimulation despite being offered toys, which was prevented by administering opioid receptor antagonists. This study establishes a basis for comprehending the neural underpinnings of usually avoided stimulus-seeking behaviors.

Association between Personality Traits and Phubbing: The Co-Moderating Roles of Boredom and Loneliness

Phubbing is defined as the use of one's phone while in a conversation, leading to a disconnection from interpersonal communications. This topic has become more interesting lately due to the increased use of smartphones worldwide and in Lebanon, where 86% of the population owns a smartphone. This study aims to assess the association between phubbing and personality traits with the moderating effects of loneliness and boredom proneness. This cross-sectional study was conducted between August-September 2020. 461 participants (18-29 years) filled out the survey. Higher open-mindedness was associated with less phubbing. Being married compared to single and higher open-mindedness were significantly associated with less phubbing. More boredom was significantly associated with more phubbing. The interaction extraversion by boredom was significantly associated with phubbing; this was significant at low levels of loneliness and boredom where extraversion was significantly associated with more phubbing. At moderate loneliness and high boredom and at high loneliness and boredom, extraversion was significantly associated with less phubbing. The interactions between boredom and loneliness and the other four personality traits did not show any significant association with phubbing. The current study highlights the importance of personality traits in influencing phubbing and might contribute to the preliminary assessment of phubbing. Healthcare professionals might be able to use the data of this study to implement appropriate smartphone use habits, as this would help patients improve their social relationships.

Reduction in COVID-19 related resource loss and decline in prevalence of probable depression in Chinese adults: an application of the Conservation of Resource Theory

BACKGROUND

The levels of resource losses due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and mental distress may change during the pandemic period. Based on the Conservation of Resource (COR) Theory, this study investigated such changes and the mediation between survey time (Round 2 versus Round 1) and depression via resource losses.

METHODS

Two serial random population-based telephone surveys interviewed 209 and 458 Hong Kong Chinese adults in April 2020 and May 2021, respectively. Probable depression was defined as 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) score ≥ 10. The validated Conservation of Resources Scale for COVID-19 (CORS-COVID-19) scale was used to assess resource losses due to COVID-19. Multivariable logistic regression analysis, hierarchical logistic regression analysis, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to test the association, interaction, and mediation hypotheses, respectively.

RESULTS

The prevalence of probable depression declined from 8.6% to 1.0% over time, together with reductions in losses of financial resource (Cohen's d = 0.88), future control (Cohen's d = 0.39), social resource (Cohen's d = 0.60), and family resource (Cohen's d = 0.36) due to COVID-19. All the overall scale/subscales of the CORS-COVID-19 were positively and associated with probable depression [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) ranged from 2.72 to 42.30]. In SEM, the survey time was negatively associated with the latent variable of resource loss (β = - 0.46), which in turn was positively associated with probable depression (β = 0.73). In addition, the direct effect of survey time on probable depression was statistically non-significant (β = - 0.08), indicating a full mediation effect of resource losses.

CONCLUSIONS

The lessening of the resource losses might have fully accounted for the significant decline in probable depression from Month 3 to 15 since the first COVID-19 outbreak in Hong Kong, China. The level of depression might have increased during the first phase of the pandemic, but might decline in the later phases if resources losses could be lessened. All stakeholders should hence work together to minimize individuals' COVID-19-related resource losses to prevent depression in the general population, as COVID-19 might be lasting.

Predicting life satisfaction based on the emotion words in self-statement texts

Measuring people's life satisfaction in real time on a large scale is quite valuable for monitoring and promoting public mental health; however, the traditional questionnaire method cannot fully meet this need. This study utilized the emotion words in self-statement texts to train machine learning predictive models to identify an individual's life satisfaction. The SVR model was found to have the best performance, with the correlation between predicted scores and self-reported questionnaire scores achieving 0.42 and the split-half reliability achieving 0.939. This result demonstrates the possibility of identifying life satisfaction through emotional expressions and provides a method to measure the public's life satisfaction online. The word categories selected through the modeling process were happy (PA), sorrow (NB), boredom (NE), reproach (NN), glad (MH), aversion (ME), and N (negation + positive), which reveal the specific emotions in self-expression relevant to life satisfaction.

Subjective Impact of Age-Related Hearing Loss Is Worse for Those Who Routinely Experience Boredom and Failures of Attention

OBJECTIVES

Despite extensive evidence supporting the benefits of hearing treatments for individuals affected by hearing loss, many leave their hearing issues unaddressed. This underscores the need to better understand the individual factors influencing decision-making regarding hearing loss treatments. One consideration regarding the low uptake of treatment is the finding that the subjective impact of hearing loss is greater for some individuals than for others, yielding a significant discrepancy between subjective measures of hearing loss (e.g., self-report hearing-handicap scales) and objective audiometric assessments (e.g., audiograms). The current study seeks to elucidate some of the cognitive-affective factors that give rise to these individual differences in the subjective impact of hearing loss. Specifically, we hypothesized that a stronger trait tendency to experience boredom would be correlated with more intensely negative experiences of hearing-related issues, and that this relationship would be mediated by underlying attentional difficulties.

METHODS

Through a partnership with hearing care clinics (Connect Hearing Canada), we recruited a large sample of older adults (n = 1840) through their network of hearing-care clinics. Audiometric thresholds provided an objective measure of hearing ability for each participant, while self-report questionnaires assessed individual differences in the subjective impact of hearing-related issues (hearing handicap), subjective strain experienced when listening (listening effort), tendency to experience boredom, tendency to experience difficulty maintaining task-focused attention (mind-wandering), and self-perceived level of cognitive functioning.

RESULTS

The subjective impact of hearing loss-both in terms of hearing handicap and strain when listening-was found to be more intensely negative for those who are characteristically more susceptible to experiencing boredom, and this relationship was shown to be mediated by self-reported differences in the ability to maintain task-focused attention. This relationship between trait boredom proneness and the subjective impact of hearing-related issues was evident across all levels of objective hearing abilities. Moreover, there was no evidence that the subjective impact of hearing loss is worse for those who routinely experience boredom because of objectively-poorer hearing abilities in those individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

A greater trait susceptibility to experiencing boredom was associated with a more aversive subjective experience of hearing loss, and this relationship is mediated by attentional difficulties. This is a novel discovery regarding the cognitive-affective factors that are linked to individual differences in the effect that hearing loss has on individuals' daily functioning. These results may be helpful for better understanding the determinants of hearing-rehabilitation decisions and how to improve the uptake of treatments for hearing loss. The observational nature of the current study restricts us from drawing any definitive conclusions about the casual directions among the factors being investigated. Further research is therefore needed to establish how individual differences in the characteristic tendency to experience boredom are related to attentional-control difficulties and the experience of hearing-related issues. More research is also required to determine how all of these factors may influence decisions regarding hearing-loss treatments.

Consumed by Boredom: Food Choice Motivation and Weight Changes during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Boredom is an established cause and correlate of eating behavior. Yet, existing work offers a scattered range of plausible motivations for why this is. We examined among 302 people representative of the adult UK population what motivations they had for selecting food during the COVID-19 pandemic and how this related to boredom. As predicted, bored people choose food less for health reasons and more for convenience. Boredom reduced ethical and ‘natural content’ motivations for selecting food and was not associated with choosing food to regulate one’s mood or to experience unfamiliarity. Boredom was also associated with greater absolute changes in weight over the course of the pandemic. Boredom did not predict weight gains or losses overall. These findings offer insights into the role that boredom plays in eating motivations in particular and health-relevant outcomes in general.

The Boredom Prone Personality: A Multitrait-Multimethod Approach

The present investigation reports the convergent and discriminant validity coefficients for two versions of Farmer and Sundberg's (Journal of Personality Assessment, 50(1), 4-17, 1986) boredom proneness scale. Boredom proneness, a trait that refers to an enduring tendency to disengage from the environment, has been neglected by the field of psychology despite its theoretical relevance to performance and psychological well-being. This report sought: (a) to validate a shortened 8-item version of the original Boredom Proneness Scale published by Struk et al. (Assessment, 24(3), 346-359, 2017) and (b) to extensively examine the boredom proneness construct that the long and short versions of this scale assess. We employed a multitrait-multimethod approach that assessed a large number of theorized effects simultaneously. We replicated dozens of theorized and/or previously observed boredom proneness correlates (convergent validity) as well as many theorized null effects (discriminant validity). The overall pattern of significant and null effect sizes provided compelling evidence that the original boredom proneness scale as well as the 8 items that constitute the shorter version are valid measures of one's susceptibility to boredom. We propose that boredom proneness might be an underappreciated yet important theoretical moderator of Person X Situation effects.

Relationships between Dark Triad and negative emotions during COVID-19 lockdown: The chain mediating roles of negative coping and state boredom

Personality is distal vulnerability of negative emotions and vital to mental health. Dark Triad was significantly correlated with negative emotions, whereas the mechanisms beneath the relationships were less clear. Based on life history strategy theory (LHS) and cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress model, the study explored the relationships between Dark Triad and negative emotions and investigated the roles of negative coping style and state boredom in the relationships aforementioned during the strict period of COVID-19 lockdown in China. 464 participants (M age = 36.78 years; SD = 10.53) finished a package of measurements online including Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21), Short Dark Triad (SD3), Multidimensional State Boredom Scale (MSBS), and Simplified Coping Style Questionnaire (SCSQ). The results showed there were positive relationships between Dark Triad and depression, anxiety and stress. Moreover, the relationships between Dark Triad and negative emotions were sequentially mediated by negative coping style and state boredom. The present study offered fascinating perspectives in the relationships between Dark Triad and negative emotions, and revealed how Dark Triad affected depression, anxiety and stress during the initial phase of COVID-19 pandemic and strict lockdown among Chinese population. The present results may provide important implications for the prevention and intervention of depression, anxiety and stress during COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown. Specifically, the intervention strategies that focus on reducing Dark Triad, negative coping and boredom may help offset occurrence of negative emotional states.

Painfully bored: the role of negative urgency and history of Non-Suicidal Self-Injury in Self-Administering painful stimuli

The current study aims to examine the causal effect of boredom on non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), expanding prior experimental research by including an anger induction to compare to a boredom induction, and additionally measuring whether participants specifically seek painful stimulation. In a sample of mostly undergraduate students (N = 146), emotional state was manipulated through video induction, and NSSI behavior was simultaneously measured, operationalized through self-administration of electric shocks. Participants’ pain thresholds were measured beforehand. NSSI history and negative urgency were included as potential moderators. Results showed that boredom increased both frequency and intensity of self-administered electric shocks, especially in participants with an NSSI history. Negative urgency was not a significant moderator. No causal anger-NSSI link was found, possibly due to the anger induction not being sufficiently effective. Clinical implications are considered through suggestions of boredom coping skills training as an intervention strategy in NSSI populations.

Boredom belief moderates the mental health impact of boredom among young people: Correlational and multi-wave longitudinal evidence gathered during the COVID-19 pandemic

Objectives

Young people's experience of boredom and its psychological health sequelae have been exacerbated by the COVID‐19 pandemic. The present study examined the moderating role of boredom beliefs—the extent to which one affectively dislikes boredom (boredom dislike) and cognitively accepts it (boredom normalcy)—on the association between boredom experience and mental well‐being. We also validated a new measure of boredom beliefs in two different samples of young people.

Method

We report data from a correlational study with British young people aged 12–25 (Study 1; N = 2495) and a 16‐week eight‐wave within‐subject study with Israeli adolescents aged 12–18 (Study 2; N = 314).

Results

Across both studies, disliking boredom was associated with higher frequency and intensity of boredom. Boredom dislike moderated the negative association between boredom and mental well‐being, such that the association was more salient among those who strongly disliked boredom. Normalizing boredom was positively associated with mental well‐being. The measure of boredom beliefs demonstrated fair validity and reliability.

Conclusion

Results provide novel insights into the potential buffering effect of boredom beliefs against the mental health impact of boredom, particularly at a time of reduced activity. These findings generalize across two different countries.

A Trait-Based Network Perspective on the Validation of the French Short Boredom Proneness Scale

Abstract. The Short Boredom Proneness Scale (SBPS) has recently been developed. Using a standard confirmatory factor analysis, we report on the structural validation of the French SBPS, which provided support for the original construct. A network analysis ( n = 490) revealed the structure of the relationships between the SBPS and the two facets of Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II). The analysis revealed positive connections between the boredom and curiosity items, whereas the connections between the boredom and exploration items were negative. To evaluate measurement invariance, we compared the French-speaking sample ( n = 490) with an English-speaking sample ( n = 364). Full configural, metric, and scalar invariance was established; thus, we provide a valid French translation of a widely used measure of boredom that may advantage future research.

The Relation Between College Students' Social Anxiety and Mobile Phone Addiction: The Mediating Role of Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy and Subjective Well-Being

The present study explores the underlying mechanism of the relationship between college students' social anxiety and mobile phone addiction. Adopting college students' social anxiety scale, regulatory emotional self-efficacy scale, subjective well-being scale and mobile phone addiction scale, this research tested valid samples of 680 Chinese college students. The results indicated that social anxiety exerted a significant and positive impact on mobile phone addiction. Regulatory emotional self-efficacy played a partial mediating role between social anxiety and mobile phone addiction. Subjective well-being also played a partial mediating role between social anxiety and mobile phone addiction. Moreover, both regulatory emotional self-efficacy and subjective well-being were found to play a chain mediating role between social anxiety and mobile phone addiction. The study provides valuable insights into the impact of college students' social anxiety on mobile phone addiction.

Having a Break or Being Imprisoned: Influence of Subjective Interpretations of Quarantine and Isolation on Boredom

Boredom has been identified as one of the greatest psychological challenges when staying at home during quarantine and isolation. However, this does not mean that the situation necessarily causes boredom. On the basis of 13 explorative interviews with bored and non-bored persons who have been under quarantine or in isolation, we explain why boredom is related to a subjective interpretation process rather than being a direct consequence of the objective situation. Specifically, we show that participants vary significantly in their interpretations of staying at home and, thus, also in their experience of boredom. While the non-bored participants interpret the situation as a relief or as irrelevant, the bored participants interpret it as a major restriction that only some are able to cope with.

The Psychology of Pandemics

This article reviews the current state of knowledge and promising new directions concerning the psychology of pandemics. Pandemics are disease outbreaks that spread globally. Historically, psychological factors have been neglected by researchers and health authorities despite evidence that pandemics are, to a large extent, psychological phenomena whereby beliefs and behaviors influence the spreading versus containment of infection. Psychological factors are important in determining (a) adherence to pandemic mitigation methods (e.g., adherence to social distancing), (b) pandemic-related social disruption (e.g., panic buying, racism, antilockdown protests), and (c) pandemic-related distress and related problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, prolonged grief disorder). The psychology of pandemics has emerged as an important field of research and practice during the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. As a scholarly discipline, the psychology of pandemics is fragmented and diverse, encompassing various psychological subspecialties and allied disciplines, but is vital for shaping clinical practice and public health guidelines for COVID-19 and future pandemics. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Volume 18 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Why are Individuals with Alexithymia Symptoms More Likely to Have Mobile Phone Addiction? The Multiple Mediating Roles of Social Interaction Anxiousness and Boredom Proneness

Purpose

Previous studies have investigated the relationship between alexithymia and problematic mobile phone use (PMPU). However, yet gaps in identifying the internal mechanisms of this relationship remain. Hence, based on the Interaction of Person–Affect–Cognition–Execution model, the current research examined the mediating roles of college students’ social interaction anxiousness (SIA) and boredom proneness (BPS) in the relationship between alexithymia and PMPU.

Methods

A total of 1300 college students (M_age = 20.36 years, SD = 0.97) were recruited from two universities in the southeast of China to complete a series of questionnaires, including the Toronto alexithymia scale, SIA scale, BPS scale, and mobile phone addiction index questionnaire. In order to conduct conservative predictions, the demographic variables (ie, gender) were controlled as covariates.

Results

The results of multiple mediation analysis showed that (1) alexithymia was positively linked with PMPU; (2) both SIA and BPS mediated the link between alexithymia and PMPU; and (3) a serial indirect pathway emerged (ie, alexithymia → SIA → BPS → PMPU).

Conclusion

These findings indicated that alexithymia could influence PMPU in a simple indirect way (parallel mediation) and in a complex indirect way (serial mediation). Besides, these findings provide some insights into the prevention and intervention of PMPU.

Neural basis underlying the relation between boredom proneness and procrastination: The role of functional coupling between precuneus/cuneus and posterior cingulate cortex

Procrastination refers to voluntarily delaying an important task despite the fact that this decision will take a heavy toll on daily life. Previous researches have shown that boredom proneness is a robust predictor of procrastination and the default mode network (DMN) could be the neural substrate for the connection between the two variables mentioned above. However, how boredom proneness links to procrastination at the neural level remains unclear. To address this question, we adopted the voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) methods to identify the neural basis of the relation between boredom proneness and procrastination. Behavioral results indicated that boredom proneness was significantly positively correlated with procrastination. VBM results revealed that boredom proneness was negatively correlated with grey matter volumes in the precuneus/cuneus. Furthermore, the RSFC analyses showed that the functional connectivity between precuneus/cuneus and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) was positively correlated with boredom proneness. More importantly, a mediation analysis found that boredom proneness played a fully mediating role in improving the relationship between precuneus/cuneus-PCC functional connectivity and procrastination. These findings suggest that the brain functional connectivity engages in attention control may account for the association between boredom proneness and procrastination, and highlight the important role of sustaining concentration on mitigating procrastination.

Emotional Intelligence and Professional Boredom among Nursing Personnel in Greece

Occupational (professional) boredom results in low performance at work. It has been positively associated with high levels of anxiety and depression as well as premature death. However, occupational boredom has not been extensively studied among working nurses. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and occupational boredom in nurses working in both public (52.9%) and private (47.1%) health units in Greece. A cross-sectional study was conducted among a convenience sample of 189 nurses (84.7% females) with an average age of 40 years. Emotional intelligence was evaluated with the use of The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form and Professional boredom was assessed with the use of the Boredom Proneness Scale. The majority of Nurses showed relatively high values of total Emotional Intelligence (EI), and marginally low values of overall Professional Boredom. A statistically significant negative correlation was found between the overall Professional Boredom of Nurses and the Well-being, Self-control, Emotionality and Sociability subscales of EI, as well as total EI (p < 0.001). Multiple linear regression analyses showed that the three dimensions of EI (Well-being, Self-Control and Emotionality) explained 39.0% of the variability of the total Professional Boredom of the working Nurses.

Development and validation of the conservation of resources scale for COVID-19 in the Chinese adult general population

Globally, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused severe and multi-dimensional resource losses among individuals. The Conservation of Resource (COR) theory postulates that resource loss generates related stress responses. It can suitably be applied to understand the pandemic's encompassing adverse consequences. Yet, no assessment tool exists. This study hence developed and validated the COR Scale for COVID-19 (CORS-COVID-19) to facilitate relevant research. The five hypothesized domains included losses in financial resource, family resource, future control, fun, and social resource. A population-based random telephone survey interviewed 300 Chinese adults in the general population in Hong Kong, China during April 3-10, 2020. The levels of different types of resource losses were high (especially for loss in fun). The 5-factor structure identified by factor analysis matches with the five hypothesized dimensions. Its psychometric properties are acceptable, including good internal consistency, content validity (the correlations between the items and their respective subscales were stronger than that between the items and the other four subscales), concurrent validity (significant correlations between the scale/subscale scores and both emotional distress due to COVID-19 and satisfaction with living in Hong Kong), and convergent validity (significant correlations between specific subscales and corresponding external variables). Relatively high floor effects were detected in some subscales. The scale, which is the first of the types to assess resource losses during a pandemic, can provide theory-based understandings/assessment about the negative impacts of COVID-19. It also facilitates warranted comparisons across countries and time periods in future studies.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-021-01933-y.

Boredom Makes Me Sick: Adolescents' Boredom Trajectories and Their Health-Related Quality of Life

Existing research shows consistent links between boredom and depression, somatic complaints, substance abuse, or obesity and eating disorders. However, comparatively little is known about potential psychological and physical health-related correlates of academic boredom. Evidence for such a relationship can be derived from the literature, as boredom has adverse consequences in both work and achievement-related settings. The present study investigates latent correlations of 1.484 adolescents’ (M_age = 13.23) mathematics boredom scores at three time points during a semester in 2018/19 and their Rasch scaled health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Moreover, we applied latent growth curve modeling to estimate boredom trajectories across the semester and determined the relationship between the latent growth parameters of student boredom and HRQoL in bivariate correlation analyses. Our results show that boredom is significantly negatively linked with all HRQoL dimensions (physical well-being, psychological well-being, autonomy and parent relation, social support and peers, school environment [SCH], and general HRQoL [GH]). Furthermore, stronger increases in boredom across the semester were negatively associated with SCH scores and GH. In conclusion, given that boredom is negatively linked with HRQoL and that stronger boredom growth is linked with more severe health-related problems, signs of academic boredom could be an early warning signal for adolescents’ potentially severe problems.

Détresse psychologique et sentiment de solitude : quels impacts du confinement lié à la Covid-19 dans la population française ?

The COVID-19 pandemic created a worldwide health crisis. This crisis resulted in an almost two-month lockdown in France - lockdown that has serious impacts on physical and mental health. This unprecedented situation resulted in an important reflection about the mental health of the persons experiencing this crisis. The aim of our study was to apprehend the emotional state of the persons experiencing this lockdown, taking into account day-to-day life and feelings of loneliness. In order to develop a good comprehension of the impact of this situation on mental health, we recruited 4689 persons through an online survey between March 17th and May 11th of 2020 in France. We used several psychometric tools that gave us access to various data, such as socio-biographical information, situational variables - place of living, work context, etc. - and psychological state - depressive symptoms, anxiety, loneliness, etc. This paper focuses mostly on the UCLA loneliness scale, and the French Canadian version of the Psychiatric Symptoms Index (PSI), which measures psychological distress, as well as depressive symptoms, anxiety and cognitive impairment. Results show a moderate psychological distress for 27.5% of our sample, with depressive symptomatology, irritability or cognitive impairment. There is also a high loneliness feeling in 21.8% of the sample. Psychological distress is explained by sociodemographic variables - such as gender and age - but also by situational information - type of housing and persistence of income - and the loneliness feeling. If this pandemic and this lockdown show a clear impact on the emotional life of the French population, these results need to be taken into account with a broader range of situational and psychological variables. These additional data would help us have a more thorough understanding of the underlying factors explaining this difficult experience of the crisis. This comprehension also needs to go further in time and think about the repercussions beyond the end of the lockdown, in order to observe the evolution of these emotions and the potential persistence of psychological distress.

What is boredom proneness? A comparison of three characterizations

OBJECTIVE

Boredom proneness is associated with various problematic behaviors and mental health issues. Despite its wide-ranging implication, boredom proneness as a trait-like construct suffers from conceptual ambiguity and measurement issues. We examined whether boredom proneness represents individual differences in (a) the frequency of getting bored, (b) the intensity of boredom, and/or (c) a holistic perception of life being boring (perceived life boredom).

METHOD

Across Study 1 (U.S. Sample, N = 495; HK Sample, N = 231) and Study 2 (N = 608), we tested the construct validity of boredom proneness by estimating its association with measures of the three possible characterizations (convergent validity), and examined to what extent associations between boredom proneness and variables relevant to well-being (e.g., life satisfaction, psychological distress) could be reproduced with the three potential characterizations (concurrent validity).

RESULTS

Results suggest that each of the three characterizations represents some aspect of boredom proneness, and they generally reproduced boredom proneness' associations with other variables. Among them, perceived life boredom had the strongest convergent and concurrent validity.

CONCLUSION

Our findings provide novel insights into the characterization of boredom proneness and its hitherto poorly understood relationship with psychological well-being.

Boredom by Sensation-Seeking Interactions During Adolescence: Associations with Substance Use, Externalizing Behavior, and Internalizing Symptoms in a US National Sample

During adolescence, sensation seeking is linked to several adverse outcomes including substance use, risk taking, and psychopathology. Recent empirical interest in the construct of boredom has revealed that some similar associations may exist for boredom during adolescence. Both boredom and sensation seeking peak during adolescence, and yet, research on boredom and its interaction with sensation seeking are limited. In a multi-cohort, US nationally representative sample of 8th and 10th grade students from the monitoring the future study, latent-moderated structural equation modeling was used to estimate the association of boredom, sensation seeking, and their interaction, to substance use, externalizing behavior, and depressive affect. Moderation by gender was also tested. Boredom and sensation seeking were both significantly associated with most dependent variables. Significant interaction effects were found wherein individuals high on both boredom and sensation seeking reported the highest levels of depressive affect and externalizing behavior. There were no significant interaction effects for substance use indices. Gender moderation was found for depressive affect. The results of this study demonstrate the generalizability of boredom associations and the significance of boredom by sensation-seeking interactions across multiple mental health domains during adolescence. Prevention efforts that attend to both boredom and sensation seeking may be particularly effective for promoting mental health and preventing externalizing behavior.

Psychological Distress, Loneliness, and Boredom Among the General Population of Tyrol, Austria During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background: COVID-19-related mental health problems are considered a public health challenge. The aim of this study was to investigate psychological distress, loneliness, and boredom among the general population of the federal state of Tyrol, Austria. Methods: Residents of Tyrol aged ≥ 18 years were recruited via dissemination of a link through social media and other advertisements and invited to complete an online survey from June 26th to August 20th, 2020. Next to the collection of sociodemographic and COVID-19 related variables the Brief Symptom Checklist (BSCL), the Three-Item Loneliness Scale (TILS), and the Multidimensional State Boredom Scale-Short Form (MSBS-SF) were used to assess psychological distress, loneliness, and boredom. Results: 961 participants took part in the survey (68.3% woman). Of these, 14.4% were burdened from psychological distress (BSCL), 22.6% reached a TILS score ≥ 7 and were therefore classified as severely lonely, and boredom levels lay by a mean of 25.9 ± 11.0 points in the MSBS-SF (range: 7-56). Women, singles, low-income people as well as those who were unemployed were significantly more often affected by all of the selected outcomes compared to the remaining sample and they had significantly more frequently consumed alcohol or other substances since the outbreak of the pandemic in order to feel better. In addition, young and middle-aged adults were particularly burdened by loneliness and boredom. Discussion: Our findings identify vulnerable groups and factors associated with higher psychological distress, loneliness, and boredom in the context of the pandemic. In order to prevent mental health problems it will be critical to identify options of maintaining social contacts and remaining active despite pandemic-related restrictions.

The relationship between perceived stress and emotional distress during the COVID-19 outbreak: Effects of boredom proneness and coping style

The outbreak of a novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic was a great threat to the physical and mental health of the general population. Our research aimed to investigate the relationship between perceived stress and emotional distress during the initial outbreak. Furthermore, potential risks and protective factors, i.e., coping and boredom proneness, of stress-related emotional distress were also explored. Data from 3233 participants in China were collected through an online survey platform during the initial outbreak of the COVID-19 from January 31 to February 9 in 2020. Results showed that higher perceived stress was associated with more emotional distress including depression, fear, compulsion-anxiety, neurasthenia, and hypochondria. Boredom proneness significantly and positively mediated the relationship between perceived stress and emotional distress. Moreover, coping style moderated the stress-emotional distress relationship, i.e., individuals who mainly adopted positive coping strategies suffered fewer symptoms of depression, compulsion-anxiety, and neurasthenia under stress, while negative coping strategies aggravated emotional distress. These results from the present study provide practical value for mental health intervention during the emergent public health events.

Quality of Life and Mental Health in Kidney Transplant Recipients During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in mental distress such as phobic anxieties, depressive reactions, hypochondriac concerns, and insomnia. Among the causes are risk of infection and prolonged isolation. This study aimed to analyze psychopathological variables and dysfunctional lifestyles related to adequate therapeutic compliance in kidney transplant recipients. Methods: Eighty-nine kidney transplant recipients were evaluated using an online protocol including a questionnaire concerning habits, lifestyle and psychophysical well-being in the COVID-19 period, the Middlesex Hospital Questionnaire (MHQ) and the SF-36 Health Survey to evaluate the perception of their physical and emotional health. Results: Of these recipients, 28.6% reported changes in their emotional state. Sleep quality deteriorated for 16.1%. Anxiety (M = 5.57, r = 0.33; p < 0.05) and phobia (M = 6.28, r = 0.26; p < 0.05) correlated with concerns related to physical health. There was no negative impact on relational and socialization aspects, which were likely well compensated by the use of remote technologies such as video phone calls, Zoom meetings and use of computers (r = 0.99; r = 0.80; p < 0.05). Conclusions: It would be interesting to maintain this remote visit and interview mode to monitor, on a clinical and psychological level, kidney transplant recipients in subsequent follow-ups (12-18 months), to check for any psychopathological disorders and/or changes in their resilience capacity in the Coronavirus emergency.

Boredom Proneness and Self-Control as Unique Risk Factors in Achievement Settings

The state of boredom arises when we have the desire to be engaged in goal pursuit, but for whatever reason we cannot fulfil that desire. Boredom proneness is characterized by both frequent and intense feelings of boredom and is an enduring individual difference trait associated with a raft of negative outcomes. There has been some work in educational settings, but relatively little is known about the consequences of boredom proneness for learning. Here we explored the unique contributions of boredom proneness, self-control and self-esteem to undergraduate self-reported higher grade point average (GPA). Within educational settings, prior research has shown self-control and self-esteem to be associated with better academic performance. In contrast, boredom proneness is associated with lower levels of self-control and self-esteem. Our analyses replicate those previous findings showing that self-control acts as a positive predictor of GPA. Importantly, we further demonstrated, for the first time, that boredom proneness has a unique contribution to GPA over and above the contribution of self-control, such that as boredom proneness increases, GPA decreases. We discuss potential mechanisms through which boredom proneness may influence academic performance.

What is the best way of delivering virtual nature for improving mood? An experimental comparison of high definition TV, 360° video, and computer generated virtual reality

Exposure to 'real' nature can increase positive affect and decrease negative affect, but direct access is not always possible, e.g. for people in health/care settings who often experience chronic boredom. In these settings 'virtual' forms of nature may also have mood-related benefits (e.g. reducing boredom) but it has been difficult to separate effects of nature content from those of delivery mode. The present laboratory-based study explored whether exposure to three different delivery modes of virtual nature could reduce negative affect (including boredom) and/or increase positive affect. Adult volunteer participants (n = 96) took part in a boredom induction task (to simulate the emotional state of many people in health/care settings) before being randomly assigned to view/interact with a virtual underwater coral reef in one of three experimental conditions: (a) 2D video viewed on a high-definition TV screen; (b) 360⁰ video VR (360-VR) viewed via a head mounted display (HMD); or (c) interactive computer-generated VR (CG-VR), also viewed via a HMD and interacted with using a hand-held controller. Visual and auditory content was closely matched across conditions with help from the BBC's Blue Planet II series team. Supporting predictions, virtual exposure to a coral reef reduced boredom and negative affect and increased positive affect and nature connectedness. Although reductions in boredom and negative affect were similar across all three conditions, CG-VR was associated with significantly greater improvements in positive affect than TV, which were mediated by greater experienced presence and increases in nature connectedness. Results improve our understanding of the importance of virtual nature delivery mode and will inform studies in real care settings.

A German Validation of Four Questionnaires Crucial to the Study of Time Perception: BPS, CFC-14, SAQ, and MQT

We aimed to validate four established questionnaires related to time perception in German (Consideration of Future Consequences-14 scale (CFC-14), Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS), Metacognitive Questionnaire on Time (MQT), and Self-Awareness Questionnaire (SAQ)) using a back-translation method. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted on the data of 273 German-speaking participants to evaluate the factorial structures. Internal consistencies indicated good reliability values of the questionnaires and the respective subscales, except for the MQT. Intercorrelations between the questionnaires were examined to test their external validities and gain additional insight into the associations among the constructs. The consideration of future consequences was negatively linked to boredom proneness, whereas interoceptive awareness of one's bodily sensations was positively associated with boredom proneness. Additionally, interoceptive awareness was linked to metacognitive beliefs about which factors influence time perception. The results are discussed in regard to human time perception. Conclusion: The validated German questionnaires can now be used in research projects. Initial observations on how the questionnaires are related to each other fit the current knowledge on how human time perception works, yielding the first evidence for the external validity of the German versions of these established questionnaires. For evidence of criterion validity, future studies should more thoroughly investigate the external validities analyzing the correlations with other validated measures.

Neuroticism and Fear of COVID-19. The Interplay Between Boredom, Fantasy Engagement, and Perceived Control Over Time

The Italian government adopted measures to prevent the spread of coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) infection from March 9, 2020, to May 4, 2020 and imposed a phase of social distancing and self-isolation to all adult citizens. Although justified and necessary, psychologists question the impact of this process of COVID-19 isolation on the mental health of the population. Hence, this paper investigated the relationship between neuroticism, boredom, fantasy engagement, perceived control over time, and the fear of COVID-19. Specifically, we performed a cross-sectional study aimed at testing an integrative moderated mediation model. Our model assigned the boredom to the mediation role and both the fantasy engagement and perceived control of time to the role of moderators in the relationship between neuroticism and the fear of COVID-19. A sample of 301 subjects, mainly women (68.8%), aged between 18 and 57 years (M age = 22.12 years; SD = 6.29), participated in a survey conducted in the 1st-week lockdown phase 2 in Italy from May 7 to 18, 2020. Results suggested that neuroticism is crucial in coping with the COVID-19 pandemic, in line with literature showing high neurotic people having greater emotional reactivity and scarce resources to manage stress. We also found that people with high neuroticism tend to feel bored, and the relationship between neuroticism and boredom seems enhanced if one is involved in negative fantasies. Therefore, this result could also explain the positive effect between boredom and fear of COVID-19 we found in the current study. However, our data show that perceived control over time moderates the association between boredom and fear toward COVID-19. Having a high perceived control over time allows people to reduce boredom's effect on fear of COVID-19. In conclusion, we retain that psychological treatment programs could improve the individuals' perceived control over time to modulate anxiety toward the fear of COVID-19 and promote psychological well-being.

Are bored minds more likely to be addicted? The relationship between boredom proneness and problematic mobile phone use

BACKGROUND

Boredom proneness has been demonstrated as a salient vulnerability factor for problematic mobile phone use. However, the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relationship are less investigated. In the current study, we constructed an integrative moderated mediation model to test the mediating role of depression and the moderating role of attentional control in the relationship between boredom proneness and problematic mobile phone use.

METHOD

A total of 1099 college students (M_age = 20.04; SD = 1.25) were recruited to fill out the questionnaires measuring boredom proneness, depression, problematic mobile phone use, and attentional control.

RESULTS

Depression partially mediated the relationship between boredom proneness and problematic mobile phone use. Attentional control moderated the indirect relationship between boredom proneness and problematic mobile phone use through depression, with the indirect relationship being weaker for college students with higher levels of attentional control. Moreover, attentional control moderated the direct relationship between boredom proneness and problematic mobile phone use, in that this relationship was stronger for college students with higher levels of attentional control.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings illuminate the pathway through which boredom proneness is linked to problematic mobile phone use (i.e., mediation) and the condition on which the relationship between boredom proneness and problematic mobile phone use depends (i.e., moderation). More importantly, this study revealed the potential "double-edged sword" effect of attentional control. These findings have implications for early intervention and prevention of problematic mobile phone use in college students.

Multidimensional Models of Perfectionism and Procrastination: Seeking Determinants of Both

Background: Perfectionism is currently conceptualized using a multidimensional model, with extensive research establishing the presence of both maladaptive and adaptive forms. However, the potential adaptability of procrastination, largely considered as a maladaptive construct, and its possible developmental connection to perfectionism remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the individual differences of the multidimensional models of both perfectionism and procrastination, as well as investigating potential links between the two constructs. Methods: A convenience sample of 206 undergraduate students participated in this study. Participants completed a questionnaire consisting of 236 questions regarding the variables under investigation. Results: The adaptive model of procrastination yielded largely insignificant results and demonstrated limited links with adaptive perfectionism, while maladaptive procrastination was consistently associated with maladaptive perfectionism, lending further evidence of a unidimensional model of procrastination. Conclusions: Many previous findings regarding the multidimensional model of perfectionism were replicated, along with new contributions focusing on the dual-process model and temporal orientation.

Psychological distress and state boredom during the COVID-19 outbreak in China: the role of meaning in life and media use

BACKGROUND

Epidemics are associated with increased burden of psychological distress. However, the role of boredom on mental health during epidemic periods has seldom been explored.

OBJECTIVE

This study attempted to examine the effect of state boredom on psychological outcomes, and the role of media use and meaning in life among the indirectly exposed Chinese adults in the initial phase of the COVID-19 outbreak.

METHOD

An online survey was administered to 917 Chinese adults on 28 January 2020 (1 week after the official declaration of person-to-person transmission of the coronavirus). Self-report questionnaires were used to assess state boredom, anxiety, depression, stress, media use and meaning in life. Moderated mediation analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that the effect of state boredom on anxiety and stress, but not depression, were mediated by media use and that sense of meaning in life modified this association. Meaning in life served as a risk factor, rather than a protective factor for the negative psychological outcomes when people experienced boredom. The association between boredom and media use was significant for high but not low meaning in life individuals.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrated that boredom and media use were associated with an increased burden or psychological distress in the sample. It is important to pay attention to the possible negative impact of boredom and media use during COVID-19, and find more ways to cope with boredom, especially those with high presence of meaning in life.

[Psychopathological consequences of confinement]

The psychological effects of isolation have already been described in the literature (polar expeditions, submarines, prison). Nevertheless, the scale of confinement implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic is unprecedented. In addition to reviewing the published studies, we need to anticipate the psychological problems that could arise during or at a distance from confinement. We have gone beyond the COVID-19 literature in order to examine the implications of the known consequences of confinement, like boredom, social isolation, stress, or sleep deprivation. Anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, suicidal or addictive behaviours, domestic violence are described effects of confinement, but the mechanisms of emergence of these disorders and their interrelationships remain to be studied. For example, what are the mechanisms of emergence of post-traumatic stress disorders in the context of confinement? We also remind the reader of points of vigilance to be kept in mind with regard to eating disorders and hallucinations. Hallucinations are curiously ignored in the literature on confinement, whereas a vast literature links social isolation and hallucinations. Due to the broad psychopathological consequences, we have to look for these various symptoms to manage them. We quickly summarize the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches already in place, such as telemedicine, which is undergoing rapid development during the COVID-19 crisis.

Hard to Bear

Abstract. Establishing a causal relationship between state boredom and risk taking is contributory to understand the nature of boredom and its influences. This research examines how and why state boredom influences financial risk taking. Across multiple inductions of state boredom, we found that state boredom increased participants’ preference for engaging in financial risk-taking behavior (Studies 1, 2, and 3) and actual financial risk-taking behavior (Studies 2 and 4). An internal meta-analysis verified the robustness of this effect. We also assessed four potential mediators and found motivation to seek stimulation as the best explicable mediator (Studies 3 and 4). Overall, the current research signified the role of state boredom in predicting financial risk taking as a function of motivation to seek stimulation.

Boredom Proneness and Aggression Among People With Substance Use Disorder: The Mediating Role of Trait Anger and Impulsivity

Boredom proneness has been linked to aggressive behaviors; however, the relationship between them is not well understood. To better understand the mechanism underlying the relationship between boredom proneness and aggression, a serial multiple mediator model was built, where boredom proneness impacted aggression simultaneously through (a) impulsivity, (b) trait anger, and (c) impulsivity to trait anger. Using data collected among Chinese substance users, a battery of interview questionnaires was completed. Results from this study indicate a positive relationship between boredom proneness, impulsivity, trait anger, and aggression. Moreover, the mediating role of impulsivity, trait anger, and both impulsivity and trait anger in serial were found. This study reflects that the link from boredom proneness to aggression among substances users could be partially explained via impulsivity and anger.

Depressive symptoms are related to boredom proneness in patients receiving hospital care, regardless of alcohol status, lifestyle, or social support

We examined the relationship between boredom proneness and psychological distress in patients receiving hospital care due either to excessive alcohol consumption or to gastrointestinal diseases. Sociodemographic data were collected together with boredom proneness subscales (internal/external lack of stimulation), psychological distress, physical activity, and social support. Boredom proneness due to a lack of external stimulation seemed to constitute a prominent personality trait in patients with alcohol consumption. But depressive symptoms were related only to boredom proneness due to a lack of internal stimulation in all patients, regardless of alcohol status, lifestyle, or social support. Potential implications for practice and future research are discussed.