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Dedoni S, Scherma M, Camoglio C, Siddi C, Dazzi L, Puliga R, Frau J, Cocco E, Fadda P. An overall view of the most common experimental models for multiple sclerosis. Neurobiol Dis 2023:106230. [PMID: 37453561 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex chronic disease with an unknown etiology. It is considered an inflammatory demyelinating and neurodegenerative disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized, in most cases, by an unpredictable onset of relapse and remission phases. The disease generally starts in subjects under 40; it has a higher incidence in women and is described as a multifactorial disorder due to the interaction between genetic and environmental risk factors. Unfortunately, there is currently no definitive cure for MS. Still, therapies can modify the disease's natural history, reducing the relapse rate and slowing the progression of the disease or managing symptoms. The limited access to human CNS tissue slows down. It limits the progression of research on MS. This limit has been partially overcome over the years by developing various experimental models to study this disease. Animal models of autoimmune demyelination, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and viral and toxin or transgenic MS models, represent the most significant part of MS research approaches. These models have now been complemented by ex vivo studies, using organotypic brain slice cultures and in vitro, through induced Pluripotent Stem cells (iPSCs). We will discuss which clinical features of the disorders might be reproduced and investigated in vivo, ex vivo, and in vitro in models commonly used in MS research to understand the processes behind the neuropathological events occurring in the CNS of MS patients. The primary purpose of this review is to give the reader a global view of the main paradigms used in MS research, spacing from the classical animal models to transgenic mice and 2D and 3D cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Dedoni
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Italy.
| | - M Scherma
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Italy.
| | - C Camoglio
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Italy.
| | - C Siddi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - L Dazzi
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Anthropology, University of Cagliari, Monserrato (Cagliari), Italy.
| | - R Puliga
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Anthropology, University of Cagliari, Monserrato (Cagliari), Italy.
| | - J Frau
- Regional Multiple Sclerosis Center, ASSL Cagliari, ATS Sardegna, Italy
| | - E Cocco
- Regional Multiple Sclerosis Center, ASSL Cagliari, ATS Sardegna, Italy; Department Medical Science and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Italy.
| | - P Fadda
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, Italy; Neuroscience Institute, Section of Cagliari, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Cagliari, Italy.
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Abstract
There is an increasing recognition that inflammation plays a critical role in neurodegenerative diseases of the CNS, including Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and the prototypic neuroinflammatory disease multiple sclerosis (MS). Differential immune responses involving the adaptive versus the innate immune system are observed at various stages of neurodegenerative diseases, and may not only drive disease processes but could serve as therapeutic targets. Ongoing investigations into the specific inflammatory mechanisms that play roles in disease causation and progression have revealed lessons about inflammation-driven neurodegeneration that can be applied to other neurodegenerative diseases. An increasing number of immunotherapeutic strategies that have been successful in MS are now being applied to other neurodegenerative diseases. Some approaches suppress CNS immune mechanisms, while others harness the immune system to clear deleterious products and cells. This Review focuses on the mechanisms by which inflammation, mediated either by the peripheral immune response or by endogenous CNS immune mechanisms, can affect CNS neurodegeneration.
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Pironkova RP, Giamelli J, Seiden H, Parnell VA, Gruber D, Sison CP, Kowal C, Ojamaa K. Brain injury with systemic inflammation in newborns with congenital heart disease undergoing heart surgery. Exp Ther Med 2017; 14:228-238. [PMID: 28672919 PMCID: PMC5488503 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.4493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The potential role of systemic inflammation on brain injury in newborns with congenital heart disease (CHD) was assessed by measuring levels of central nervous system (CNS)-derived proteins in serum prior to and following cardiac surgery. A total of 23 newborns (gestational age, 39±1 weeks) with a diagnosis of CHD that required cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) were enrolled in the current study. Serum samples were collected immediately prior to surgery and 2, 24 and 48 h following CPB, and serum levels of phosphorylated neurofilament-heavy subunit (pNF-H), neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and S100B were analyzed. Systemic inflammation was assessed by measuring serum concentrations of complement C5a and complement sC5b9, and the following cytokines: Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL12p70, interferon γ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Analysis of cord blood from normal term deliveries (n=26) provided surrogate normative values for newborns. pNF-H and S100B were 2.4- to 2.8-fold higher (P<0.0001) in patient sera than in cord blood prior to surgery and remained elevated following CPB. Pre-surgical serum pNF-H and S100B levels directly correlated with interleukin (IL)-12p70 (ρ=0.442, P<0.05). pNF-H was inversely correlated with arterial pO2 prior to surgery (ρ=−0.493, P=0.01) and directly correlated with arterial pCO2 post-CPB (ρ=0.426, P<0.05), suggesting that tissue hypoxia and inflammation contribute to blood brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and neuronal injury. Serum IL12p70, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and TNF-α levels were significantly higher in patients than in normal cord blood and levels of these cytokines increased following CPB (P<0.001). Activation of complement was observed in all patients prior to surgery, and serum C5a and sC5b9 remained elevated up to 48 h post-surgery. Furthermore, they were correlated (P<0.05) with low arterial pO2, high pCO2 and elevated arterial pressure in the postoperative period. Length of mechanical ventilation was associated directly with post-surgery serum IL-12p70 and IL-8 concentrations (P<0.05). Elevated serum concentrations of pNF-H and S100B in neonates with CHD suggest BBB dysfunction and CNS injury, with concurrent hypoxemia and an activated inflammatory response potentiating this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossitza P Pironkova
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Cohen Children's Medical Center of New York at Northwell Health, New Hyde Park, NY 11040, USA
| | - Joseph Giamelli
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Cohen Children's Medical Center of New York at Northwell Health, New Hyde Park, NY 11040, USA
| | - Howard Seiden
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Cohen Children's Medical Center of New York at Northwell Health, New Hyde Park, NY 11040, USA
| | - Vincent A Parnell
- Division of Pediatric Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Pediatrics, Cohen Children's Medical Center of New York at Northwell Health, New Hyde Park, NY 11040, USA
| | - Dorota Gruber
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Cohen Children's Medical Center of New York at Northwell Health, New Hyde Park, NY 11040, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine, Hempstead, NY 11549, USA
| | - Cristina P Sison
- Biostatistics Unit, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY 11030, USA.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine, Hempstead, NY 11549, USA
| | - Czeslawa Kowal
- Center for Musculoskeletal and Autoimmune Diseases, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY 11030, USA
| | - Kaie Ojamaa
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Cohen Children's Medical Center of New York at Northwell Health, New Hyde Park, NY 11040, USA.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine, Hempstead, NY 11549, USA.,Center for Immunology and Inflammation, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY 11030, USA
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Abstract
We report the first documented case of retrobulbar optic neuropathy associated with golimumab. A 48-year-old man was admitted with a 3-week history of progressive visual loss of his left eye. He had received a second infusion of golimumab for ankylosing spondylitis 10 days before admission. A magnetic resonance imaging scan showed enhancement of both optic nerves and visual evoked potentials were consistent with demyelinating bilateral optic neuropathy, although visual acuity drop in the right eye could not be determined because of deep amblyopia. No improvement was observed after golimumab dechallenge or corticosteroid treatment. Demyelinating complications related to treatment with tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibitors (TNFAI) have been previously described. Golimumab, a fully human monoclonal antibody, is the most recently developed TNFAI and thus, fewer adverse effects have been reported. Further studies should be developed to elucidate if variability in golimumab's pharmacokinetics or TNF receptor binding affinity could explain different safety profiles compared with other TNFAI.
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Shimizu T, Wisessmith W, Li J, Abe M, Sakimura K, Chetsawang B, Sahara Y, Tohyama K, Tanaka KF, Ikenaka K. The balance between cathepsin C and cystatin F controls remyelination in the brain ofPlp1-overexpressing mouse, a chronic demyelinating disease model. Glia 2017; 65:917-930. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Shimizu
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics; National Institute for Physiological Sciences; Okazaki Japan
| | - Wilaiwan Wisessmith
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics; National Institute for Physiological Sciences; Okazaki Japan
- Research Center for Neuroscience, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University; Salaya Nakhonpathom Thailand
| | - Jiayi Li
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics; National Institute for Physiological Sciences; Okazaki Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences; Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI); Okazaki Japan
| | - Manabu Abe
- Brain Research Institute, Niigata University; Niigata Japan
| | - Kenji Sakimura
- Brain Research Institute, Niigata University; Niigata Japan
| | - Banthit Chetsawang
- Research Center for Neuroscience, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University; Salaya Nakhonpathom Thailand
| | - Yoshinori Sahara
- Department of Physiology; Iwate Medical University School of Dentistry; Iwate Japan
| | - Koujiro Tohyama
- Department of Physiology; Iwate Medical University School of Dentistry; Iwate Japan
- Center for Electron Microscopy and Bio-Imaging Research, Iwate Medical University; Iwate Japan
| | - Kenji F. Tanaka
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics; National Institute for Physiological Sciences; Okazaki Japan
- Department of Neuropsychiatry; Keio University; Tokyo Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Ikenaka
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics; National Institute for Physiological Sciences; Okazaki Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences; Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI); Okazaki Japan
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Bing SJ, Ha D, Hwang I, Park E, Ahn G, Song JY, Jee Y. Protective Effects on Central Nervous System by Acidic Polysaccharide of Panax ginseng in Relapse-Remitting Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis-Induced SJL/J Mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2016; 44:1099-1110. [DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x16500610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Bearing pathologic and clinical similarities to human multiple sclerosis (MS), experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is used as a murine model to test potential therapeutic agents for MS. Recently, we reported the protective effects of an acidic polysaccharide of Panax ginseng (APG) in C57BL/6 strain-dependent EAE, a model of primary progressive MS. In this study, we extend our previous findings on the therapeutic capacity of APG in relapsing-remitting EAE (rr-EAE), the animal model to closely mimic recurrent inflammatory demyelination lesions of relapsing-remitting MS. Treatments with APG led to a significant reduction of clinical symptoms and the relapse rate of EAE than vehicle treatments. Consistent with this, histological examination revealed that APG markedly modulated the infiltration of CD4[Formula: see text] T cells and CD11b[Formula: see text] macrophages into the spinal cord and the APG-treated CNS was devoid of demyelination and axonal damages. In addition, APG decreased the proliferation of peripheral PLP-reactive T cells and the production of pro-inflammatory factors such as IFN-[Formula: see text], IL-17 and TNF-[Formula: see text]. The fact that APG can induce clinically beneficial effects to distinct types of EAE furthers our understanding on the basis of its immunosuppression in EAE and, possibly, in MS. Our results suggest that APG may serve as a new therapeutic agent for MS as well as other human autoimmune diseases, and warrants continued evaluation for its translation into therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- So Jin Bing
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, South Korea
| | - Danbee Ha
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, South Korea
| | - Insun Hwang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, South Korea
| | - Eunjin Park
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, South Korea
| | - Ginnae Ahn
- Department of Marine Bio-Food Sciences, Chonnam National University, Yeosu 59626, South Korea
| | - Jie-Young Song
- Division of Radiation Cancer Research, Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences, Seoul 01812, South Korea
| | - Youngheun Jee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, South Korea
- Department of Advanced Convergence Technology and Science, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, South Korea
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, South Korea
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7
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Edrissi H, Schock SC, Cadonic R, Hakim AM, Thompson CS. Cilostazol reduces blood brain barrier dysfunction, white matter lesion formation and motor deficits following chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Brain Res 2016; 1646:494-503. [PMID: 27350079 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is a pathological process leading to lacunar infarcts, leukoaraiosis and cerebral microbleeds. Dysfunction of the blood brain barrier (BBB) has been proposed as a mechanism in the progression cerebral small vessel disease. A rodent model commonly used to study some aspects of CSVD is bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) in the rat. In the present study it was determined that gait impairment, as determined by a tapered beam test, and BBB permeability increased following BCCAO. Cilostazol, a type III phosphodiesterase inhibitor, has been shown to have anti-apoptotic effects and prevent white matter vacuolation and rarefaction induced by BCCAO in rats. In this study the protective effect of cilostazol administration on the increase BBB permeability following BCCAO was determined as well as the effect on plasma levels of circulating microparticles (MPs), cerebral white matter rarefaction, glial activation and gait disturbance. The effect of cilostazol on in vitro endothelial barriers was also evaluated. Cilostazol treatment improved BBB permeability and reduced gait disturbance, visual impairment and microglial activation in optic tract following BCCAO in vivo. It also reduced the degree of cell death and the reduction in trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) in artificial endothelial barriers in vitro induced by MP treatment of in vitro barriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamidreza Edrissi
- Universiy of Ottawa, Neuroscience Graduate Program, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1H 8M5
| | - Sarah C Schock
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Neuroscience, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1H 8M5
| | - Robert Cadonic
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Neuroscience, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1H 8M5
| | - Antoine M Hakim
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Neuroscience, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1H 8M5
| | - Charlie S Thompson
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Neuroscience, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1H 8M5.
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Goudarzvand M, Afraei S, Yaslianifard S, Ghiasy S, Sadri G, Kalvandi M, Alinia T, Mohebbi A, Yazdani R, Azarian SK, Mirshafiey A, Azizi G. Hydroxycitric acid ameliorates inflammation and oxidative stress in mouse models of multiple sclerosis. Neural Regen Res 2016; 11:1610-1616. [PMID: 27904492 PMCID: PMC5116840 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.193240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) is derived primarily from the Garcinia plant and is widely used for its anti-inflammatory effects. Multiple sclerosis can cause an inflammatory demyelination and axonal damage. In this study, to validate the hypothesis that HCA exhibits therapeutic effects on multiple sclerosis, we established female C57BL/6 mouse models of multiple sclerosis, i.e., experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, using Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) emulsion containing myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (35-55). Treatment with HCA at 2 g/kg/d for 3 weeks obviously improved the symptoms of nerve injury of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mice, decreased serum interleulin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, nitric oxide, and malondialdehyde levels, and increased superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase activities. These findings suggest that HCA exhibits neuroprotective effects on multiple sclerosis-caused nerve injury through ameliorating inflammation and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Goudarzvand
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Sanaz Afraei
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Somaye Yaslianifard
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Saleh Ghiasy
- Research Centre for Immunodeficiencies, Pediatrics Centre of Excellence, Children's Medical Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ghazal Sadri
- Research Centre for Immunodeficiencies, Pediatrics Centre of Excellence, Children's Medical Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mustafa Kalvandi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Tina Alinia
- Research Centre for Immunodeficiencies, Pediatrics Centre of Excellence, Children's Medical Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Mohebbi
- Growth and Development Research Centre, Paediatrics Centre of Excellence, Children's Medical Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Reza Yazdani
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Shahin Khadem Azarian
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abbas Mirshafiey
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Azizi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Imam Hassan Mojtaba Hospital, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran; Research Centre for Immunodeficiencies, Pediatrics Centre of Excellence, Children's Medical Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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9
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TNF and its receptors in the CNS: The essential, the desirable and the deleterious effects. Neuroscience 2015; 302:2-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2015] [Revised: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Azizi G, Goudarzvand M, Afraei S, Sedaghat R, Mirshafiey A. Therapeutic effects of dasatinib in mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2015; 37:287-94. [PMID: 25975582 DOI: 10.3109/08923973.2015.1028074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a mouse model for multiple sclerosis (MS). EAE is mainly mediated by adaptive and innate immune responses that lead to an inflammatory demyelination and axonal damage. Dasatinib (Sprycel) is a selective protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor with immunomodulatory properties that abrogates multiple signal transduction pathways in immune cells. In the present research, our aim was to test the therapeutic efficacy of dasatinib in experimental model of MS. METHODS We performed EAE induction in female C57BL/6 mice by myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein(35-55) (MOG(35-55)) in Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) emulsion, and used dasatinib for the treatment of EAE. During the course of study, clinical evaluation was assessed, and on day 21 post-immunization blood samples were taken from the heart of mice for tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), nitric oxide (NO) and antioxidants capacity evaluation. The mice were sacrificed and brains and cerebellums of mice were removed for histological analysis. Also for in vitro analysis, we used C6 astrocytoma cell line to evaluate the inhibitory effects of dasatinib in cell proliferation and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) activity. RESULTS Our findings demonstrated that dasatinib had beneficial effects on EAE by lower incidence, attenuation in the severity and a delay in the onset of disease. The serum level of NO and TNF-α in dasatinib treated mice was significantly lower than control mice. In vitro, dasatinib inhibited cell proliferation and MMP-2 activity. CONCLUSION Dasatinib with its potential therapeutic effects and immunomodulatory properties may be recommended, after additional necessary tests and trials, for the treatment of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gholamreza Azizi
- Imam Hassan Mojtaba Hospital, Alborz University of Medical Sciences , Karaj , Iran
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11
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Marzban F, Azizi G, Afraei S, Sedaghat R, Seyedzadeh MH, Razavi A, Mirshafiey A. Kombucha tea ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mouse model of multiple sclerosis. FOOD AGR IMMUNOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/09540105.2015.1036353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gholamreza Azizi
- Imam Hassan Mojtaba Hospital, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children’s Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sanaz Afraei
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Kish International Campus, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Reza Sedaghat
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mir Hadi Seyedzadeh
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Razavi
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abbas Mirshafiey
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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12
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Ghonime M, Emara M, Shawky R, Soliman H, El-Domany R, Abdelaziz A. Immunomodulation of RAW 264.7 murine macrophage functions and antioxidant activities of 11 plant extracts. Immunol Invest 2015; 44:237-52. [PMID: 25564700 DOI: 10.3109/08820139.2014.988720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A group of 11 medicinal plants, including Lavandula pubescens, Trigonella foenugricium, Salsola schweinforthi, Calligonum comosum, Silene succulenta, Silene villosa, Bogonvillea glabra, Cakile maritime, Gomphrene celesoids, Mirabilis jalaba, and Silene nocturna growing in Egypt, were extracted and examined for their immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities. RAW 264.7 cells were recruited to investigate the immunomodulatory effect through multiple parameters analysis. First, the proliferation index of macrophages cells was evaluated revealing that Trigonella foenugricium, Silene succulenta and Silene villosa have a significant cytotoxic effect on RAW cells. Interestingly, we observed enhancement of macrophages phagocytic function of by all extracts except Cakile maritime, Gomphrena celosioides and Silene nocturna. Afterwards, macrophages were challenged by incubation with LPS and the effect of various extracts on inflammatory responses was investigated; the generation of NO from activated macrophage was substantially suppressed by 7 extracts namely, Trigonella foenugricium, Calligonum comosum, Silene succulenta, Bougainvillea glabra, Mirabilis jalaba, Gomphrena celosioides and Silene nocturna. TNF-α was decreased by percentage range from 3.8 to 85.8% and Trigonella foenugricium extract showed the highest inhibition of TNF-α release. All extracts except Trigonella foenugricium, Salsola schweinforthi, Silene succulenta and Mirabilis jalaba significantly inhibited COX-2 production from stimulated macrophage. Moreover, evaluating the potential antioxidant activity of these extracts showed that Trigonella foenugricium, Salsola schweinforthi, Calligonum comosum, Bogonvillea glabra and Mirabilis jalaba exhibited some antioxidant activities. Taken together, our results suggest that some of these extracts may have a considerable antinflammatory and antioxidant effects and may be a potential therapeutic choice in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Ghonime
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy , Helwan University, Ein Helwan, Helwan, South Cairo , Egypt
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13
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Warford J, Jones QR, Nichols M, Sullivan V, Rupasinghe HV, Robertson GS. The flavonoid-enriched fraction AF4 suppresses neuroinflammation and promotes restorative gene expression in a mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 268:71-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Revised: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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14
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Mathew A, Pakan JMP, Collin EC, Wang W, McDermott KW, Fitzgerald U, Reynolds R, Pandit AS. An ex-vivo multiple sclerosis model of inflammatory demyelination using hyperbranched polymer. Biomaterials 2013; 34:5872-82. [PMID: 23660252 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by the presence of inflammatory demyelinating foci throughout the brain and spinal cord, accompanied by axonal and neuronal damage. Although inflammatory processes are thought to underlie the pathological changes, the individual mediators of this damage are unclear. In order to study the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in demyelination in the central nervous system, we have utilized a hyperbranched poly(2-dimethyl-aminoethylmethacrylate) based non-viral gene transfection system to establish an inflammatory demyelinating model of MS in an ex-vivo environment. The synthesized non-viral gene transfection system was optimized for efficient transfection with minimal cytotoxicity. Organotypic brain slices were then successfully transfected with the TNF or IFNγ genes. TNF and IFNγ expression and release in cerebellar slices via non-viral gene delivery approach resulted in inflammation mediated myelin loss, thus making it a promising ex-vivo approach for studying the underlying mechanisms of demyelination in myelin-related diseases such as MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asha Mathew
- Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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Durafourt BA, Moore CS, Zammit DA, Johnson TA, Zaguia F, Guiot MC, Bar-Or A, Antel JP. Comparison of polarization properties of human adult microglia and blood-derived macrophages. Glia 2012; 60:717-27. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2011] [Revised: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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16
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Virgili N, Espinosa-Parrilla JF, Mancera P, Pastén-Zamorano A, Gimeno-Bayon J, Rodríguez MJ, Mahy N, Pugliese M. Oral administration of the KATP channel opener diazoxide ameliorates disease progression in a murine model of multiple sclerosis. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:149. [PMID: 22047130 PMCID: PMC3215935 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-8-149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an acquired inflammatory demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) and is the leading cause of nontraumatic disability among young adults. Activated microglial cells are important effectors of demyelination and neurodegeneration, by secreting cytokines and others neurotoxic agents. Previous studies have demonstrated that microglia expresses ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels and its pharmacological activation can provide neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, we have examined the effect of oral administration of KATP channel opener diazoxide on induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a mouse model of MS. Methods Anti-inflammatory effects of diazoxide were studied on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon gamma (IFNγ)-activated microglial cells. EAE was induced in C57BL/6J mice by immunization with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide (MOG35-55). Mice were orally treated daily with diazoxide or vehicle for 15 days from the day of EAE symptom onset. Treatment starting at the same time as immunization was also assayed. Clinical signs of EAE were monitored and histological studies were performed to analyze tissue damage, demyelination, glial reactivity, axonal loss, neuronal preservation and lymphocyte infiltration. Results Diazoxide inhibited in vitro nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) production and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression by activated microglia without affecting cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and phagocytosis. Oral treatment of mice with diazoxide ameliorated EAE clinical signs but did not prevent disease. Histological analysis demonstrated that diazoxide elicited a significant reduction in myelin and axonal loss accompanied by a decrease in glial activation and neuronal damage. Diazoxide did not affect the number of infiltrating lymphocytes positive for CD3 and CD20 in the spinal cord. Conclusion Taken together, these results demonstrate novel actions of diazoxide as an anti-inflammatory agent, which might contribute to its beneficial effects on EAE through neuroprotection. Treatment with this widely used and well-tolerated drug may be a useful therapeutic intervention in ameliorating MS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noemí Virgili
- Neurotec Pharma SL, Bioincubadora PCB-Santander, Parc Científic de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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Hvilsted Nielsen H, Toft-Hansen H, Lambertsen KL, Owens T, Finsen B. Stimulation of adult oligodendrogenesis by myelin-specific T cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2011; 179:2028-41. [PMID: 21872562 PMCID: PMC3181396 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2010] [Revised: 05/31/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In multiple sclerosis (MS), myelin-specific T cells are normally associated with destruction of myelin and axonal damage. However, in acute MS plaque, remyelination occurs concurrent with T-cell infiltration, which raises the question of whether T cells might stimulate myelin repair. We investigated the effect of myelin-specific T cells on oligodendrocyte formation at sites of axonal damage in the mouse hippocampal dentate gyrus. Infiltrating T cells specific for myelin proteolipid protein stimulated proliferation of chondroitin sulfate NG2-expressing oligodendrocyte precursor cells early after induction via axonal transection, resulting in a 25% increase in the numbers of oligodendrocytes. In contrast, T cells specific for ovalbumin did not stimulate the formation of new oligodendrocytes. In addition, infiltration of myelin-specific T cells enhanced the sprouting response of calretinergic associational/commissural fibers within the dentate gyrus. These results have implications for the perception of MS pathogenesis because they show that infiltrating myelin-specific T cells can stimulate oligodendrogenesis in the adult central nervous system.
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Sriram S. Role of glial cells in innate immunity and their role in CNS demyelination. J Neuroimmunol 2011; 239:13-20. [PMID: 21907419 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2011] [Revised: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The adaptive and innate arms of the immune system are the two pillars of host defense against environmental pathogens. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the CNS which is considered to be autoimmune and is thought to result from breakdown in the usual checks and balances of the adaptive immune response. The major pathological outcome of the disease is "the MS plaque" a unique feature of CNS demyelination characterized by the destruction of oligodendrocytes with loss of myelin and underlying axons. The MS plaque is not seen in other inflammatory disorders of the CNS. The prevailing opinion suggests that MS is mediated by the activation of an adaptive immune response which targets neural antigens. Currently, the role of an innate immune in the development of the lesions in MS has remained unclear. We explore the potential cellular elements of the innate immune system and in particular glial cells, which are likely candidates in inducing the specific pathological picture that is evident in MS. Activated microglia and the release of molecules which are detrimental to oligodendrocyte have been suggested as mechanisms by which innate immunity causes demyelination in MS. However a microglia/macrophage centric model does not explain the specificity of lesion development in MS. We propose that activation pathways of receptors of the innate immune system present on oligodendrocytes and astrocytes rather than microglia are central to the pathogenesis of demyelination seen in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subramaniam Sriram
- Department of Neurology, Multiple Sclerosis Research Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, USA.
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Zhang R, Xu S, Cai Y, Zhou M, Zuo X, Chan P. Ganoderma lucidum Protects Dopaminergic Neuron Degeneration through Inhibition of Microglial Activation. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2011; 2011:156810. [PMID: 19617199 PMCID: PMC3136196 DOI: 10.1093/ecam/nep075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2009] [Accepted: 05/28/2009] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Abundant evidence has suggested that neuroinflammation participates in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). The emerging evidence has supported that microglia may play key roles in the progressive neurodegeneration in PD and might be a promising therapeutic target. Ganoderma lucidum (GL), a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, has been shown potential neuroprotective effects in our clinical trials that make us to speculate that it might possess potent anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating properties. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the potential neuroprotective effect of GL and possible underlying mechanism of action through protecting microglial activation using co-cultures of dopaminergic neurons and microglia. The microglia is activated by LPS and MPP(+)-treated MES 23.5 cell membranes. Meanwhile, GL extracts significantly prevent the production of microglia-derived proinflammatory and cytotoxic factors [nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interlukin 1β (IL-1β)] in a dose-dependent manner and down-regulate the TNF-α and IL-1β expressions on mRNA level as well. In conclusion, our results support that GL may be a promising agent for the treatment of PD through anti-inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiping Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Geriatrics and Department of Neurobiology and Neurology, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, #45 Changchun Street, Beijing 100053, China
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20
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Scheikl T, Pignolet B, Mars LT, Liblau RS. Transgenic mouse models of multiple sclerosis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:4011-34. [PMID: 20714779 PMCID: PMC11115830 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0481-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Revised: 07/08/2010] [Accepted: 07/27/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease affecting the central nervous system (CNS) and a frequent cause of neurological disability in young adults. Multifocal inflammatory lesions in the CNS white matter, demyelination, oligodendrocyte loss, axonal damage, as well as astrogliosis represent the histological hallmarks of the disease. These pathological features of MS can be mimicked, at least in part, using animal models. This review discusses the current concepts of the immune effector mechanisms driving CNS demyelination in murine models. It highlights the fundamental contribution of transgenesis in identifying the mediators and mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of MS models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Scheikl
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 563, Toulouse, France.
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21
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CD200R1 agonist attenuates mechanisms of chronic disease in a murine model of multiple sclerosis. J Neurosci 2010; 30:2025-38. [PMID: 20147531 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4272-09.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
To assess the effects and mechanisms of a CD200R1 agonist administered during the progressive stage of a multiple sclerosis model, we administered CD200R1 agonist (CD200Fc) or control IgG2a during the chronic phase of disease (days 10-30) in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), induced using myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide 35-55 (MOG35-55) peptide. We found that administration of CD200Fc during the chronic stages of EAE reduced disease severity, demyelination, and axonal damage, through the modulation of several key disease mechanisms. CD200Fc treatment suppressed macrophage and microglial accumulation within the CNS, in part through downregulation of adhesion molecules VLA-4 and LFA-1, which are necessary for macrophage migration. Additionally, expression of activation markers MHC-II and CD80 and production of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and nitric oxide by CD11b(+) cells were decreased in both the spleen and CNS in CD200Fc-treated animals. Antigen-presenting cell function in the spleen and CNS was suppressed in CD200Fc-treated mice, but there were no significant alterations on T cell activation or phenotype. CD200Fc increased apoptosis of CD11b(+) cells but not astrocytes. In contrast, addition of CD200Fc treatment protected oligodendrocytes from apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Our results demonstrate that CD200R1 agonists modulate both myeloid- and non-myeloid-related mechanisms of chronic disease in the EAE model and may be effective in the treatment of progressive multiple sclerosis and other neurodegenerative diseases.
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22
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Campbell IL, Hofer MJ, Pagenstecher A. Transgenic models for cytokine-induced neurological disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2009; 1802:903-17. [PMID: 19835956 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2009.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2009] [Revised: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Considerable evidence supports the idea that cytokines are important mediators of pathophysiologic processes within the central nervous system (CNS). Numerous studies have documented the increased production of various cytokines in the human CNS in a variety of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. Deciphering cytokine actions in the intact CNS has important implications for our understanding of the pathogenesis and treatment of these disorders. One approach to address this problem that has been used widely employs transgenic mice with CNS-targeted production of different cytokines. Transgenic production of cytokines in the CNS of mice allows not only for the investigation of complex cellular responses at a localized level in the intact brain but also more closely recapitulates the expression of these mediators as found in disease states. As discussed in this review, the findings show that these transgenic animals exhibit wide-ranging structural and functional deficits that are linked to the development of distinct neuroinflammatory responses which are relatively specific for each cytokine. These cytokine-induced alterations often recapitulate those found in various human neurological disorders not only underscoring the relevance of these models but also reinforcing the clinicopathogenetic significance of cytokines in diseases of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iain L Campbell
- School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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23
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Targeted overexpression of a golli-myelin basic protein isoform to oligodendrocytes results in aberrant oligodendrocyte maturation and myelination. ASN Neuro 2009; 1:AN20090029. [PMID: 19715557 PMCID: PMC2785512 DOI: 10.1042/an20090029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, several in vitro studies have shown that the golli–myelin basic proteins regulate Ca2+ homoeostasis in OPCs (oligodendrocyte precursor cells) and immature OLs (oligodendrocytes), and that a number of the functions of these cells are affected by cellular levels of the golli proteins. To determine the influence of golli in vivo on OL development and myelination, a transgenic mouse was generated in which the golli isoform J37 was overexpressed specifically within OLs and OPCs. The mouse, called JOE (J37-overexpressing), is severely hypomyelinated between birth and postnatal day 50. During this time, it exhibits severe intention tremors that gradually abate at later ages. After postnatal day 50, ultrastructural studies and Northern and Western blot analyses indicate that myelin accumulates in the brain, but never reaches normal levels. Several factors appear to underlie the extensive hypomyelination. In vitro and in vivo experiments indicate that golli overexpression causes a significant delay in OL maturation, with accumulation of significantly greater numbers of pre-myelinating OLs that fail to myelinate axons during the normal myelinating period. Immunohistochemical studies with cell death and myelin markers indicate that JOE OLs undergo a heightened and extended period of cell death and are unable to effectively myelinate until 2 months after birth. The results indicate that increased levels of golli in OPC/OLs delays myelination, causing significant cell death of OLs particularly in white matter tracts. The results provide in vivo evidence for a significant role of the golli proteins in the regulation of maturation of OLs and normal myelination.
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24
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Microarray analysis of gene expression profile by treatment of Cinnamomi Ramulus in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV-2 cells. Gene 2009; 443:83-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2009.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2009] [Revised: 04/23/2009] [Accepted: 04/28/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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25
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Girard S, Kadhim H, Roy M, Lavoie K, Brochu ME, Larouche A, Sébire G. Role of perinatal inflammation in cerebral palsy. Pediatr Neurol 2009; 40:168-74. [PMID: 19218029 DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2008] [Revised: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 09/17/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory molecules are promptly upregulated in the fetal environment and postnatally in brain-damaged subjects. Intrauterine infections and inflammation are often associated with asphyxia. This double-hit effect by combined infection or inflammation and hypoxia is therefore a frequent concomitant in neonatal brain damage. Animal models combining hypoxia and infection were recently designed to explore the mechanisms underlying brain damage in such circumstances and to look for possible neuroprotective strategies. Proinflammatory cytokines are thought to be major mediators in brain injury in neonates with perinatal asphyxia, bacterial infection, or both. Cytokines, however, could also have neuroprotective properties. The critical point in the balance between neurodamaging and neuroprotective effects of cytokines has yet to be unraveled. This understanding might help to develop new therapeutic approaches to counteract the inflammatory disequilibrium observed in the pathophysiologic mechanisms associated with brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Girard
- Laboratory of Neuropediatrics-Laboratoire de Neuropédiatrie, Neurosciences Centre, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
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26
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Multiple-modulation effects of Oridonin on the production of proinflammatory cytokines and neurotrophic factors in LPS-activated microglia. Int Immunopharmacol 2009; 9:360-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2009.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2008] [Revised: 01/12/2009] [Accepted: 01/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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27
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Abstract
Since its first description, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, originally designated experimental allergic encephalitis (EAE), has been proposed as animal model to investigate pathogenetic hypotheses and test new treatments in the field of central nervous system inflammation and demyelination, which has become, in the last 30 years, the most popular animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS). This experimental disease can be obtained in all mammals tested so far, including nonhuman primates, allowing very advanced preclinical studies. Its appropriate use has led to the development of the most recent treatments approved for MS, also demonstrating its predictive value when properly handled. Some of the most exciting experiments validating the use of neural precursor cells (NPCs) as a potential therapeutic option in CNS inflammation have been performed in this model. We review here the most relevant immunological features of EAE in the different animal species and strains, and describe detailed protocols to obtain the three most common clinical courses of EAE in mice, with the hope to provide both cultural and practical basis for the use of this fascinating animal model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Furlan
- Neuroimmunology Unit - DIBIT and Department of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
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28
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Lee JH, Park SY, Shin HK, Kim CD, Lee WS, Hong KW. Protective effects of cilostazol against transient focal cerebral ischemia and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion injury. CNS Neurosci Ther 2008; 14:143-52. [PMID: 18482026 DOI: 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2008.00042.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Cilostazol increases intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP) levels by inhibiting type III phosphodiesterase. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of intermittent claudication. Its principal actions include inhibition of platelet aggregation, antithrombotic action in cerebral ischemia, and vasodilation, mediated by increased cyclic AMP levels. In a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial, cilostazol has been shown to protect patients from recurrent cerebral infarction. It has been recently suggested that cilastozol could be useful in the treatment of transient focal cerebral ischemic injury. Beneficial effects of cilostazol in cerebral ischemic infarction and edema formation has been confirmed in rats by the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The preventive effect was ascribed to cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA)-coupled maxi-K channel activation with additional antioxidant and poly(adenosine diphosphate [ADP]-ribose) polymerase inhibitory actions. Most recently, cilostazol has been shown to prevent vacuolation and rarefaction in the white matter of the rats subjected to chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in association with suppression of astrocyte and microglial activation. Taken together, recent experimental studies with cilostazol showed promising results in cerebral ischemia and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Hyun Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
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29
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Rosa MPD, Baroni GV, Portal VL. Contribuição na prevenção da isquemia cerebral pelo cilostazol, um inibidor da fosfodiesterase III: revisão de literatura. J Vasc Bras 2008. [DOI: 10.1590/s1677-54492008000100009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Esta revisão bibliográfica objetiva expor estas pesquisas sobre as ações do cilostazol no sistema nervoso central. O cilostazol é uma droga que demonstrou exercer inibição seletiva e potente da fosfodiesterase tipo III, ocasionando o aumento de adenosina cíclica -3',5'-monofosfato nas plaquetas, nas células endoteliais e nas células musculares lisas, sendo classificado como vasodilatador, antiagregante plaquetário e antitrombótico. É o fármaco de primeira escolha na claudicação intermitente devido à doença arterial obstrutiva periférica. Além disso, há evidências de que o cilostazol é eficaz no processo aterosclerótico cerebral, promovendo aumento do fluxo e volume sangüíneos e prevenindo infartos, especialmente lacunares e recorrentes, por diminuir a morte celular devido à apoptose e ao estresse oxidativo nas substâncias branca e parda.
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30
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Suzumura A. Immune Response in the Brain: Glial Response and Cytokine Production. CYTOKINES AND THE BRAIN 2008. [PMCID: PMC7185635 DOI: 10.1016/s1567-7443(07)10014-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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31
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Taoufik E, Tseveleki V, Euagelidou M, Emmanouil M, Voulgari-Kokota A, Haralambous S, Probert L. Positive and Negative Implications of Tumor Necrosis Factor Neutralization for the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis. NEURODEGENER DIS 2007; 5:32-7. [DOI: 10.1159/000109936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2006] [Accepted: 01/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Lee JH, Park SY, Shin YW, Kim CD, Lee WS, Hong KW. Concurrent administration of cilostazol with donepezil effectively improves cognitive dysfunction with increased neuroprotection after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats. Brain Res 2007; 1185:246-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2007] [Revised: 09/05/2007] [Accepted: 09/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
In multiple sclerosis (MS), the presence of demyelinating plaques has concentrated researchers' minds on the role of the oligodendrocyte in its pathophysiology. Recently, with the rediscovery of early and widespread loss of axons in the disease, new emphasis has been put on the role of axons and axon-oligodendrocyte interactions in MS. Despite the fact that, in 1904, Müller claimed that MS was a disease of astrocytes, more recently, astrocytes have taken a back seat, except as the cells that form the final glial scar after all hope of demyelination is over. However, perhaps it is time for the return of the astrocyte to popularity in the pathogenesis of MS, with recent reports on the dual role of astrocytes in aiding degeneration and demyelination, by promoting inflammation, damage of oligodendrocytes and axons, and glial scarring, but also in creating a permissive environment for remyelination by their action on oligodendrocyte precursor migration, oligodendrocyte proliferation, and differentiation. We review these findings to try to provide a cogent view of astrocytes in the pathology of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Williams
- Inserm, U711, Université Pierre and Marie Curie, Faculté de médecine, IFR 70, Paris F-75013, France, and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK.
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Krishnamoorthy G, Holz A, Wekerle H. Experimental models of spontaneous autoimmune disease in the central nervous system. J Mol Med (Berl) 2007; 85:1161-73. [PMID: 17569024 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-007-0218-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2007] [Revised: 04/18/2007] [Accepted: 05/04/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Animal models have become essential tools for studying the human autoimmune disease. They are of vital importance in explorations of disease aspects, where, for diverse reasons, human material is unavailable. This is especially true for disease processes preceding clinical diagnosis and for tissues, which are inaccessible to routine biopsy. Early developing multiple sclerosis (MS) makes an excellent point in case for these limitations. Useful disease models should be developing spontaneously, without a need of artificial, adjuvant-supported induction protocols, and they should reflect credibly at least some of the complex features of human disease. The aim of this review is to compile models that exhibit spontaneous organ-specific autoimmunity and explore their use for studying MS. We first evaluate a few naturally occurring models of organ-specific autoimmune diseases and then screen autoimmunity in animals with compromised immune regulation (neonatal thymectomy, transgenesis, etc.). While most of these models affect organs other than the nervous tissues, central nervous system (CNS)-specific autoimmune disease is readily noted either after transgenic overexpression of cytokines or chemokines within the CNS or by introducing CNS-specific immune receptors into the lymphocyte repertoire. Most recently, spontaneous autoimmunity resembling MS was obtained by transgenic expression of self-reactive T cell receptors and B cell receptors. These transgenic models are not only of promise for studying directly disease processes during the entire course of the disease but may also be helpful in drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurumoorthy Krishnamoorthy
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Max Planck Institute for Neurobiology, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
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Alvarez-Díaz A, Hilario E, de Cerio FG, Valls-i-Soler A, Alvarez-Díaz FJ. Hypoxic-ischemic injury in the immature brain--key vascular and cellular players. Neonatology 2007; 92:227-35. [PMID: 17556841 DOI: 10.1159/000103741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, much has been learned about the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying hypoxic-ischemic (H-I) injury in the preterm human brain. The pathogenesis of H-I brain injury is now understood to be multifactorial and quite complex, depending on (i) the severity, intensity and timing of asphyxia, (ii) selective ischemic vulnerability, (iii) the degree of maturity of the brain, and (iv) the characteristics of the ensuing reoxygenation/reperfusion phase. Each of these factors has differential effects on the distinct cell populations in the brain, with certain specific cell types being particularly vulnerable in the developing brain. In this review, we discuss the role of the blood vessels and the distinct cell populations, which are the mayor constitutive elements of the immature brain, in the pathophysiology of H-I lesion. The presence of fragile and poorly anastomosed blood vessels and the existence of disturbances in the blood-brain barrier alter blood flow, vascular tone and nutrient delivery. Brain cells are sensitive to the overstimulation of neurotransmitter receptors, particularly glutamate receptors, which can provoke excitotoxicity leading to the death of neurons and other cells such as astrocytes and oligodendrocyte progenitors. Microglial activation by means of excitatory amino acids and by leukocyte migration initiates the inflammatory response giving rise to an increase in regional cerebral blood flow and promoting astrocyte and oligodendrocyte injuries. A better understanding of these aspects of H-I injury will contribute to more efficient strategies for the management of the associated damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Alvarez-Díaz
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain
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36
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Davies AL, Hayes KC, Shi R. Recombinant human TNFalpha induces concentration-dependent and reversible alterations in the electrophysiological properties of axons in mammalian spinal cord. J Neurotrauma 2006; 23:1261-73. [PMID: 16928184 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2006.23.1261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased expression of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) and its soluble receptors is evident within the central nervous system (CNS) following traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury. TNFalpha is integral to the acute inflammatory cascade that follows neurotrauma and has been shown to have both beneficial and detrimental properties. We examined the effects of varying concentrations (1-5000 ng/mL) of recombinant human TNFalpha (rhTNFalpha) on select electrophysiological properties of excised guinea pig spinal cord tissue. Pulsed electrical stimuli (0.33 Hz) were delivered to strips of isolated ventral white matter in a double sucrose gap chamber. Recordings were made of the compound action potential (CAP) and membrane potential before, during, and after bathing the tissue with rhTNFalpha for 30 min. Increasing concentrations of rhTNFalpha yielded progressively greater reductions in amplitude of the CAP that were temporally associated with depolarization of the resting compound membrane potential. These effects were largely reversed on washout of rhTNFalpha and were not present when heat-denatured rhTNFalpha was introduced. The results provide evidence that elevated concentrations of TNFalpha induce reversible depolarization of the compound membrane potential and reduction in CAP amplitude, sometimes to the point of extinction of the CAP, suggestive of impaired axonal conduction. These observations point to a new mechanism of immune-mediated central conduction deficit. Cytokine-induced alterations in membrane properties and axonal conduction may contribute to neurological deficits following CNS injury by compounding trauma-induced myelinopathy and axonopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew L Davies
- Neuroscience Program, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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Powell HC, Garrett RS, Brett FM, Chiang CS, Chen E, Masliah E, Campbell IL. Response of glia, mast cells and the blood brain barrier, in transgenic mice expressing interleukin-3 in astrocytes, an experimental model for CNS demyelination. Brain Pathol 2006; 9:219-35. [PMID: 10219739 PMCID: PMC8098132 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.1999.tb00220.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Transgenic mice overexpressing cytokines facilitate analysis of the effects of these immunomodulators on indigenous cells of the central nervous system. This study examines morphological aspects of demyelination and permeability changes, in a recently described transgenic model (termed GFAP-IL3). GFAP-IL3 mice develop progressive motor disease at approximately 5 months. Lesions identified after disease onset, showed activation of microglia, astroglial proliferation with phagocytosis of lipids, and immigration of macrophages and mast cells into neural parenchyma. Lymphocytes failed to appear until the later stages of the disease. Later, cerebellar and brain stem white matter contained focal demyelinating lesions with intense macrophage infiltration and a proliferative astrocytosis. Dystrophic axonal changes were noted, in addition to demyelination in heavily infiltrated lesions. Mast cells, variably present in the thalamus and meninges of wild type mice, were greatly increased at these sites in GFAP-IL3 mice. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) defects were documented with leakage of intravenously injected horseradish peroxidase. Mast cell infiltration into the CNS and their degranulation at the site of injury, may represent initial events in a spontaneous process of macrophage mediated demyelination in which glial cells and macrophages are both involved in the phagocytic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Powell
- Veterans Administration Research Service, VAMC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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Lee JH, Park SY, Shin YW, Hong KW, Kim CD, Sung SM, Kim KY, Lee WS. Neuroprotection by cilostazol, a phosphodiesterase type 3 inhibitor, against apoptotic white matter changes in rat after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Brain Res 2006; 1082:182-91. [PMID: 16516167 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.01.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2005] [Revised: 01/20/2006] [Accepted: 01/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we elucidated effect of cilostazol to prevent the occurrence of vacuolation and rarefaction of the white matter in association with apoptosis induced by bilateral occlusion of common carotid arteries in the male Wistar rats. Rats orally received vehicle (DMSO) or 60 mg kg(-1) day(-1) (orally) cilostazol for 3, 7, 14 or 30 days. In the vehicle group, increased vacuolation and rarefactions in the white matter were accompanied by extensive activation of both microglial and astroglial cells with suppression of oligodendrocytes in association with increased TNF-alpha production, caspase-3 immunoreactivity and TUNEL-positive cells in the white matter including optic tract. Post-treatment with cilostazol (60 mg kg(-1) day(-1)) strongly suppressed not only elevated activation of astroglia and microglia but also diminished oligodendrocytes following chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. In conclusion, cilostazol (60 mg kg(-1) day(-1), orally) significantly reduced the apoptotic cell death in association with decreased TNF-alpha production and caspase-3-positive cells in the white matter of rat brains subjected to bilateral occlusion of common carotid arteries, consequently ameliorating vacuoles and rarefaction changes in the white matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Hyun Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Pusan National University, 10 Ami-Dong 1-Ga, Seo-Gu, Busan 602-739, Korea
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39
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Sukal SA, Nadiminti L, Granstein RD. Etanercept and demyelinating disease in a patient with psoriasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006; 54:160-4. [PMID: 16384777 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2005.05.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2005] [Revised: 05/19/2005] [Accepted: 05/23/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The tumor necrosis factor-alpha antagonist (TNF-alpha) etanercept has been approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriasis. Earlier reports on the use of etanercept or infliximab in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, or juvenile rheumatoid arthritis suggested an increased risk of demyelinating disease. It is imperative that dermatologists have a keen awareness of this possible adverse event given the increased use of this class of drugs. We report a case of demyelinating disease occurring in a patient treated for psoriasis. The relation of TNF-alpha antagonist therapy to demyelinating disease/multiple sclerosis is explored. It is recommended that patients be diligently screened before starting TNF-alpha antagonist therapy and that vigilance for symptoms of demyelinating disease/multiple sclerosis be included in follow-up examinations during treatment with these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean A Sukal
- Department of Dermatology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, New York, USA
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Barcia C, de Pablos V, Bautista-Hernández V, Sánchez-Bahillo A, Bernal I, Fernández-Villalba E, Martín J, Bañón R, Fernández-Barreiro A, Herrero MT. Increased plasma levels of TNF-α but not of IL1-β in MPTP-treated monkeys one year after the MPTP administration. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2005; 11:435-9. [PMID: 16154791 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The cause of Parkinson's disease remains unknown although some evidence suggests that an inflammatory reaction, mediated by cytokines such as TNF-alpha and IL-1beta, is related with dopaminergic degeneration in the brain. In the present work we measured the plasma levels of TNF-alpha and IL-1beta in parkinsonian monkeys one year after MPTP administration. TNF-alpha levels were seen to have increased in parkinsonian monkeys reflecting the clinical symptoms observed, while IL-1beta levels remained unchanged. These results suggest that TNF-alpha plays a role in sustaining of dopaminergic degeneration in chronic parkinsonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Barcia
- Experimental Neurology and Neurosurgery, Department of Human Anatomy and Psychobiology, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
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Korn T, Magnus T, Jung S. Autoantigen specific T cells inhibit glutamate uptake in astrocytes by decreasing expression of astrocytic glutamate transporter GLAST: a mechanism mediated by tumor necrosis factor‐α. FASEB J 2005; 19:1878-80. [PMID: 16123171 DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-3748fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate excitotoxicity is increasingly being recognized as a pathogenic mechanism in autoimmune inflammatory disorders of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are the predominant players in clearing the extracellular space from glutamate and normally have extensive spare capacities in terms of glutamate uptake. We asked what might be the basis of glutamate accumulation in T cell triggered autoimmune inflammation. In vitro, coculture of primary rat astrocytes with activated myelin basic protein (MBP)-specific T cells resulted in a decrease of astrocytic glutamate uptake rates (Vmax). In parallel, the amount of the Na+-dependent glutamate transporter GLAST was reduced within 48-60 h. Significant decreases of GLAST protein were observed in astrocytes harvested after incubation with T cells activated by MBP during coculture or after incubation with T cell blasts preactivated in the presence of splenocytes beforehand. Since exposure of astrocytes to cell-free supernatant of MBP-activated T cells also resulted in reduced expression of GLAST, a humoral factor appeared to be the driving agent. In blocking experiments using neutralizing antibodies and by incubation of astrocytes with recombinant cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) was identified as being responsible for the down-modulation of GLAST. GLAST was also down-regulated in the CNS of autoimmune encephalomyelitic rats but not in animals suffering from systemic inflammation. Since the loss of GLAST was not confined to inflammatory infiltrates, here too, a humoral factor seemed to be causative. In conclusion, T cell derived TNF-alpha impairs glutamate clearance capacity of astrocytes in vitro and probably also in vivo providing a pathogenic link to glutamate excitotoxicity that may contribute to early axonal dysfunction remote from active autoimmune inflammatory demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Korn
- Department of Neurology, Universität des Saarlandes, Homburg, Germany.
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Espejo C, Penkowa M, Demestre M, Montalban X, Martínez-Cáceres EM. Time-course expression of CNS inflammatory, neurodegenerative tissue repair markers and metallothioneins during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Neuroscience 2005; 132:1135-49. [PMID: 16078373 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.01.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an animal model for multiple sclerosis (MS). EAE and MS are characterized by CNS inflammation, demyelination and neurodegeneration. The inflammatory response occurring within the CNS leads to glial activation, dysfunction and death, as well as axonal damage and neurological deficit. Although the pathogenic mechanisms involved in EAE/MS are not well understood, accumulating data suggest that oxidative stress plays a major role in lesion development, and contributes to axonal dysfunction and degeneration. Metallothionein-I and -II are anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antioxidant proteins expressed during EAE and MS, in which they might play a protective role. The present study aimed to describe the expression profile of a group of inflammatory, neurodegenerative and tissue repair markers as well as metallothioneins during proteolipid protein-induced EAE, and to establish the time-relationships these molecules had during EAE. Interestingly, we found two marker expression profiles. In the first, marker expression increased as clinical signs worsened and reverted to baseline expression during recovery; in the second, marker expression increased at a later point during relapse, peaked at highest clinical score, and remained elevated throughout recovery. Of note, metallothionein expression was found to be related to the second profile, which would suggest that metallothionein proteins are implicated in the clinical recovery of EAE and perhaps these antioxidant proteins may provide therapeutic benefits in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Espejo
- Unitat de Neuroimmunologia Clínica, Hospital Universitari, Pg. Vall d'Hebron 119-129, 08035 Barcelona, Spain.
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Kagitani-Shimono K, Mohri I, Fujitani Y, Suzuki K, Ozono K, Urade Y, Taniike M. Anti-inflammatory therapy by ibudilast, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, in demyelination of twitcher, a genetic demyelination model. J Neuroinflammation 2005; 2:10. [PMID: 15813970 PMCID: PMC1112612 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-2-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2004] [Accepted: 04/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Twitcher mouse (twi/twi) is an authentic murine model of Krabbe's disease. Accumulation of psychosine, resulting in apoptosis of oligodendrocytes and subsequent demyelination, is a cardinal event to the pathogenesis of this disease. Moreover, recruitment of inflammatory cells plays a significant role in the pathological process in the twi/twi central and peripheral nervous systems. In this study, we investigated the 1) the relationship between tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha), pro-inflammatory cytokine, and the progression of this disease and 2) effect of the anti-inflammatory therapy by ibudilast, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. METHODS: We quantified the expression level of TNFalpha and TNF-receptor mRNA in twi/twi using semi-quantitative RT-PCR. The relationship between TNFalpha expression, apoptosis of oligodendrocytes and demyelination was studied with immunohistochemistry and TUNEL method. We then treated twi/twi with a daily intraperitoneal injection of ibudilast (10 mg/kg), which suppress TNFalpha production in the brain. RESULTS: We found that TNFalpha-immunoreactive microglia/macrophages appeared in the twi/twi brain and that the mRNA levels of TNFalpha and TNF-receptor 1 was increased with the progression of demyelination. The distribution profile of TNFalpha-immunoreactive microglia/macrophages overlapped that of TUNEL-positive oligodendrocytes in the twi/twi brain. When twi/twi was treated with ibudilast from PND30, the number of oligodendrocytes undergoing apoptosis was markedly reduced and demyelination was milder. Obvious improvement of clinical symptom was noted in two of five. The failure of constant clinical improvement by ibudilast may result from hepatotoxicity and/or the inhibition of proliferation of NG2-positive oligodendrocyte precursors. CONCLUSION: We conclude that anti-inflammatory therapy by a phosphodiesterase inhibitor can be considered as a novel alternative therapy for Krabbe's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuriko Kagitani-Shimono
- Department of Developmental Medicine (Pediatrics), Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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Raivich G, Banati R. Brain microglia and blood-derived macrophages: molecular profiles and functional roles in multiple sclerosis and animal models of autoimmune demyelinating disease. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 46:261-81. [PMID: 15571769 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/01/2004] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microglia and macrophages, one a brain-resident, the other a mostly hematogenous cell type, represent two related cell types involved in the brain pathology in multiple sclerosis and its autoimmune animal model, the experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Together, they perform a variety of different functions: they are the primary sensors of brain pathology, they are rapidly recruited to sites of infection, trauma or autoimmune inflammation in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis and they are competent presenters of antigen and interact with T cells recruited to the inflamed CNS. They also synthesise a variety of molecules, such as cytokines (TNF, interleukins), chemokines, accessory molecules (B7, CD40), complement, cell adhesion glycoproteins (integrins, selectins), reactive oxygen radicals and neurotrophins, that could exert a damaging or a protective effect on adjacent axons, myelin and oligodendrocytes. The current review will give a detailed summary on their cellular response, describe the different classes of molecules expressed and their attribution to the blood derived or brain-resident macrophages and then discuss how these molecules contribute to the neuropathology. Recent advances using chimaeric and genetically modified mice have been particularly telling about the specific, overlapping and nonoverlapping roles of macrophages and microglia in the demyelinating disease. Interestingly, they point to a crucial role of hematogenous macrophages in initiating inflammation and myelin removal, and that of microglia in checking excessive response and in the induction and maintenance of remission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gennadij Raivich
- Department of Anatomy, Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Perinatal Brain Repair Centre, University College London, Chenies Mews 86-96 WC1E 6HX London, UK.
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45
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46
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Role of Microglia and Macrophages in Eae. EXPERIMENTAL MODELS OF MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS 2005. [PMCID: PMC7120081 DOI: 10.1007/0-387-25518-4_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Microglia and macrophages are related cell types that play an important role in the pathogenesis of MS and EAE. This chapters reviews the role of these cells in the normal brain and their contribution to inflammatory demyelinating disease, including their role in antigen presentation, co-stimulation, and production of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators
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47
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Koeberle PD, Gauldie J, Ball AK. Effects of adenoviral-mediated gene transfer of interleukin-10, interleukin-4, and transforming growth factor-beta on the survival of axotomized retinal ganglion cells. Neuroscience 2004; 125:903-20. [PMID: 15120851 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(03)00398-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/30/2003] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide, synthesized by reactive microglia and astrocytes has been implicated in promoting neuronal degeneration observed in many diseases and insults of the central nervous system. We have recently shown that inducible nitric oxide synthase is expressed by retinal glial cells following optic nerve transection and that inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis enhances the survival of injured retinal ganglion cells. Anti-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-10 (IL-10), interleukin-4 (IL-4), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) have been shown to prevent inducible nitric oxide synthase expression, and inhibit nitric oxide synthesis by microglia and astrocytes in culture. In the present study, we examined the effects of adenoviral mediated gene transfer of anti-inflammatory cytokines on the survival of axotomized retinal ganglion cells. Intraocular administration of adenoviral vectors encoding interleukin-10 (Ad.IL-10) and interleukin-4 (Ad.IL-4) enhanced the survival of axotomized retinal ganglion cells at 14 days after axotomy. Adenoviral vectors encoding TGF-beta (Ad.TGF-beta) had no effect on retinal ganglion cell survival. Separate animals were pretreated by injection of Ad.IL-10 or Ad.IL-4 into the superior colliculus (s.c.), the major target of ganglion cells, 7 days prior to axotomy. S.c. administration of Ad.IL-10 or Ad.IL-4 significantly increased ganglion cell survival compared with intraocular injection. IL-10 and IL-4 gene transfer also reduced the density of infiltrating ED1 positive monocytes in the nerve fiber layer at 14 days postaxotomy. Ad.TGF-beta increased the density of ED1 positive monocytes infiltrating the nerve fiber layer after axotomy. Vectors encoding IL-10 or IL-4 also decreased nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity in the inner retina at 7 days postaxotomy, suggesting that these cytokines protect retinal ganglion cells from peroxynitrite formation that results from nitric oxide synthesis by activated glial cells. The present study has implications for the treatment of CNS injury and diseases that involve reactive microglia and astrocytes. Our results suggest that interleukin-10 and interleukin-4 may help prevent neurodegeneration caused by the activation of glial cells after CNS injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- P D Koeberle
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Anatomy, HSC 1R1, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Canada
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48
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Buntinx M, Moreels M, Vandenabeele F, Lambrichts I, Raus J, Steels P, Stinissen P, Ameloot M. Cytokine-induced cell death in human oligodendroglial cell lines: I. Synergistic effects of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha on apoptosis. J Neurosci Res 2004; 76:834-45. [PMID: 15160395 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system. Myelin and oligodendrocytes are considered the major targets of injury caused by a cell-mediated immune response. There is circumstantial evidence that proinflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) could have disease-promoting roles in multiple sclerosis (MS). In the present study, the cytotoxic effects of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha on the human oligodendroglial cell lines human oligodendroglioma (HOG) and MO3.13 were analyzed. When the oligodendroglial cell lines were cultured in the presence of IFN-gamma or TNF-alpha, apoptotic cell death was observed in both cell lines after >24 hr incubation. Apoptosis was evidenced by a decrease in cell viability, apoptotic changes in cell and nucleus morphology, and disruption of the membrane asymmetry. Our data show that TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma induce apoptosis in a dose-dependent fashion in both oligodendroglial cell lines and that their synergistic effect results in enhanced cell death. Understanding the regulation of cell death pathways in oligodendrocytes is critical for protecting myelin-producing cells and their associated axons during injury in patients with MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mieke Buntinx
- Biomedisch Onderzoeksinstituut, Limburgs Universitair Centrum and School of Life Sciences, Transnationale Universiteit Limburg, Belgium
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Natarajan C, Sriram S, Muthian G, Bright JJ. Signaling through JAK2-STAT5 pathway is essential for IL-3-induced activation of microglia. Glia 2004; 45:188-96. [PMID: 14730712 DOI: 10.1002/glia.10316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Microglia, the resident macrophage of the brain, mediates immune and inflammatory responses in the central nervous system (CNS). Activation of microglia and secretion of inflammatory cytokines associate with the pathogenesis of CNS diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease, prion disease, and AIDS dementia. Microbial pathogens, cytokines, chemokines, and costimulatory molecules are potent inducers of microglial activation in the CNS. Signaling through its receptor, IL-3 induces the activation of JAK-STAT and MAP kinase pathways in microglial cells. In this study, we found that in vitro treatment of EOC-20 microglial cells with tyrphostin AG490 blocked IL-3-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK2, STAT5A, and STAT5B signaling proteins. Stable transfection of EOC-20 cells with a dominant negative JAK2 mutant also blocked IL-3-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK2, STAT5A, and STAT5B in microglia. The blockade of JAK2-STAT5 pathway resulted in a decrease in IL-3-induced proliferation and expression of CD40 and major histocompatibility complex class II molecules in microglia. These findings highlight the fact that JAK2-STAT5 signaling pathway plays a critical role in mediating IL-3-induced activation of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandramohan Natarajan
- Department of Neurology and Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 1222F VSRH, 2201 Capers Avenue, Nashville, TN 37212, USA.
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50
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Glabinski AR, Bielecki B, Kolodziejski P, Han Y, Selmaj K, Ransohoff RM. TNF-alpha microinjection upregulates chemokines and chemokine receptors in the central nervous system without inducing leukocyte infiltration. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2004; 23:457-66. [PMID: 13678434 DOI: 10.1089/107999003322277874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines (chemoattractant cytokines) are key players in the initiation of inflammatory cell accumulation in the central nervous system (CNS). Mechanisms leading to upregulation of chemokines in CNS pathologic conditions remain largely unknown. Numerous in vitro studies showed that inflammatory cytokines stimulate cultured CNS cells to produce chemokines. The main goal of this study was to analyze if an individual proinflammatory cytokine is sufficient to upregulate the chemokine system in the adult CNS in vivo. We analyzed CC chemokine ligand and receptor expression in brains from two different strains of mice (SJL and BALB) after stereotaxic, intracerebral injection of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). In both strains, we detected similarly increased expression of chemokines RANTES/CCL5, macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha)/CCL3, MIP-1beta/CCL4, and MIP-2, as well as chemokine receptors CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5. Interestingly, we did not observe parenchymal leukocyte infiltrates after local TNF-alpha delivery. This observation shows that upregulation of chemokines by TNF-alpha is not sufficient to cause accumulation of leukocytes in the CNS parenchyma in both strains of mice.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Astrocytes/drug effects
- Astrocytes/immunology
- Brain/drug effects
- Brain/immunology
- Brain/pathology
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/genetics
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Inflammation/immunology
- Inflammation/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Microinjections
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, CCR2
- Receptors, CCR5/biosynthesis
- Receptors, CCR5/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/administration & dosage
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/pharmacology
- Up-Regulation
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