Improved Efficacy of Antibody Cancer Immunotherapeutics through Local and Sustained Delivery

Affinity-controlled capture and release of engineered monoclonal antibodies by macroporous dextran hydrogels using coiled-coil interactions

Long-term delivery is a successful strategy used to reduce the adverse effects of monoclonal antibody (mAb)-based treatments. Macroporous hydrogels and affinity-based strategies have shown promising results in sustained and localized delivery of the mAbs. Among the potential tools for affinity-based delivery systems, the de novo designed Ecoil and Kcoil peptides are engineered to form a high-affinity, heterodimeric coiled-coil complex under physiological conditions. In this study, we created a set of trastuzumab molecules tagged with various Ecoil peptides and evaluated their manufacturability and characteristics. Our data show that addition of an Ecoil tag at the C-termini of the antibody chains (light chains, heavy chains, or both) does not hinder the production of chimeric trastuzumab in CHO cells or affect antibody binding to its antigen. We also evaluated the influence of the number, length, and position of the Ecoil tags on the capture and release of Ecoil-tagged trastuzumab from macroporous dextran hydrogels functionalized with Kcoil peptide (the Ecoil peptide-binding partner). Notably, our data show that antibodies are released from the macroporous hydrogels in a biphasic manner; the first phase corresponding to the rapid release of residual, unbound trastuzumab from the macropores, followed by the affinity-controlled, slow-rate release of antibodies from the Kcoil-functionalized macropore surface.

Locoregional Lymphatic Delivery Systems Using Nanoparticles and Hydrogels for Anticancer Immunotherapy

The lymphatic system has gained significant interest as a target tissue to control cancer progress, which highlights its central role in adaptive immune response. Numerous mechanistic studies have revealed the benefits of nano-sized materials in the transport of various cargos to lymph nodes, overcoming barriers associated with lymphatic physiology. The potential of sustained drug delivery systems in improving the therapeutic index of various immune modulating agents is also being actively discussed. Herein, we aim to discuss design rationales and principles of locoregional lymphatic drug delivery systems for invigorating adaptive immune response for efficient antitumor immunotherapy and provide examples of various advanced nanoparticle- and hydrogel-based formulations.

Real-time evaluation of a hydrogel delivery vehicle for cancer immunotherapeutics within embedded spheroid cultures

Many protein immunotherapeutics are hindered by transport barriers that prevent the obtainment of minimum effective concentrations (MECs) in solid tumors. Local delivery vehicles with tunable release (infusion) rates for immunotherapeutics are being developed to achieve local and sustained release. To expedite their discovery and translation, in vitro models can identify promising delivery vehicles and immunotherapies that benefit from sustained release by evaluating cancer spheroid killing in real-time. Using displacement affinity release (DAR) within a hydrogel, we tuned the release of a CD133 targeting dual antigen T cell engager (DATE) without the need for further DATE or hydrogel modifications, yielding an injectable vehicle that acts as a tunable infusion pump. To quantify bioactivity benefits, a 3D embedded cancer spheroid model was developed for the evaluation of sustained protein release and combination therapies on T cell mediated spheroid killing. Using automated brightfield and fluorescent microscopy, the size of red fluorescent protein (iRFP670) expressing spheroids were tracked to quantify spheroid growth or killing over time as a function of controlled delivery. We demonstrate that sustained DATE release enhanced T cell mediated killing of embedded glioblastoma spheroids at longer timepoints, killing was further enhanced with the addition of anti-PD1 antibody (αPD1). The multi-cellular embedded spheroid model with automated microscopy demonstrated the benefit of extended bispecific release on T cell mediated killing, which will expedite the identification and translation of delivery vehicles such as DAR for immunotherapeutics.

Nano Drug Delivery System for Tumor Immunotherapy: Next-Generation Therapeutics

Tumor immunotherapy is an artificial stimulation of the immune system to enhance anti-cancer response. It has become a powerful clinical strategy for treating cancer. The number of immunotherapy drug approvals has been increasing in recent years, and many treatments are in clinical and preclinical stages. Despite this progress, the special tumor heterogeneity and immunosuppressive microenvironment of solid tumors made immunotherapy in the majority of cancer cases difficult. Therefore, understanding how to improve the intratumoral enrichment degree and the response rate of various immunotherapy drugs is key to improve efficacy and control adverse reactions. With the development of materials science and nanotechnology, advanced biomaterials such as nanoparticle and drug delivery systems like T-cell delivery therapy can improve effectiveness of immunotherapy while reducing the toxic side effects on non-target cells, which offers innovative ideas for improving immunity therapeutic effectiveness. In this review, we discuss the mechanism of tumor cell immune escape and focus on current immunotherapy (such as cytokine immunotherapy, therapeutic monoclonal antibody immunotherapy, PD-1/PD-L1 therapy, CAR-T therapy, tumor vaccine, oncolytic virus, and other new types of immunity) and its challenges as well as the latest nanotechnology (such as bionic nanoparticles, self-assembled nanoparticles, deformable nanoparticles, photothermal effect nanoparticles, stimuli-responsive nanoparticles, and other types) applications in cancer immunotherapy.

Light sensitive phenacyl crosslinked dextran hydrogels for controlled delivery

Stimuli‐responsive soft materials enable controlled release of loaded drug molecules and biomolecules. Controlled release of potent chemotherapeutic or immunotherapeutic agents is crucial to reduce unwanted side effects. In an effort to develop controlled release strategies that can be triggered by using Cerenkov luminescence, we have developed polymer hydrogels that can release bovine serum albumin and immunoglobulin G by using light (254 nm–375 nm) as a trigger. We describe the synthesis and photochemical characterization of two light sensitive phenacyl bis‐azide crosslinkers that are used to prepare transparent self‐supporting hydrogel patches. One crosslinker was designed to optimize the overlap with the Cerenkov luminescence emission window, bearing an π‐extended phenacyl core, resulting in a high quantum yield (14 %) of photocleavage when irradiated with 375 nm light. We used the extended phenacyl crosslinker for the preparation of protein‐loaded dextran hydrogel patches, which showed efficient and selective dosed release of bovine serum albumin or immunoglobulin G after irradiation with 375 nm light. Cerenkov‐triggered release is as yet inconclusive due to unexpected side‐reactivity. Based on the high quantum yield, efficient release and large overlap with the Cerenkov window, we envision application of these photosensitive soft materials in radiation targeted drug release.

Injectable Hydrogels as Local Depots at Tumor Sites for Antitumor Immunotherapy and Immune-Based Combination Therapy

Despite the encouraging clinical responses of several human cancers to immunotherapy, the efficacy of this treatment remains limited by variable objective response rates and severe systemic immune-related adverse events. To overcome these issues, injectable hydrogels have been developed as local depots that permit the sustained release of single or multiple immunotherapy agents, including traditional immunomodulatory factors, immune checkpoint blocking antibodies, and exogenous immune cells. The antitumor efficacy of immunotherapy can also be enhanced by its combination with other therapeutic approaches, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and phototherapy. Despite local treatment strategies, potent systemic antitumor immune responses with low systemic toxicity can be obtained, leading to significant local and abscopal tumor-killing, reduced tumor metastasis, and the prevention of tumor recurrence. This review highlights recent progress in injectable hydrogel-based local depots for tumor immunotherapy and immune-based combination therapy. Moreover, the proposed mechanisms responsible for these antitumor effects are discussed.

Biomaterial scaffold-based local drug delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has attracted tremendous attention due to the remarkable clinical successes for treating a broad spectrum of tumors. One challenge for cancer immunotherapy is the inability to control localization and sustain concentrations of therapeutics at tumor sites. Local drug delivery systems (LDDSs) like the biomaterial scaffold-based drug delivery systems have emerged as a promising approach for delivering immunotherapeutic agents facilely and intensively in situ with reduced systemic toxicity. In this review, recent advances in biomaterial scaffold-based LDDSs for the administration of immunotherapeutic agents including vaccines, immunomodulators, and immune cells are summarized. Moreover, co-delivery systems are also evaluated for local immunotherapy-involving combination anti-tumor therapy, including chemotherapy-immunotherapy, photothermal-immunotherapy, and other combination therapies. Finally, the current challenges and future perspectives on the development of next-generation LDDSs for cancer immunotherapy are discussed.

Advances in engineering local drug delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy aims to leverage the immune system to suppress the growth of tumors and to inhibit metastasis. The recent promising clinical outcomes associated with cancer immunotherapy have prompted research and development efforts towards enhancing the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade, cancer vaccines, cytokine therapy, and adoptive T cell therapy. Advancements in biomaterials, nanomedicine, and micro-/nano-technology have facilitated the development of enhanced local delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy, which can enhance treatment efficacy while minimizing toxicity. Furthermore, locally administered cancer therapies that combine immunotherapy with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or phototherapy have the potential to achieve synergistic antitumor effects. Herein, the latest studies on local delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy are surveyed, with an emphasis on the therapeutic benefits associated with the design of biomaterials and nanomedicines. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Covalent Immune Recruiters: Tools to Gain Chemical Control Over Immune Recognition

Unprecedented progress made in the treatment of cancer using the body's own immune system has encouraged the development of synthetic molecule based immunotherapeutics. An emerging class of these compounds, called Antibody Recruiting Molecules (ARMs) or Antibody Engagers (AEs), functions by reversibly binding antibodies naturally present in human serum and recruiting these to cancer cells. The recruited antibodies then engage immune cells to form quaternary complexes that drive cancer erradication. Despite their promise, the requirement to form quaternary complexes governed by multiple equilibria complicates an understanding of their in vivo efficacy. Particularly problematic are low endogenous serum antibody concentrations and rapid clearance of AEs from circulation. Here we describe a new class of trifunctional chemical tools we call covalent immune recruiters (CIRs). CIRs covalently label specific serum antibodies in a selective manner with a target protein binding ligand. CIRs thereby exert well-defined control over antibody recruitment and simplify quaternary complex equilibium, enabling probing of the resultant effects on immune recognition. We demonstrate CIRs can selectively covalently label anti-DNP IgG, a natural human antibody, directly in human serum to drive efficient immune cell recognition of targets. We expect CIRs will be useful tools to probe how quaternary complex stability impacts the immune recognition of cancer in vivo, revealing new design principles to guide the development of future AEs.

Displacement Affinity Release of Antibodies from Injectable Hydrogels

Current methods to tune release rates of therapeutic antibodies (Abs) for local delivery are complex and routinely require bioconjugations that may reduce Ab bioactivity. To rapidly tune release profiles of bioactive Abs, we developed a biophysical interaction system within a neutravidin modified poly(carboxybetaine) hydrogel (pCB-NT) that tunes release rates of desthiobiotinylated Abs (D-Abs) using a constant hydrogel and D-Ab combination. Herein, we delivered desthiobiotinylated bevacizumab (D-Bv), a recombinant humanized monoclonal IgG1 Ab for antiangiogenic cancer therapies. D-Bv's high affinity for pCB-NT (K_D 7.8 × 10^-10 M; t_1/2 ∼ 2 h) produces a slow D-Bv release rate (∼5 ng day^-1) that is increased by the dissolution of hydrogel encapsulated biotin derivative pellets, which displaces D-Bv from pCB-NT binding sites. In contrast to traditional affinity systems, displacement affinity release of Abs (DARA) does not require Ab or hydrogel modifications for each unique release rate. D-Bv release rates were tuned by simply altering the total biotin derivative concentration; the effective first-order (k_eff) and mass per day release rates were tuned 25- and 8-fold, respectively. Local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) and biolayer interferometry (BLI) confirmed the D-Bv binding affinity for the corresponding ligand and Fc receptor, demonstrating that the biophysical interaction system is amenable to anticancer Abs for receptor or cytokine blockade and immune cell recruitment to cancer cells.

Influence of Hydrophobic Cross-Linkers on Carboxybetaine Copolymer Stimuli Response and Hydrogel Biological Properties

Poly(carboxybetaine) (pCB) hydrogels do not elicit a foreign body response due to their low-fouling properties, making them ideal implantable materials for in vivo drug and cell delivery. Current reported pCB hydrogels are cross-linked using cytotoxic UV-initiated radical polymerization limiting clinical and in vivo translation. For clinical translation, we require in situ and biorthogonal cross-linking of pCB hydrogels that are both low-fouling and low-swelling to limit nonspecific interactions and minimize tissue damage, respectively. To this end, we synthesized carboxybetaine (CB) random copolymers (molecular weight (MW): ∼7-33 kDa; Đ: 1.1-1.36) containing azide (pCB-azide) or strained alkyne (Dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO); pCB-DBCO) that rapidly cross-link upon mixing. Unlike CB homopolymers and other CB copolymers studied, high DBCO content pCB-DBCO₃₀ (30% DBCO mole fraction) is thermoresponsive with a upper critical solution temperature (UCST; cloud point of ∼20 °C at 50 g/L) in water due to electrostatic associations. Due to the antipolyelectrolyte effect, pCB-DBCO₃₀ is salt-responsive and is soluble even at low temperatures in 5 M NaCl, which prevents zwitterion electrostatic associations. pCB-azide and pCB-DBCO with 0.05 to 0.16 cross-linker mole fractions rapidly formed 10 wt % hydrogels upon mixing that were low-swelling (increase of ∼10% in wet weight) while remaining low-fouling to proteins (∼10-20 μg cm^-2) and cells, making them suitable for in vivo applications. pCB-X₃₁ hydrogels composed of pCB-azide₃₂ and pCB-DBCO₃₀ formed opaque gels in water and physiological conditions that shrunk to ∼70% of their original wet weight due to pCB-DBCO₃₀'s greater hydrophobicity and interchain electrostatic interactions, which promotes nonspecific protein adsorption (∼35 μg cm^-2) and cell binding. Once formed, the electrostatic interactions in pCB-X₃₁ hydrogels are not fully reversible with heat or salt. Although, pCB-X₃₁ hydrogels are transparent when initially prepared in 5 M NaCl. This is the first demonstration of a thermo- and salt-responsive CB copolymer that can tune hydrogel protein and cell fouling properties.