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Dey B, Mitra D, Das T, Sherlekar A, Balaji R, Rikhy R. Adhesion and Polarity protein distribution-regulates hexagon dominated plasma membrane organization in Drosophila blastoderm embryos. Genetics 2023; 225:iyad184. [PMID: 37804533 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyad184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells contain polarity complexes on the lateral membrane and are organized in a hexagon-dominated polygonal array. The mechanisms regulating the organization of polygonal architecture in metazoan embryogenesis are not completely understood. Drosophila embryogenesis enables mechanistic analysis of epithelial polarity formation and its impact on polygonal organization. The plasma membrane (PM) of syncytial Drosophila blastoderm embryos is organized as a polygonal array with pseudocleavage furrow formation during the almost synchronous cortical division cycles. We find that polygonal (PM) organization arises in the metaphase (MP) of division cycle 11, and hexagon dominance occurs with an increase in furrow length in the metaphase of cycle 12. There is a decrease in cell shape index in metaphase from cycles 11 to 13. This coincides with Drosophila E-cad (DE-cadherin) and Bazooka enrichment at the edges and the septin, Peanut at the vertices of the furrow. We further assess the role of polarity and adhesion proteins in pseudocleavage furrow formation and its organization as a polygonal array. We find that DE-cadherin depletion leads to decreased furrow length, loss of hexagon dominance, and increased cell shape index. Bazooka and Peanut depletion lead to decreased furrow length, delay in onset of hexagon dominance from cycle 12 to 13, and increased cell shape index. Hexagon dominance occurs with an increase in furrow length in cycle 13 and increased DE-cadherin, possibly due to the inhibition of endocytosis. We conclude that polarity protein recruitment and regulation of endocytic pathways enable pseudocleavage furrow stability and the formation of a hexagon-dominated polygon array.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bipasha Dey
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Debasmita Mitra
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Tirthasree Das
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Aparna Sherlekar
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Ramya Balaji
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Richa Rikhy
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
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2
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Cheikh MI, Tchoufag J, Osterfield M, Dean K, Bhaduri S, Zhang C, Mandadapu KK, Doubrovinski K. A comprehensive model of Drosophila epithelium reveals the role of embryo geometry and cell topology in mechanical responses. eLife 2023; 12:e85569. [PMID: 37782009 PMCID: PMC10584372 DOI: 10.7554/elife.85569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In order to understand morphogenesis, it is necessary to know the material properties or forces shaping the living tissue. In spite of this need, very few in vivo measurements are currently available. Here, using the early Drosophila embryo as a model, we describe a novel cantilever-based technique which allows for the simultaneous quantification of applied force and tissue displacement in a living embryo. By analyzing data from a series of experiments in which embryonic epithelium is subjected to developmentally relevant perturbations, we conclude that the response to applied force is adiabatic and is dominated by elastic forces and geometric constraints, or system size effects. Crucially, computational modeling of the experimental data indicated that the apical surface of the epithelium must be softer than the basal surface, a result which we confirmed experimentally. Further, we used the combination of experimental data and comprehensive computational model to estimate the elastic modulus of the apical surface and set a lower bound on the elastic modulus of the basal surface. More generally, our investigations revealed important general features that we believe should be more widely addressed when quantitatively modeling tissue mechanics in any system. Specifically, different compartments of the same cell can have very different mechanical properties; when they do, they can contribute differently to different mechanical stimuli and cannot be merely averaged together. Additionally, tissue geometry can play a substantial role in mechanical response, and cannot be neglected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Ibrahim Cheikh
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Joel Tchoufag
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Miriam Osterfield
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Kevin Dean
- Department of Bioinformatics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Swayamdipta Bhaduri
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Chuzhong Zhang
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Texas at ArlingtonArlingtonUnited States
| | - Kranthi Kiran Mandadapu
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
- Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Konstantin Doubrovinski
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
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3
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Haertter D, Wang X, Fogerson SM, Ramkumar N, Crawford JM, Poss KD, Di Talia S, Kiehart DP, Schmidt CF. DeepProjection: specific and robust projection of curved 2D tissue sheets from 3D microscopy using deep learning. Development 2022; 149:dev200621. [PMID: 36178108 PMCID: PMC9686994 DOI: 10.1242/dev.200621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The efficient extraction of image data from curved tissue sheets embedded in volumetric imaging data remains a serious and unsolved problem in quantitative studies of embryogenesis. Here, we present DeepProjection (DP), a trainable projection algorithm based on deep learning. This algorithm is trained on user-generated training data to locally classify 3D stack content, and to rapidly and robustly predict binary masks containing the target content, e.g. tissue boundaries, while masking highly fluorescent out-of-plane artifacts. A projection of the masked 3D stack then yields background-free 2D images with undistorted fluorescence intensity values. The binary masks can further be applied to other fluorescent channels or to extract local tissue curvature. DP is designed as a first processing step than can be followed, for example, by segmentation to track cell fate. We apply DP to follow the dynamic movements of 2D-tissue sheets during dorsal closure in Drosophila embryos and of the periderm layer in the elongating Danio embryo. DeepProjection is available as a fully documented Python package.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Haertter
- Department of Physics and Soft Matter Center, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Göttingen University Medical Center, Göttingen 37075, Germany
| | - Xiaolei Wang
- Advanced Light Imaging and Spectroscopy Facility, Department of Physics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | | - Nitya Ramkumar
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | | | - Kenneth D. Poss
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Stefano Di Talia
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Daniel P. Kiehart
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Christoph F. Schmidt
- Department of Physics and Soft Matter Center, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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4
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Autofluorescent Biomolecules in Diptera: From Structure to Metabolism and Behavior. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27144458. [PMID: 35889334 PMCID: PMC9318335 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27144458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Light-based phenomena in insects have long attracted researchers’ attention. Surface color distribution patterns are commonly used for taxonomical purposes, while optically-active structures from Coleoptera cuticle or Lepidoptera wings have inspired technological applications, such as biosensors and energy accumulation devices. In Diptera, besides optically-based phenomena, biomolecules able to fluoresce can act as markers of bio-metabolic, structural and behavioral features. Resilin or chitinous compounds, with their respective blue or green-to-red autofluorescence (AF), are commonly related to biomechanical and structural properties, helpful to clarify the mechanisms underlying substrate adhesion of ectoparasites’ leg appendages, or the antennal abilities in tuning sound detection. Metarhodopsin, a red fluorescing photoproduct of rhodopsin, allows to investigate visual mechanisms, whereas NAD(P)H and flavins, commonly relatable to energy metabolism, favor the investigation of sperm vitality. Lipofuscins are AF biomarkers of aging, as well as pteridines, which, similarly to kynurenines, are also exploited in metabolic investigations. Beside the knowledge available in Drosophila melanogaster, a widely used model to study also human disorder and disease mechanisms, here we review optically-based studies in other dipteran species, including mosquitoes and fruit flies, discussing future perspectives for targeted studies with various practical applications, including pest and vector control.
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5
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Cai X, Rondeel I, Baumgartner S. Modulating the bicoid gradient in space and time. Hereditas 2021; 158:29. [PMID: 34404481 PMCID: PMC8371787 DOI: 10.1186/s41065-021-00192-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The formation of the Bicoid (Bcd) gradient in the early Drosophila is one of the most fascinating observations in biology and serves as a paradigm for gradient formation, yet its mechanism is still not fully understood. Two distinct models were proposed in the past, the SDD and the ARTS model. Results We define novel cis- and trans-acting factors that are indispensable for gradient formation. The first one is the poly A tail length of the bcd mRNA where we demonstrate that it changes not only in time, but also in space. We show that posterior bcd mRNAs possess a longer poly tail than anterior ones and this elongation is likely mediated by wispy (wisp), a poly A polymerase. Consequently, modulating the activity of Wisp results in changes of the Bcd gradient, in controlling downstream targets such as the gap and pair-rule genes, and also in influencing the cuticular pattern. Attempts to modulate the Bcd gradient by subjecting the egg to an extra nuclear cycle, i.e. a 15th nuclear cycle by means of the maternal haploid (mh) mutation showed no effect, neither on the appearance of the gradient nor on the control of downstream target. This suggests that the segmental anlagen are determined during the first 14 nuclear cycles. Finally, we identify the Cyclin B (CycB) gene as a trans-acting factor that modulates the movement of Bcd such that Bcd movement is allowed to move through the interior of the egg. Conclusions Our analysis demonstrates that Bcd gradient formation is far more complex than previously thought requiring a revision of the models of how the gradient is formed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Cai
- Departmentof Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC D10, 22184, Lund, Sweden
| | - Inge Rondeel
- Departmentof Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC D10, 22184, Lund, Sweden.,Present address: Hubrecht Institute, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Baumgartner
- Departmentof Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC D10, 22184, Lund, Sweden. .,Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457, Konstanz, Germany.
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6
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Lin R, Kipreos ET, Zhu J, Khang CH, Kner P. Subcellular three-dimensional imaging deep through multicellular thick samples by structured illumination microscopy and adaptive optics. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3148. [PMID: 34035309 PMCID: PMC8149693 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23449-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Structured Illumination Microscopy enables live imaging with sub-diffraction resolution. Unfortunately, optical aberrations can lead to loss of resolution and artifacts in Structured Illumination Microscopy rendering the technique unusable in samples thicker than a single cell. Here we report on the combination of Adaptive Optics and Structured Illumination Microscopy enabling imaging with 150 nm lateral and 570 nm axial resolution at a depth of 80 µm through Caenorhabditis elegans. We demonstrate that Adaptive Optics improves the three-dimensional resolution, especially along the axial direction, and reduces artifacts, successfully realizing 3D-Structured Illumination Microscopy in a variety of biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruizhe Lin
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Edward T Kipreos
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Jie Zhu
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Chang Hyun Khang
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Peter Kner
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
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7
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Sharma S, Rikhy R. Spatiotemporal recruitment of RhoGTPase protein GRAF inhibits actomyosin ring constriction in Drosophila cellularization. eLife 2021; 10:63535. [PMID: 33835025 PMCID: PMC8081525 DOI: 10.7554/elife.63535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Actomyosin contractility is regulated by Rho-GTP in cell migration, cytokinesis and morphogenesis in embryo development. Whereas Rho activation by Rho-GTP exchange factor (GEF), RhoGEF2, is well known in actomyosin contractility during cytokinesis at the base of invaginating membranes in Drosophila cellularization, Rho inhibition by RhoGTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) remains to be studied. We have found that the RhoGAP, GRAF, inhibits actomyosin contractility during cellularization. GRAF is enriched at the cleavage furrow tip during actomyosin assembly and initiation of ring constriction. Graf depletion shows increased Rho-GTP, increased Myosin II and ring hyper constriction dependent upon the loss of the RhoGTPase domain. GRAF and RhoGEF2 are present in a balance for appropriate activation of actomyosin ring constriction. RhoGEF2 depletion and abrogation of Myosin II activation in Rho kinase mutants suppress the Graf hyper constriction defect. Therefore, GRAF recruitment restricts Rho-GTP levels in a spatiotemporal manner for inhibiting actomyosin contractility during cellularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swati Sharma
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, India
| | - Richa Rikhy
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, India
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8
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Memeo R, Paiè P, Sala F, Castriotta M, Guercio C, Vaccari T, Osellame R, Bassi A, Bragheri F. Automatic imaging of Drosophila embryos with light sheet fluorescence microscopy on chip. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2021; 14:e202000396. [PMID: 33295053 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202000396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We present a microscope on chip for automated imaging of Drosophila embryos by light sheet fluorescence microscopy. This integrated device, constituted by both optical and microfluidic components, allows the automatic acquisition of a 3D stack of images for specimens diluted in a liquid suspension. The device has been fully optimized to address the challenges related to the specimens under investigation. Indeed, the thickness and the high ellipticity of Drosophila embryos can degrade the image quality. In this regard, optical and fluidic optimization has been carried out to implement dual-sided illumination and automatic sample orientation. In addition, we highlight the dual color investigation capabilities of this device, by processing two sample populations encoding different fluorescent proteins. This work was made possible by the versatility of the used fabrication technique, femtosecond laser micromachining, which allows straightforward fabrication of both optical and fluidic components in glass substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Memeo
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN)-CNR, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
| | - Petra Paiè
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN)-CNR, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Sala
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN)-CNR, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
| | - Michele Castriotta
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN)-CNR, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Guercio
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria, Milan, Italy
| | - Thomas Vaccari
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria, Milan, Italy
| | - Roberto Osellame
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN)-CNR, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Bassi
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN)-CNR, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Bragheri
- Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie (IFN)-CNR, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, Milan, Italy
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9
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Sherlekar A, Mundhe G, Richa P, Dey B, Sharma S, Rikhy R. F-BAR domain protein Syndapin regulates actomyosin dynamics during apical cap remodeling in syncytial Drosophila embryos. J Cell Sci 2020; 133:jcs235846. [PMID: 32327556 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.235846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Branched actin networks driven by Arp2/3 interact with actomyosin filaments in processes such as cell migration. Similar interactions occur in the syncytial Drosophila blastoderm embryo where expansion of apical caps by Arp2/3-driven actin polymerization occurs in interphase, and cap buckling at contact edges by Myosin II to form furrows takes place in metaphase. Here, we study the role of Syndapin (Synd), an F-BAR domain-containing protein, in apical cap remodeling prior to furrow extension. We found that depletion of synd resulted in larger apical caps. Super-resolution and TIRF microscopy showed that control embryos had long apical actin protrusions in caps during interphase and short protrusions during metaphase, whereas synd depletion led to formation of sustained long protrusions, even during metaphase. Loss of Arp2/3 function in synd mutants partly reverted defects in apical cap expansion and protrusion remodeling. Myosin II levels were decreased in synd mutants, an observation consistent with the expanded cap phenotype previously reported for Myosin II mutant embryos. We propose that Synd function limits branching activity during cap expansion and affects Myosin II distribution in order to bring about a transition in actin remodeling activity from apical cap expansion to lateral furrow extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna Sherlekar
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Gayatri Mundhe
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Prachi Richa
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Bipasha Dey
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Swati Sharma
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Richa Rikhy
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
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10
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Dey B, Rikhy R. DE-cadherin and Myosin II balance regulates furrow length for onset of polygon shape in syncytial Drosophila embryos. J Cell Sci 2020; 133:jcs240168. [PMID: 32265269 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.240168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell shape morphogenesis, from spherical to polygonal, occurs in epithelial cell formation in metazoan embryogenesis. In syncytial Drosophila embryos, the plasma membrane incompletely surrounds each nucleus and is organized as a polygonal epithelial-like array. Each cortical syncytial division cycle shows a circular to polygonal plasma membrane transition along with furrow extension between adjacent nuclei from interphase to metaphase. In this study, we assess the relative contribution of DE-cadherin (also known as Shotgun) and Myosin II (comprising Zipper and Spaghetti squash in flies) at the furrow to polygonal shape transition. We show that polygonality initiates during each cortical syncytial division cycle when the furrow extends from 4.75 to 5.75 μm. Polygon plasma membrane organization correlates with increased junctional tension, increased DE-cadherin and decreased Myosin II mobility. DE-cadherin regulates furrow length and polygonality. Decreased Myosin II activity allows for polygonality to occur at a lower length than controls. Increased Myosin II activity leads to loss of lateral furrow formation and complete disruption of the polygonal shape transition. Our studies show that DE-cadherin-Myosin II balance regulates an optimal lateral membrane length during each syncytial cycle for polygonal shape transition.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bipasha Dey
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune, 411008, India
| | - Richa Rikhy
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune, 411008, India
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11
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Imaging Flies by Fluorescence Microscopy: Principles, Technologies, and Applications. Genetics 2019; 211:15-34. [PMID: 30626639 PMCID: PMC6325693 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.118.300227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of fluorescent labels and powerful imaging technologies in the last two decades has revolutionized the field of fluorescence microscopy, which is now widely used in diverse scientific fields from biology to biomedical and materials science. Fluorescence microscopy has also become a standard technique in research laboratories working on Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism. Here, we review the principles of fluorescence microscopy technologies from wide-field to Super-resolution microscopy and its application in the Drosophila research field.
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12
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Procedures and applications of long-term intravital microscopy. Methods 2017; 128:52-64. [PMID: 28669866 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2017.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is increasingly used in biomedical research to study dynamic processes at cellular and subcellular resolution in their natural environment. Long-term IVM especially can be applied to visualize migration and proliferation over days to months within the same animal without recurrent surgeries. Skin can be repetitively imaged without surgery. To intermittently visualize cells in other organs, such as liver, mammary gland and brain, different imaging windows including the abdominal imaging window (AIW), dermal imaging window (DIW) and cranial imaging window (CIW) have been developed. In this review, we describe the procedure of window implantation and pros and cons of each technique as well as methods to retrace a position of interest over time. In addition, different fluorescent biosensors to facilitate the tracking of cells for different purposes, such as monitoring cell migration and proliferation, are discussed. Finally, we consider new techniques and possibilities of how long-term IVM can be even further improved in the future.
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13
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Doyle AD. Generation of 3D Collagen Gels with Controlled Diverse Architectures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 72:10.20.1-10.20.16. [PMID: 27580704 DOI: 10.1002/cpcb.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Rat tail collagen solutions have been used as polymerizable in vitro three dimensional (3D) extracellular matrix (ECM) gels for single and collective cell migration assays as well as spheroid formation. Factors such as ECM concentration, pH, ionic concentration, and temperature can alter collagen polymerization and ECM architecture. This unit describes how to generate 3D collagen gels that have distinct architectures ranging from a highly reticular meshwork of short thin fibrils with small pores to a loose matrix consisting of stiff, parallel-bundled long fibrils by changing collagen polymerization temperature. This permits analysis of 3D cell migration in different ECM architectures found in vivo while maintaining a similar ECM concentration. Also included are collagen labeling techniques helpful for ECM visualization during live fluorescence imaging. © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Doyle
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda Maryland
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14
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Abstract
Functional studies in Drosophila have been key for establishing a role for the septin family of proteins in animal cell division and thus extending for the first time observations from the budding yeast to animal cells. Visualizing the distribution of specific septins in different Drosophila tissues and, in particular, in the Drosophila embryo, together with biochemical and mutant phenotype data, has contributed important advances to our understanding of animal septin biology, suggesting roles in processes other than in cytokinesis. Septin localization using immunofluorescence assays has been possible due to the generation of antibodies against different Drosophila septins. The recent availability of lines expressing fluorescent protein fusions of specific septins further promises to facilitate studies on septin dynamics. Here, we provide protocols for preparing early Drosophila embryos to visualize septins using immunofluorescence assays and live fluorescence microscopy. The genetic tractability of the Drosophila embryo together with its amenability to high-resolution fluorescence microscopy promises to provide novel insights into animal septin structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Mavrakis
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, Institut Fresnel UMR 7249, Marseille, France.
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15
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Sherlekar A, Rikhy R. Syndapin promotes pseudocleavage furrow formation by actin organization in the syncytial Drosophila embryo. Mol Biol Cell 2016; 27:2064-79. [PMID: 27146115 PMCID: PMC4927280 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e15-09-0656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
F-BAR domain–containing proteins link the actin cytoskeleton to the membrane during membrane remodeling. Syndapin associates with the pseudocleavage furrow membrane and is essential for furrow morphology, actin organization, and extension downstream of initiation factor RhoGEF2. Coordinated membrane and cytoskeletal remodeling activities are required for membrane extension in processes such as cytokinesis and syncytial nuclear division cycles in Drosophila. Pseudocleavage furrow membranes in the syncytial Drosophila blastoderm embryo show rapid extension and retraction regulated by actin-remodeling proteins. The F-BAR domain protein Syndapin (Synd) is involved in membrane tubulation, endocytosis, and, uniquely, in F-actin stability. Here we report a role for Synd in actin-regulated pseudocleavage furrow formation. Synd localized to these furrows, and its loss resulted in short, disorganized furrows. Synd presence was important for the recruitment of the septin Peanut and distribution of Diaphanous and F-actin at furrows. Synd and Peanut were both absent in furrow-initiation mutants of RhoGEF2 and Diaphanous and in furrow-progression mutants of Anillin. Synd overexpression in rhogef2 mutants reversed its furrow-extension phenotypes, Peanut and Diaphanous recruitment, and F-actin organization. We conclude that Synd plays an important role in pseudocleavage furrow extension, and this role is also likely to be crucial in cleavage furrow formation during cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna Sherlekar
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Richa Rikhy
- Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
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16
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Faure E, Savy T, Rizzi B, Melani C, Stašová O, Fabrèges D, Špir R, Hammons M, Čúnderlík R, Recher G, Lombardot B, Duloquin L, Colin I, Kollár J, Desnoulez S, Affaticati P, Maury B, Boyreau A, Nief JY, Calvat P, Vernier P, Frain M, Lutfalla G, Kergosien Y, Suret P, Remešíková M, Doursat R, Sarti A, Mikula K, Peyriéras N, Bourgine P. A workflow to process 3D+time microscopy images of developing organisms and reconstruct their cell lineage. Nat Commun 2016; 7:8674. [PMID: 26912388 PMCID: PMC4773431 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The quantitative and systematic analysis of embryonic cell dynamics from in vivo 3D+time image data sets is a major challenge at the forefront of developmental biology. Despite recent breakthroughs in the microscopy imaging of living systems, producing an accurate cell lineage tree for any developing organism remains a difficult task. We present here the BioEmergences workflow integrating all reconstruction steps from image acquisition and processing to the interactive visualization of reconstructed data. Original mathematical methods and algorithms underlie image filtering, nucleus centre detection, nucleus and membrane segmentation, and cell tracking. They are demonstrated on zebrafish, ascidian and sea urchin embryos with stained nuclei and membranes. Subsequent validation and annotations are carried out using Mov-IT, a custom-made graphical interface. Compared with eight other software tools, our workflow achieved the best lineage score. Delivered in standalone or web service mode, BioEmergences and Mov-IT offer a unique set of tools for in silico experimental embryology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Faure
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Research Center in Applied Epistemology (CREA, UMR7656), CNRS and Ecole Polytechnique, 75005 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Thierry Savy
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Research Center in Applied Epistemology (CREA, UMR7656), CNRS and Ecole Polytechnique, 75005 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Barbara Rizzi
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Department of Electronics, Information and Systems, University of Bologna, 40126, Italy
| | - Camilo Melani
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Department of Electronics, Information and Systems, University of Bologna, 40126, Italy
| | - Olga Stašová
- Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry, Slovak University of Technology, 81005 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Dimitri Fabrèges
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Róbert Špir
- Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry, Slovak University of Technology, 81005 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Mark Hammons
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Róbert Čúnderlík
- Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry, Slovak University of Technology, 81005 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Gaëlle Recher
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Benoît Lombardot
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Research Center in Applied Epistemology (CREA, UMR7656), CNRS and Ecole Polytechnique, 75005 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Louise Duloquin
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Ingrid Colin
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Jozef Kollár
- Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry, Slovak University of Technology, 81005 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Sophie Desnoulez
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Pierre Affaticati
- Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Benoît Maury
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Adeline Boyreau
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Jean-Yves Nief
- Computing Center of the National Institute for Nuclear Physics and Particle Physics (CC-IN2P3, USR6402), CNRS, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Pascal Calvat
- Computing Center of the National Institute for Nuclear Physics and Particle Physics (CC-IN2P3, USR6402), CNRS, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Philippe Vernier
- Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Monique Frain
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Georges Lutfalla
- Dynamics of Membrane Interactions in Normal and Pathological Cells (DIMNP, UMR5235), CNRS and Université Montpellier 2, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Yannick Kergosien
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Medical Informatics and Knowledge Engineering in e-Health (LIMICS, UMR1142), CNRS and Université Paris 13, 93017 Bobigny, France
| | - Pierre Suret
- Laser, Atomic and Molecular Physics Laboratory (UMR8523), CNRS and Université Lille 1-Science and Technology, 59650 Villeneuve-d'Ascq, France
| | - Mariana Remešíková
- Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry, Slovak University of Technology, 81005 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - René Doursat
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Research Center in Applied Epistemology (CREA, UMR7656), CNRS and Ecole Polytechnique, 75005 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Alessandro Sarti
- Department of Electronics, Information and Systems, University of Bologna, 40126, Italy
| | - Karol Mikula
- Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry, Slovak University of Technology, 81005 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Nadine Peyriéras
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Paul Bourgine
- Complex Systems Institute Paris Ile-de-France (ISC-PIF, UPS3611), CNRS, 75013 Paris, France
- Research Center in Applied Epistemology (CREA, UMR7656), CNRS and Ecole Polytechnique, 75005 Paris, France
- Multiscale Dynamics in Animal Morphogenesis (MDAM), Neurobiology & Development (N&D, UPR3294), CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- BioEmergences Laboratory (USR3695), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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17
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Rikhy R, Mavrakis M, Lippincott-Schwartz J. Dynamin regulates metaphase furrow formation and plasma membrane compartmentalization in the syncytial Drosophila embryo. Biol Open 2015; 4:301-11. [PMID: 25661871 PMCID: PMC4359736 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20149936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The successive nuclear division cycles in the syncytial Drosophila embryo are accompanied by ingression and regression of plasma membrane furrows, which surround individual nuclei at the embryo periphery, playing a central role in embryo compartmentalization prior to cellularization. Here, we demonstrate that cell cycle changes in dynamin localization and activity at the plasma membrane (PM) regulate metaphase furrow formation and PM organization in the syncytial embryo. Dynamin was localized on short PM furrows during interphase, mediating endocytosis of PM components. Dynamin redistributed off ingressed PM furrows in metaphase, correlating with stabilized PM components and the associated actin regulatory machinery on long furrows. Acute inhibition of dynamin in the temperature sensitive shibire mutant embryo resulted in morphogenetic consequences in the syncytial division cycle. These included inhibition of metaphase furrow ingression, randomization of proteins normally polarized to intercap PM and disruption of the diffusion barrier separating PM domains above nuclei. Based on these findings, we propose that cell cycle changes in dynamin orchestrate recruitment of actin regulatory machinery for PM furrow dynamics during the early mitotic cycles in the Drosophila embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richa Rikhy
- Cell Biology and Metabolism Program, NICHD, NIH, Building 18T, 101, 18 Library Drive, Bethesda, MD, USA. Present address: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune, 411008, India.
| | - Manos Mavrakis
- Institut de Biologie du Développement de Marseille, CNRS UMR7288, Aix-Marseille Université, 13288 Marseille, France
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18
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Mitchell TJ, Saunter CD, O'Nions W, Girkin JM, Love GD. Quantitative high dynamic range beam profiling for fluorescence microscopy. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2014; 85:103713. [PMID: 25362409 DOI: 10.1063/1.4899208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Modern developmental biology relies on optically sectioning fluorescence microscope techniques to produce non-destructive in vivo images of developing specimens at high resolution in three dimensions. As optimal performance of these techniques is reliant on the three-dimensional (3D) intensity profile of the illumination employed, the ability to directly record and analyze these profiles is of great use to the fluorescence microscopist or instrument builder. Though excitation beam profiles can be measured indirectly using a sample of fluorescent beads and recording the emission along the microscope detection path, we demonstrate an alternative approach where a miniature camera sensor is used directly within the illumination beam. Measurements taken using our approach are solely concerned with the illumination optics as the detection optics are not involved. We present a miniature beam profiling device and high dynamic range flux reconstruction algorithm that together are capable of accurately reproducing quantitative 3D flux maps over a large focal volume. Performance of this beam profiling system is verified within an optical test bench and demonstrated for fluorescence microscopy by profiling the low NA illumination beam of a single plane illumination microscope. The generality and success of this approach showcases a widely flexible beam amplitude diagnostic tool for use within the life sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Mitchell
- Centre for Advanced Instrumentation and Biophysical Sciences Institute, Department of Physics, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
| | - C D Saunter
- Centre for Advanced Instrumentation and Biophysical Sciences Institute, Department of Physics, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
| | - W O'Nions
- Centre for Advanced Instrumentation and Biophysical Sciences Institute, Department of Physics, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
| | - J M Girkin
- Centre for Advanced Instrumentation and Biophysical Sciences Institute, Department of Physics, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
| | - G D Love
- Centre for Advanced Instrumentation and Biophysical Sciences Institute, Department of Physics, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
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19
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Caussinus E, Kanca O, Affolter M. Protein knockouts in living eukaryotes using deGradFP and green fluorescent protein fusion targets. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 73:30.2.1-30.2.13. [PMID: 24510595 DOI: 10.1002/0471140864.ps3002s73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
This unit describes deGradFP (degrade Green Fluorescent Protein), an easy-to-implement protein knockout method applicable in any eukaryotic genetic system. Depleting a protein in order to study its function in a living organism is usually achieved at the gene level (genetic mutations) or at the RNA level (RNA interference and morpholinos). However, any system that acts upstream of the proteic level depends on the turnover rate of the existing target protein, which can be extremely slow. In contrast, deGradFP is a fast method that directly depletes GFP fusion proteins. In particular, deGradFP is able to counteract maternal effects in embryos and causes early and fast onset loss-of-function phenotypes of maternally contributed proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Oguz Kanca
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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20
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Rizzi B, Peyrieras N. Towards 3D in silico modeling of the sea urchin embryonic development. J Chem Biol 2013; 7:17-28. [PMID: 24386014 PMCID: PMC3877407 DOI: 10.1007/s12154-013-0101-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Embryogenesis is a dynamic process with an intrinsic variability whose understanding requires the integration of molecular, genetic, and cellular dynamics. Biological circuits function over time at the level of single cells and require a precise analysis of the topology, temporality, and probability of events. Integrative developmental biology is currently looking for the appropriate strategies to capture the intrinsic properties of biological systems. The "-omic" approaches require disruption of the function of the biological circuit; they provide static information, with low temporal resolution and usually with population averaging that masks fast or variable features at the cellular scale and in a single individual. This data should be correlated with cell behavior as cells are the integrators of biological activity. Cellular dynamics are captured by the in vivo microscopy observation of live organisms. This can be used to reconstruct the 3D + time cell lineage tree to serve as the basis for modeling the organism's multiscale dynamics. We discuss here the progress that has been made in this direction, starting with the reconstruction over time of three-dimensional digital embryos from in toto time-lapse imaging. Digital specimens provide the means for a quantitative description of the development of model organisms that can be stored, shared, and compared. They open the way to in silico experimentation and to a more theoretical approach to biological processes. We show, with some unpublished results, how the proposed methodology can be applied to sea urchin species that have been model organisms in the field of classical embryology and modern developmental biology for over a century.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Rizzi
- CNRS-MDAM, UPR 3294 and BioEmergences-IBiSA, Institut de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard, CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Institut des Systèmes Complexes, 57-59 rue Lhomond, Paris, France
| | - Nadine Peyrieras
- CNRS-MDAM, UPR 3294 and BioEmergences-IBiSA, Institut de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard, CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Institut des Systèmes Complexes, 57-59 rue Lhomond, Paris, France
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21
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Yang J, Singh V, Cha B, Chen TE, Sarker R, Murtazina R, Jin S, Zachos NC, Patterson GH, Tse CM, Kovbasnjuk O, Li X, Donowitz M. NHERF2 protein mobility rate is determined by a unique C-terminal domain that is also necessary for its regulation of NHE3 protein in OK cells. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:16960-16974. [PMID: 23612977 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.470799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Na(+)/H(+) exchanger regulatory factor (NHERF) proteins are a family of PSD-95/Discs-large/ZO-1 (PDZ)-scaffolding proteins, three of which (NHERFs 1-3) are localized to the brush border in kidney and intestinal epithelial cells. All NHERF proteins are involved in anchoring membrane proteins that contain PDZ recognition motifs to form multiprotein signaling complexes. In contrast to their predicted immobility, NHERF1, NHERF2, and NHERF3 were all shown by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching/confocal microscopy to be surprisingly mobile in the microvilli of the renal proximal tubule OK cell line. Their diffusion coefficients, although different among the three, were all of the same magnitude as that of the transmembrane proteins, suggesting they are all anchored in the microvilli but to different extents. NHERF3 moves faster than NHERF1, and NHERF2 moves the slowest. Several chimeras and mutants of NHERF1 and NHERF2 were made to determine which part of NHERF2 confers the slower mobility rate. Surprisingly, the slower mobility rate of NHERF2 was determined by a unique C-terminal domain, which includes a nonconserved region along with the ezrin, radixin, moesin (ERM) binding domain. Also, this C-terminal domain of NHERF2 determined its greater detergent insolubility and was necessary for the formation of larger multiprotein NHERF2 complexes. In addition, this NHERF2 domain was functionally significant in NHE3 regulation, being necessary for stimulation by lysophosphatidic acid of activity and increased mobility of NHE3, as well as necessary for inhibition of NHE3 activity by calcium ionophore 4-Br-A23187. Thus, multiple functions of NHERF2 require involvement of an additional domain in this protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbo Yang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Varsha Singh
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Boyoung Cha
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Tian-E Chen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Rafiquel Sarker
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Rakhilya Murtazina
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Shi Jin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Nicholas C Zachos
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - George H Patterson
- Biophotonics Section, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - C Ming Tse
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Olga Kovbasnjuk
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Xuhang Li
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Mark Donowitz
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Baltimore, Maryland 21205; Department of Physiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205.
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22
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Mercer AJ, Thoreson WB. Tracking quantum dot-tagged calcium channels at vertebrate photoreceptor synapses: retinal slices and dissociated cells. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN NEUROSCIENCE 2013; Chapter 2:Unit 2.18. [PMID: 23315944 PMCID: PMC3707139 DOI: 10.1002/0471142301.ns0218s62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
At synapses in the central nervous system, precisely localized assemblies of presynaptic proteins, neurotransmitter-filled vesicles, and postsynaptic receptors are required to communicate messages between neurons. Our understanding of synaptic function has been significantly advanced using electrophysiological methods, but the dynamic spatial behavior and real-time organization of synapses remains poorly understood. In this unit, we describe a method for labeling individual presynaptic calcium channels with photostable quantum dots for single-particle tracking analysis. We have used this technique to examine the mobility of L-type calcium channels in the presynaptic membrane of rod and cone photoreceptors in the retina. These channels control release of glutamate-filled synaptic vesicles at the ribbon synapses in photoreceptor terminals. This technique offers the advantage of providing a real-time biophysical readout of ion channel mobility and can be manipulated by pharmacological or electrophysiological methods. For example, the combination of electrophysiological and single-particle tracking experiments has revealed that fusion of nearby vesicles influences calcium channel mobility and changes in channel mobility can influence release. These approaches can also be readily adapted to examine membrane proteins in other systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron J Mercer
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University Of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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23
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Multiscale diffusion in the mitotic Drosophila melanogaster syncytial blastoderm. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:8588-93. [PMID: 22592793 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1204270109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the fundamental importance of diffusion for embryonic morphogen gradient formation in the early Drosophila melanogaster embryo, there remains controversy regarding both the extent and the rate of diffusion of well-characterized morphogens. Furthermore, the recent observation of diffusional "compartmentalization" has suggested that diffusion may in fact be nonideal and mediated by an as-yet-unidentified mechanism. Here, we characterize the effects of the geometry of the early syncytial Drosophila embryo on the effective diffusivity of cytoplasmic proteins. Our results demonstrate that the presence of transient mitotic membrane furrows results in a multiscale diffusion effect that has a significant impact on effective diffusion rates across the embryo. Using a combination of live-cell experiments and computational modeling, we characterize these effects and relate effective bulk diffusion rates to instantaneous diffusion coefficients throughout the syncytial blastoderm nuclear cycle phase of the early embryo. This multiscale effect may be related to the effect of interphase nuclei on effective diffusion, and thus we propose that an as-yet-unidentified role of syncytial membrane furrows is to temporally regulate bulk embryonic diffusion rates to balance the multiscale effect of interphase nuclei, which ultimately stabilizes the shapes of various morphogen gradients.
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24
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Jung JP, Squirrell JM, Lyons GE, Eliceiri KW, Ogle BM. Imaging cardiac extracellular matrices: a blueprint for regeneration. Trends Biotechnol 2011; 30:233-40. [PMID: 22209562 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2011] [Revised: 12/05/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Once damaged, cardiac tissue does not readily repair and is therefore a primary target of regenerative therapies. One regenerative approach is the development of scaffolds that functionally mimic the cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM) to deliver stem cells or cardiac precursor populations to the heart. Technological advances in micro/nanotechnology, stem cell biology, biomaterials and tissue decellularization have propelled this promising approach forward. Surprisingly, technological advances in optical imaging methods have not been fully utilized in the field of cardiac regeneration. Here, we describe and provide examples to demonstrate how advanced imaging techniques could revolutionize how ECM-mimicking cardiac tissues are informed and evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jangwook P Jung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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25
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Ntini E, Wimmer EA. Second order regulator Collier directly controls intercalary-specific segment polarity gene expression. Dev Biol 2011; 360:403-14. [PMID: 22005665 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2011.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Revised: 09/28/2011] [Accepted: 09/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
In Drosophila, trunk metamerization is established by a cascade of segmentation gene activities: the gap genes, the pair rule genes, and the segment polarity genes. In the anterior head, metamerization requires also gap-like genes and segment polarity genes. However, because the pair rule genes are not active in this part of the embryo, the question on which gene activities are fulfilling the role of the second order regulator genes still remains to be solved. Here we provide first molecular evidence that the Helix-Loop-Helix-COE transcription factor Collier fulfills this role by directly activating the expression of the segment polarity gene hedgehog in the posterior part of the intercalary segment. Collier thereby occupies a newly identified binding site within an intercalary-specific cis-regulatory element. Moreover, we identified a direct physical association between Collier and the basic-leucine-zipper transcription factor Cap'n'collar B, which seems to restrict the activating input of Collier to the posterior part of the intercalary segment and to lead to the attenuation of hedgehog expression in the intercalary lobes at later stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgenia Ntini
- Department of Developmental Biology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach-Institute of Zoology und Anthropology, Georg-August-University Göttingen, GZMB, Ernst-Caspari-Haus, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Shining light on Drosophila oogenesis: live imaging of egg development. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2011; 21:612-9. [PMID: 21930372 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2011.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Revised: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Drosophila oogenesis is a powerful model for the study of numerous questions in cell and developmental biology. In addition to its longstanding value as a genetically tractable model of organogenesis, recently it has emerged as an excellent system in which to combine genetics and live imaging. Rapidly improving ex vivo culture conditions, new fluorescent biosensors and photo-manipulation tools, and advances in microscopy have allowed direct observation in real time of processes such as stem cell self-renewal, collective cell migration, and polarized mRNA and protein transport. In addition, entirely new phenomena have been discovered, including revolution of the follicle within the basement membrane and oscillating assembly and disassembly of myosin on a polarized actin network, both of which contribute to elongating this tissue. This review focuses on recent advances in live-cell imaging techniques and the biological insights gleaned from live imaging of egg chamber development.
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Haralalka S, Cartwright HN, Abmayr SM. Recent advances in imaging embryonic myoblast fusion in Drosophila. Methods 2011; 56:55-62. [PMID: 21871963 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2011.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2011] [Revised: 08/10/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Myoblast fusion in the Drosophila embryos is a complex process that includes changes in cell movement, morphology and behavior over time. The advent of fluorescent proteins (FPs) has made it possible to track and image live cells, to capture the process of myoblast fusion, and to carry out quantitative analysis of myoblasts in real time. By tagging proteins with FPs, it is also possible to monitor the subcellular events that accompany the fusion process. Herein, we discuss the recent progress that has been made in imaging myoblast fusion in Drosophila, reagents that are now available, and microscopy conditions to consider. Using an Actin-FP fusion protein along with a membrane marker to outline the cells, we show the dynamic formation and breakdown of F-actin foci at sites of fusion. We also describe the methods used successfully to show that these foci are primarily if not wholly present in the fusion-competent myoblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Haralalka
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
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Khairy K, Keller PJ. Reconstructing embryonic development. Genesis 2011; 49:488-513. [DOI: 10.1002/dvg.20698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Revised: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/24/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Surface analysis of membrane dynamics. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2010; 1798:766-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2009.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2009] [Revised: 09/18/2009] [Accepted: 09/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Abstract
The dorsoventral (DV) patterning of the Drosophila embryo depends on the nuclear localization gradient of Dorsal (Dl), a protein related to the mammalian NF-kappaB transcription factors. Current understanding of how the Dl gradient works has been derived from studies of its transcriptional interpretation, but the gradient itself has not been quantified. In particular, it is not known whether the Dl gradient is stable or dynamic during the DV patterning of the embryo. To address this question, we developed a mathematical model of the Dl gradient and constrained its parameters by experimental data. Based on our computational analysis, we predict that the Dl gradient is dynamic and, to a first approximation, can be described as a concentration profile with increasing amplitude and constant shape. These time-dependent properties of the Dl gradient are different from those of the Bicoid and MAPK phosphorylation gradients, which pattern the anterior and terminal regions of the embryo. Specifically, the gradient of the nuclear levels of Bicoid is stable, whereas the pattern of MAPK phosphorylation changes in both shape and amplitude. We attribute these striking differences in the dynamics of maternal morphogen gradients to the differences in the initial conditions and chemistries of the anterior, DV, and terminal systems.
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van Gemert AMC, van der Laan AMA, Pilgram GSK, Fradkin LG, Noordermeer JN, Tanke HJ, Jost CR. In vivo monitoring of mRNA movement in Drosophila body wall muscle cells reveals the presence of myofiber domains. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6663. [PMID: 19684860 PMCID: PMC2722729 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2009] [Accepted: 07/06/2009] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In skeletal muscle each muscle cell, commonly called myofiber, is actually a large syncytium containing numerous nuclei. Experiments in fixed myofibers show that mRNAs remain localized around the nuclei in which they are produced. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS In this study we generated transgenic flies that allowed us to investigate the movement of mRNAs in body wall myofibers of living Drosophila embryos. We determined the dynamic properties of GFP-tagged mRNAs using in vivo confocal imaging and photobleaching techniques and found that the GFP-tagged mRNAs are not free to move throughout myofibers. The restricted movement indicated that body wall myofibers consist of three domains. The exchange of mRNAs between the domains is relatively slow, but the GFP-tagged mRNAs move rapidly within these domains. One domain is located at the centre of the cell and is surrounded by nuclei while the other two domains are located at either end of the fiber. To move between these domains mRNAs have to travel past centrally located nuclei. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These data suggest that the domains made visible in our experiments result from prolonged interactions with as yet undefined structures close to the nuclei that prevent GFP-tagged mRNAs from rapidly moving between the domains. This could be of significant importance for the treatment of myopathies using regenerative cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice M. C. van Gemert
- Laboratory of Gene Expression and Imaging, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical C, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Annelies M. A. van der Laan
- Laboratory of Gene Expression and Imaging, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical C, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gonneke S. K. Pilgram
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical C, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lee G. Fradkin
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical C, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jasprina N. Noordermeer
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical C, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hans J. Tanke
- Laboratory of Gene Expression and Imaging, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical C, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Carolina R. Jost
- Laboratory of Gene Expression and Imaging, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Leiden University Medical C, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Mavrakis M, Rikhy R, Lippincott-Schwartz J. Plasma membrane polarity and compartmentalization are established before cellularization in the fly embryo. Dev Cell 2009; 16:93-104. [PMID: 19154721 PMCID: PMC2684963 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2008] [Revised: 08/27/2008] [Accepted: 11/06/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Patterning in the Drosophila embryo requires local activation and dynamics of proteins in the plasma membrane (PM). We used in vivo fluorescence imaging to characterize the organization and diffusional properties of the PM in the early embryonic syncytium. Before cellularization, the PM is polarized into discrete domains having epithelial-like characteristics. One domain resides above individual nuclei and has apical-like characteristics, while the other domain is lateral to nuclei and contains markers associated with basolateral membranes and junctions. Pulse-chase photoconversion experiments show that molecules can diffuse within each domain but do not exchange between PM regions above adjacent nuclei. Drug-induced F-actin depolymerization disrupted both the apicobasal-like polarity and the diffusion barriers within the syncytial PM. These events correlated with perturbations in the spatial pattern of dorsoventral Toll signaling. We propose that epithelial-like properties and an intact F-actin network compartmentalize the PM and shape morphogen gradients in the syncytial embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manos Mavrakis
- Cell Biology and Metabolism Program, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 18T, 18 Library Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Richa Rikhy
- Cell Biology and Metabolism Program, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 18T, 18 Library Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jennifer Lippincott-Schwartz
- Cell Biology and Metabolism Program, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 18T, 18 Library Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Meoli E, Bossis I, Cazabat L, Mavrakis M, Horvath A, Stergiopoulos S, Shiferaw ML, Fumey G, Perlemoine K, Muchow M, Robinson-White A, Weinberg F, Nesterova M, Patronas Y, Groussin L, Bertherat J, Stratakis CA. Protein kinase A effects of an expressed PRKAR1A mutation associated with aggressive tumors. Cancer Res 2008; 68:3133-41. [PMID: 18451138 PMCID: PMC3129544 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Most PRKAR1A tumorigenic mutations lead to nonsense mRNA that is decayed; tumor formation has been associated with an increase in type II protein kinase A (PKA) subunits. The IVS6+1G>T PRKAR1A mutation leads to a protein lacking exon 6 sequences [R1 alpha Delta 184-236 (R1 alpha Delta 6)]. We compared in vitro R1 alpha Delta 6 with wild-type (wt) R1 alpha. We assessed PKA activity and subunit expression, phosphorylation of target molecules, and properties of wt-R1 alpha and mutant (mt) R1 alpha; we observed by confocal microscopy R1 alpha tagged with green fluorescent protein and its interactions with Cerulean-tagged catalytic subunit (C alpha). Introduction of the R1 alpha Delta 6 led to aberrant cellular morphology and higher PKA activity but no increase in type II PKA subunits. There was diffuse, cytoplasmic localization of R1 alpha protein in wt-R1 alpha- and R1 alpha Delta 6-transfected cells but the former also exhibited discrete aggregates of R1 alpha that bound C alpha; these were absent in R1 alpha Delta 6-transfected cells and did not bind C alpha at baseline or in response to cyclic AMP. Other changes induced by R1 alpha Delta 6 included decreased nuclear C alpha. We conclude that R1 alpha Delta 6 leads to increased PKA activity through the mt-R1 alpha decreased binding to C alpha and does not involve changes in other PKA subunits, suggesting that a switch to type II PKA activity is not necessary for increased kinase activity or tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elise Meoli
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Ioannis Bossis
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Laure Cazabat
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U567, Département d’Endocrinologie, Métabolisme and Cancer, Institut Cochin
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 8104
- Centre de Référence des Maladies Rares de la Surrénale, Service d’Endocrinologie, Hôpital Cochin, Université Paris 5, Paris, France
| | - Manos Mavrakis
- Section on Organelle Biology, Program in Cell Biology and Metabolism, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Anelia Horvath
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Sotiris Stergiopoulos
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Miriam L. Shiferaw
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Glawdys Fumey
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U567, Département d’Endocrinologie, Métabolisme and Cancer, Institut Cochin
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 8104
- Centre de Référence des Maladies Rares de la Surrénale, Service d’Endocrinologie, Hôpital Cochin, Université Paris 5, Paris, France
| | - Karine Perlemoine
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U567, Département d’Endocrinologie, Métabolisme and Cancer, Institut Cochin
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 8104
- Centre de Référence des Maladies Rares de la Surrénale, Service d’Endocrinologie, Hôpital Cochin, Université Paris 5, Paris, France
| | - Michael Muchow
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Audrey Robinson-White
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Frank Weinberg
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Maria Nesterova
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Yianna Patronas
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Lionel Groussin
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U567, Département d’Endocrinologie, Métabolisme and Cancer, Institut Cochin
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 8104
- Centre de Référence des Maladies Rares de la Surrénale, Service d’Endocrinologie, Hôpital Cochin, Université Paris 5, Paris, France
| | - Jérôme Bertherat
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U567, Département d’Endocrinologie, Métabolisme and Cancer, Institut Cochin
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 8104
- Centre de Référence des Maladies Rares de la Surrénale, Service d’Endocrinologie, Hôpital Cochin, Université Paris 5, Paris, France
| | - Constantine A. Stratakis
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
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