Functionalization of Graphene Oxide with Porphyrins: Synthetic Routes and Biological Applications

Porphyrin-Based Sorbents for the Enrichment and Removal of Metal Ions

Porphyrins and their derivatives are excellent materials with specific physical and photochemical properties in medical, chemical, and technological applications. In chemistry, their properties are applied to create new functional materials with specific characteristics, such as porphyrin-based sorbents combined with porous organic polymers, silica, carbon nanostructures, or metal-organic frameworks. This review covers the applications of porphyrins and metalloporphyrins in preparing and using sorbents for metal ion enrichment and their separation. Uncommon applications that utilize specific properties of porphyrins, such as light-enhanced processes and redox properties for selective sorption and photocatalytic conversion of metal ions, are also discussed. These applications suggest new fields of use, such as the removal or recycling of metals from electronic waste or the selective elimination of heavy metals from the environment.

Controlled Growth of Oligophenylene-Structures on Graphene for Facile Secondary Functionalization

Functionalization of graphene derivatives is a common approach to tune material properties for use in various applications. Because of the low reactivity of the unsaturated carbon lattice of graphene, not only are few chemical approaches suitable for successful functionalization, such as those involving highly reactive in situ formed radical species or nitrene and carbene compounds, but also the degree of functionalization is usually limited, modifying only a few percent of the carbon atoms. Typically, uncontrolled side reactions such as homocoupling and oligomerization of newly introduced functional groups can occur instead of direct coupling to the carbon lattice. We want to turn this unwanted side reaction into an advantage and use intentionally formed covalent dendrimeric oligophenylene structures for secondary functionalization. We show that these oligomeric structures can be grown to specific thicknesses and used for further functionalization with bromomethyl groups at high density on the surface. This functionalization opens further avenues for subsequent nucleophilic substitution, as exemplified by the introduction of versatile azide, nitrile, and phosphonate groups. The results presented here are not only applicable to large oligophenylene structures, but also demonstrate that, in principle, single aryl moieties on graphene of any size and density can be successfully functionalized.

Versatile Porphyrin Arrangements for Photodynamic Therapy-A Review

Nanotechnology is an emerging field that involves the development of nanoscale particles, their fabrication methods, and potential applications. From nanosized inorganic particles to biopolymers, the variety of nanoparticles is unstoppably growing, offering huge opportunities for drug delivery. Various nanoformulations, such as nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and nanoemulsions, have been developed to enhance drug stability, solubility, and tissue penetration. Moreover, nanocarriers can be specifically engineered to target diseased cells or release the drug in a controllable manner, minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissues and reducing side effects. This review focuses on the combinations between porphyrin derivatives and nanocarriers applied in photodynamic therapy (PDT). PDT has emerged as a significant advance in medicine, offering a low-invasive method for managing infections, the treatment of tumors, and various dermatoses. The therapy relies on the activation of a photosensitizer by light, which results in the generation of reactive oxygen species. Despite their favorable properties, porphyrins reveal non-specific distribution within the body. Nanotechnology has the capability to enhance the PS delivery and its activation. This review explores the potential improvements that are provided by the use of nanotechnology in the PDT field.

Supramolecular Modification of Graphene Sponge with a Porphyrin Derivative Enhances the Photothermal Conversion Efficiency of a Solar Steam Generator

Solar energy seems to be a promising solution for obtaining clean water from saltwater and wastewater. With the solar steam generator system, it is possible to effectively acquire clean water from wastewater with a low-cost, sustainable, and environmentally friendly approach. In this study, PRF/GGSM, prepared by modification of gradient graphene sponge material (GGSM) with porphyrin derivative supramolecules (PRF), was investigated as a photothermal material for solar steam generation. PRF/GGSM possessing graphene and PRF served as ideal solar thermal converters that could easily gather sunlight. This material owing to its microporous and gradient hydrophilic structure has achieved a solar thermal conversion efficiency of up to 92% under 1 sun, corresponding to the water evaporation rate of 3.8 kg h-1 m-2. Moreover, this study exhibited that PRF/GGSM can efficiently generate clean water from seawater, wastewater, and even concentrated acid and alkali solutions.

Mini-Review on Catalytic Hydrogen Evolution from Porphyrin-Graphene Structures

Porphyrin-based derivatives have been extensively investigated in photocatalytic, electrocatalytic, and photoelectrocatalytic H2 production systems as both photosensitizers and catalysts. Recently, their combination with two-dimensional materials, such as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and graphene quantum dots, has attracted significant attention for hydrogen evolution due to the advanced electronic properties, good stability, and low-cost fabrication of these materials. This mini-review summarizes the recent developments concerning the application of porphyrin-graphene ensembles in catalytic H2 generation. Current challenges concerning this application are discussed, and future perspectives are also proposed.

Better biocompatibility of nitrogen-doped graphene compared with graphene oxide by reducing cell autophagic flux blockage and cell apoptosis

Nitrogen-doped graphene (C2 N), a novel graphene-based materials, has been proposed as a potential alternative to graphene oxide (GO) in biomedical applications. However, due to the challenges in synthesizing C2 N, reports in the biomedical field are currently rare. Here, we have modified the reported procedure and successfully synthesized C2 N nanoparticles at 120°C, which we refer to as C2 N-120. The toxicity and biocompatibility of GO and C2 N-120 were evaluated using a mouse model injected with GO/C2 N-120 via the tail vein, as well as cell models treated with GO/C2 N-120. In vivo studies revealed that GO/C2 N-120 showed similar distribution patterns after tail vein injection. The liver, spleen, and lung are the major nanoparticle uptake organs of GO and C2 N-120. However, GO deposition in the major nanoparticle uptake organs was more significant than that of C2 N-120. In addition, GO deposition caused structural abnormalities, increased apoptotic cells, and enhanced macrophage infiltration whereas C2 N-120 exhibited fewer adverse effects. In vitro experiments were conducted using different cell lines treated with GO/C2 N-120. Unlike GO which induced mitochondrial damage, oxidative stress, inflammatory response, autophagic flux blockage and cell apoptosis, C2 N-120 showed lower cytotoxicity in cell models. Our data demonstrated that C2 N-120 exhibits higher biocompatibility than GO, both in vivo and in vitro, suggesting its potential for biomedical application in the future.

Interaction of Graphene Oxide Particles and Dendrimers with Human Breast Cancer Cells by Real-Time Microscopy

Graphene oxide (GOX) has become attractive due to its unique physicochemical properties. This nanomaterial can associate with other dendrimers, making them more soluble and allowing better interaction with biomacromolecules. The present study aimed to investigate, by real-time microscopy, the behavior of human breast cancer cells exposed to particles of materials based on graphene oxide. The MCF-7 cell line was exposed to GOX, GOX associated with Polypropylenimine hexadecaamine Dendrimer, Generation 3.0-DAB-AM-16 (GOXD) and GOX associated with polypropyleneimine-PAMAM (GOXP) in the presence or absence of fetal bovine serum (FBS). GOX, GOXD and GOXP were taken up by the cells in clusters and then the clusters were fragmented into smaller ones inside the cells. Real-time microscopy showed that the presence of FBS in the culture medium could allow a more efficient internalization of graphene materials. After internalizing the materials, cells can redistribute the clumps to their daughter cells. In conclusion, the present study showed that the particles can adhere to the cell surface, favoring their internalization. The presence of FBS contributed to the formation of smaller aggregates of particles, avoiding the formation of large ones, and thus transmitted a more efficient internalization of the materials through the interaction of the particles with the cell membrane.

Application of Nanoparticles in Cancer Treatment: A Concise Review

Timely diagnosis and appropriate antitumoral treatments remain of utmost importance, since cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide. Within this context, nanotechnology offers specific benefits in terms of cancer therapy by reducing its adverse effects and guiding drugs to selectively target cancer cells. In this comprehensive review, we have summarized the most relevant novel outcomes in the range of 2010-2023, covering the design and application of nanosystems for cancer therapy. We have established the general requirements for nanoparticles to be used in drug delivery and strategies for their uptake in tumor microenvironment and vasculature, including the reticuloendothelial system uptake and surface functionalization with protein corona. After a brief review of the classes of nanovectors, we have covered different classes of nanoparticles used in cancer therapies. First, the advances in the encapsulation of drugs (such as paclitaxel and fisetin) into nanoliposomes and nanoemulsions are described, as well as their relevance in current clinical trials. Then, polymeric nanoparticles are presented, namely the ones comprising poly lactic-co-glycolic acid, polyethylene glycol (and PEG dilemma) and dendrimers. The relevance of quantum dots in bioimaging is also covered, namely the systems with zinc sulfide and indium phosphide. Afterwards, we have reviewed gold nanoparticles (spheres and anisotropic) and their application in plasmon-induced photothermal therapy. The clinical relevance of iron oxide nanoparticles, such as magnetite and maghemite, has been analyzed in different fields, namely for magnetic resonance imaging, immunotherapy, hyperthermia, and drug delivery. Lastly, we have covered the recent advances in the systems using carbon nanomaterials, namely graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, and carbon dots. Finally, we have compared the strategies of passive and active targeting of nanoparticles and their relevance in cancer theranostics. This review aims to be a (nano)mark on the ongoing journey towards realizing the remarkable potential of different nanoparticles in the realm of cancer therapeutics.

Graphene Oxide Sheets Decorated with Octahedral Molybdenum Cluster Complexes for Enhanced Photoinactivation of Staphylococcus aureus

The emergence of multidrug-resistant microbial pathogens poses a significant threat, severely limiting the options for effective antibiotic therapy. This challenge can be overcome through the photoinactivation of pathogenic bacteria using materials generating reactive oxygen species upon exposure to visible light. These species target vital components of living cells, significantly reducing the likelihood of resistance development by the targeted pathogens. In our research, we have developed a nanocomposite material consisting of an aqueous colloidal suspension of graphene oxide sheets adorned with nanoaggregates of octahedral molybdenum cluster complexes. The negative charge of the graphene oxide and the positive charge of the nanoaggregates promoted their electrostatic interaction in aqueous medium and close cohesion between the colloids. Upon illumination with blue light, the colloidal system exerted a potent antibacterial effect against planktonic cultures of Staphylococcus aureus largely surpassing the individual contributions of the components. The underlying mechanism behind this phenomenon lies in the photoinduced electron transfer from the nanoaggregates of the cluster complexes to the graphene oxide sheets, which triggers the generation of reactive oxygen species. Thus, leveraging the unique properties of graphene oxide and light-harvesting octahedral molybdenum cluster complexes can open more effective and resilient antibacterial strategies.

Stereospecific Self-Assembly Processes of Porphyrin-Proline Conjugates: From the Effect of Structural Features and Bulk Solvent Properties to the Application in Stereoselective Sensor Systems

Conjugating the porphyrin ring with an amino acid via amide linkage represents a straightforward way for conferring both amphiphilicity and chirality to the macrocycle. Proline residue is a good choice in this context since its conformational rigidity allows for porphyrin assembling where molecular chirality is efficiently transferred and amplified using properly honed aqueous environments. Herein, we describe the evolution of the studies carried out by our group to achieve chiral systems from some porphyrin-proline derivatives, both in solution and in the solid state. The discussion focuses on some fundamental aspects reflecting on the final molecular architectures obtained, which are related to the nature of the appended group (stereochemistry and charge), the presence of a metal ion coordinated to the porphyrin core and the bulk solvent properties. Indeed, fine-tuning the mentioned parameters enables the achievement of stereospecific structures with distinctive chiroptical and morphological features. Solid films based on these chiral systems were also obtained and their recognition abilities in gaseous and liquid phase are here described.

Understanding structure-properties relationships of porphyrin linked to graphene oxide through π-π-stacking or covalent amide bonds

Two graphene oxide nanoassemblies using 5-(4-(aminophenyl)-10,15,20-triphenylporphyrin (TPPNH₂) were fabricated by two synthetic methods: covalent (GO-CONHTPP) and noncovalent bonding. GO-CONHTPP was achieved through amide formation at the periphery of GO sheets and the hybrid material was fully characterized by FTIR, XPS, Raman spectroscopy, and SEM. Spectroscopic measurements together with theoretical calculations demonstrated that assembling TPPNH₂ on the GO surface in DMF-H₂O (1:2, v/v) via non-covalent interactions causes changes in the absorption spectra of porphyrin, as well as efficient quenching of its emission. Interestingly, covalent binding to GO does not affect notably neither the porphyrin absorption nor its fluorescence. Theoretical calculations indicates that close proximity and π-π-stacking of the porphyrin molecule with the GO sheet is possible only for the non-covalent functionalization. Femtosecond pump-probe experiments revealed that only the non-covalent assembly of TPPNH₂ and GO enhances the efficiency of the photoinduced electron transfer from porphyrin to GO. In contrast to the non-covalent hybrid, the covalent GO-CONHTPP material can generate singlet oxygen with quantum yields efficiency (ΦΔ = 0.20) comparable to that of free TPPNH₂ (ΦΔ = 0.26), indicating the possible use of covalent hybrid materials in photodynamic/photothermal therapy. The spectroscopic studies combined with detailed quantum-chemical analysis provide invaluable information that can guide the fabrication of hybrid materials with desired properties for specific applications.

Interfacial assembly of zinc(II) phthalocyanines on graphene oxide (GO): Stable "turn-off-on" nanoplatforms to detect G-quadruplexes (G4)

HYPOTHESIS

The aggregation of phthalocyanines (Pcs) enfeebles their suitability as G-quadruplex (G4) ligands over time. It is hypothesized that the interfacial assembly of Pcs on graphene oxide (GO) influences intermolecular interactions, thereby affecting their physicochemical properties and inducing stabilization of Pcs in solution. Hence, the stacking of Pcs on GO could be tuned to create nanosystems with the ability to detect G4 for longer periods through a slow release of Pcs.

EXPERIMENTS

Four cationic structurally-related zinc(II) phthalocyanines (ZnPc) were non-covalently assembled on GO by ultrasonic exfoliation. A comprehensive characterization of ZnPcs@GO was carried out by spectroscopic techniques and electron microscopy to understand the organization of ZnPcs on GO. The fluorescence of ZnPcs@GO was studied in the presence of G4 (T₂G₅T)₄ and duplex ds26 through spectrofluorimetric titrations and monitored along time.

FINDINGS

GO induced a re-organization of the ZnPcs mostly to J-aggregates and quenched their original fluorescence up to 98 % ("turn-off"). In general, ZnPcs@GO recovered their fluorescence ("turn-on") after the titrations and showed affinity to G4 (K_D up to 1.92 μM). This is the first report that highlights the contribution of GO interfaces to assemble ZnPcs and allow their slow and controlled release to detect G4 over longer periods.

Graphene Biosensors-A Molecular Approach

Graphene is the material elected to study molecules and monolayers at the molecular scale due to its chemical stability and electrical properties. The invention of scanning tunneling microscopy has deepened our knowledge on molecular systems through imaging at an atomic resolution, and new possibilities have been investigated at this scale. Interest on studies on biomolecules has been demonstrated due to the possibility of mimicking biological systems, providing several applications in nanomedicine: drug delivery systems, biosensors, nanostructured scaffolds, and biodevices. A breakthrough came with the synthesis of molecular systems by stepwise methods with control at the atomic/molecular level. This article presents a review on self-assembled monolayers of biomolecules on top of graphite with applications in biodevices. Special attention is given to porphyrin systems adsorbed on top of graphite that are able to anchor other biomolecules.

Graphene quantum dots-porphyrins/phthalocyanines multifunctional hybrid systems: from interfacial dialogue to applications

Engineered well-ordered hybrid nanomaterials are at a symbolically pivotal point, just ahead of a long-anticipated human race transformation. Incorporating newer carbon nanomaterials like graphene quantum dots (GQDs) with tetrapyrrolic porphyrins...

Organic Functionalized Carbon Nanostructures for Solar Energy Conversion

This review presents an overview of the use of organic functionalized carbon nanostructures (CNSs) in solar energy conversion schemes. Our attention was focused in particular on the contribution of organic chemistry to the development of new hybrid materials that find application in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), organic photovoltaics (OPVs), and perovskite solar cells (PSCs), as well as in photocatalytic fuel production, focusing in particular on the most recent literature. The request for new materials able to accompany the green energy transition that are abundant, low-cost, low-toxicity, and made from renewable sources has further increased the interest in CNSs that meet all these requirements. The inclusion of an organic molecule, thanks to both covalent and non-covalent interactions, in a CNS leads to the development of a completely new hybrid material able of combining and improving the properties of both starting materials. In addition to the numerical data, which unequivocally state the positive effect of the new hybrid material, we hope that these examples can inspire further research in the field of photoactive materials from an organic point of view.

Lerf-Klinowski-type models of graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide are robust in analyzing non-covalent functionalization with porphyrins

Graphene-based nanohybrids are good candidates for various applications. However, graphene exhibits some unwanted features such as low solubility in an aqueous solution or tendency to aggregate, limiting its potential applications. On the contrary, its derivatives, such as graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (RGO), have excellent properties and can be easily produced in large quantities. GO/RGO nanohybrids with porphyrins were shown to possess great potential in the field of photocatalytic hydrogen production, pollutant photodegradation, optical sensing, or drug delivery. Despite the rapid progress in experimental research on the porphyrin-graphene hybrids some fundamental questions about the structures and the interaction between components in these systems still remain open. In this work, we combine detailed experimental and theoretical studies to investigate the nature of the interaction between the GO/RGO and two metal-free porphyrins 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-aminophenyl) porphyrin (TAPP) and 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-hydroxyphenyl) porphyrin (TPPH)]. The two porphyrins form stable nanohybrids with GO/RGO support, although both porphyrins exhibited a slightly higher affinity to RGO. We validated finite, Lerf-Klinowski-type (Lerf et al. in J Phys Chem B 102:4477, 1998) structural models of GO ([Formula: see text]) and RGO ([Formula: see text]) and successfully used them in ab initio absorption spectra simulations to track back the origin of experimentally observed spectral features. We also investigated the nature of low-lying excited states with high-level wavefunction-based methods and shown that states' density becomes denser upon nanohybrid formation. The studied nanohybrids are non-emissive, and our study suggests that this is due to excited states that gain significant charge-transfer character. The presented efficient simulation protocol may ease the properties screening of new GO/RGO-nanohybrids.

Non-Oncologic Applications of Nanomedicine-Based Phototherapy

Phototherapy is widely applied to various human diseases. Nanomedicine-based phototherapy can be classified into photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT). Activated photosensitizer kills the target cells by generating radicals or reactive oxygen species in PDT while generating heat in PTT. Both PDT and PTT have been employed for treating various diseases, from preclinical to randomized controlled clinical trials. However, there are still hurdles to overcome before entering clinical practice. This review provides an overview of nanomedicine-based phototherapy, especially in non-oncologic diseases. Multiple clinical trials were undertaken to prove the therapeutic efficacy of PDT in dermatologic, ophthalmologic, cardiovascular, and dental diseases. Preclinical studies showed the feasibility of PDT in neurologic, gastrointestinal, respiratory, and musculoskeletal diseases. A few clinical studies of PTT were tried in atherosclerosis and dry eye syndrome. Although most studies have shown promising results, there have been limitations in specificity, targeting efficiency, and tissue penetration using phototherapy. Recently, nanomaterials have shown promising results to overcome these limitations. With advanced technology, nanomedicine-based phototherapy holds great potential for broader clinical practice.