Differential expression of carbonic anhydrase isozymes in microglial cell types

Signatures of glial activity can be detected in the CSF proteome

SignificanceSingle-cell transcriptomics has revealed specific glial activation states associated with the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease (AD and PD). What is still needed are clinically relevant biomarkers for deciphering such glial states in AD and PD patients. To this end, we applied proteome analysis in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of mouse models of AD and PD pathology. This allowed us to identify a panel of glial CSF proteins that largely match the transcriptomic changes. The identified proteins can also be quantified in human CSF and show changes in AD patients, supporting their relevance as biomarker candidates to stage glial activation in patients with neurodegenerative diseases.

Carbonic Anhydrases in Metazoan Model Organisms: Molecules, Mechanisms, and Physiology

During the past three decades, mice, zebrafish, fruit flies, and Caenorhabditis elegans have been the primary model organisms used for the study of various biological phenomena. These models have also been adopted and developed to investigate the physiological roles of carbonic anhydrases (CAs) and carbonic anhydrase-related proteins (CARPs). These proteins belong to eight CA families and are identified by Greek letters: α, β, γ, δ, ζ, η, θ, and ι. Studies using model organisms have focused on two CA families, α-CAs and β-CAs, which are expressed in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms with species-specific distribution patterns and unique functions. This review covers the biological roles of CAs and CARPs in light of investigations performed in model organisms. Functional studies demonstrate that CAs are not only linked to the regulation of pH homeostasis, the classical role of CAs but also contribute to a plethora of previously undescribed functions.

The Expression of Carbonic Anhydrases II, IX and XII in Brain Tumors

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are zinc-containing metalloenzymes that participate in the regulation of pH homeostasis in addition to many other important physiological functions. Importantly, CAs have been associated with neoplastic processes and cancer. Brain tumors represent a heterogeneous group of diseases with a frequently dismal prognosis, and new treatment options are urgently needed. In this review article, we summarize the previously published literature about CAs in brain tumors, especially on CA II and hypoxia-inducible CA IX and CA XII. We review here their role in tumorigenesis and potential value in predicting prognosis of brain tumors, including astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas, ependymomas, medulloblastomas, meningiomas, and craniopharyngiomas. We also introduce both already completed and ongoing studies focusing on CA inhibition as a potential anti-cancer strategy.

Up-regulation of cerebral carbonic anhydrase by anoxic stress in piglets

The resuscitation of asphyxiated babies is associated with changes in cerebral protein synthesis that can influence the neurological outcome. Insufficient gas exchange results in rapid shifts in extracellular and intracellular pH. Carbonic anhydrase (CA) plays an important role in buffering acute changes in pH in the brain. We investigated whether asphyxia/re-ventilation influences the expression of cerebral CA isoforms (CA-II, CA-III and CA-IV) in anaesthetized newborn pigs. The cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum and retina were sampled, and prepared for either CA immunohistochemistry or CA immunoblotting from piglets subjected to asphyxia (10 min) followed by 2-4 h of re-ventilation, and also from normoxic controls. The CA immunoreactivity (IR) of all the isoforms studied was weak in the controls, apart from staining of a few oligodendrocytes in the subcortical white matter, some astrocytes in the superficial layer of the cerebral cortex, the cerebellar Purkinje cells and the retinal Müller cells that possessed moderate CA-II IR. However, asphyxia induced a marked increase in the CA IR of all isoforms in all the cerebral regions investigated and the retina after 4 h of survival. The pyramidal cells of the frontal cortex and hippocampus displayed the most conspicuous increase in CA IR. Immunoblotting confirmed increased levels of all the CA isoenzymes. We conclude that raised CA levels after asphyxia may contribute to the compensatory mechanisms that protect against the pathological changes in the neonatal CNS.

Proliferation of differentiated glial cells in the brain stem

Classical studies of macroglial proliferation in muride rodents have provided conflicting evidence concerning the proliferating capabilities of oligodendrocytes and microglia. Furthermore, little information has been obtained in other mammalian orders and very little is known about glial cell proliferation and differentiation in the subclass Metatheria although valuable knowledge may be obtained from the protracted period of central nervous system maturation in these forms. Thus, we have studied the proliferative capacity of phenotypically identified brain stem oligodendrocytes by tritiated thymidine radioautography and have compared it with known features of oligodendroglial differentiation as well as with proliferation of microglia in the opossum Didelphis marsupialis. We have detected a previously undescribed ephemeral, regionally heterogeneous proliferation of oligodendrocytes expressing the actin-binding, ensheathment-related protein 2'3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNPase), that is not necessarily related to the known regional and temporal heterogeneity of expression of CNPase in cell bodies. On the other hand, proliferation of microglia tagged by the binding of Griffonia simplicifolia B4 isolectin, which recognizes an alpha-D-galactosyl-bearing glycoprotein of the plasma membrane of macrophages/microglia, is known to be long lasting, showing no regional heterogeneity and being found amongst both ameboid and differentiated ramified cells, although at different rates. The functional significance of the proliferative behavior of these differentiated cells is unknown but may provide a low-grade cell renewal in the normal brain and may be augmented under pathological conditions.

Gliogenesis in postnatal rat optic nerve: LC1 + microglia and S100-beta + astrocytes

Lipocortin 1 (LC1) and S100-beta, two Ca(2+)-binding proteins that serve as specific markers for microglia and astrocytes, respectively, have been used to study postnatal gliogenesis in the rat optic nerve. Computerized image analysis was used to quantify and map the stained and unstained glia in transverse sections (10 microns thick) taken 1-2 mm from the chiasm in optic nerves from rat pups at postnatal day 0 (P0), P7, P14, P21, P28, P38 and adults. The number of astrocytes was remarkably constant (100 per section) at all ages. Because the area of the nerve increases 10-fold from P0 to adult, the population density of astrocytes begins al > 5000 mm-2 and drops to 400 mm-2 in the mature nerve; however, because the nerve length increases two-fold, the number of astrocytes doubles over the same period. In contrast, the number of LC1 + cells per section initially is sparse (4 at P0), increases rapidly up to 36 at P21 and levels off at 49 in adults. The microglia population density is relatively stable throughout development (200-300 mm-2) except during the peak of oligodendroblast apoptosis (P21) when it rises to 450 mm-2. Neonatally, LC1 immunoreactivity predominantly labels spherical-ameboid cells; but by P28 they are replaced by mature ramified microglia. The number of unstained cells (putative oligodendrocytes) per section increases from 11 at P0 to a peak of 308 at P21, and declines slightly to 269 in adults. While generally confirming concepts of astrocyte and oligodendrocyte ontogeny from the literature, the present report adds considerable detail regarding microglia, which often have been ignored. Microglia identified by LC1 immunoreactivity comprise 12% of the glia in adult optic nerve near the chiasm.

Carbonic anhydrase II and carbonic anhydrase-related protein in the cerebellar cortex of normal and lurcher mice

The developmental profiles of carbonic anhydrase II (CA-II) and a carbonic anhydrase related protein (CARP) were studied in rat and mouse cerebella. Enzyme histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridisation and Western blotting were used to study the synthesis and expression of these enzymes in cerebellar sections from age matched control, CA-II deficient and lurcher mice, the latter being characterised by Purkinje cell degeneration. Both CA-II and CARP were first found to be expressed in the Purkinje cells in the 9 day old mouse, and the immunoreactivity of both peptides increased with time. Immunohistochemistry showed more intense staining of CARP than of CA-II in Purkinje cells throughout the developmental profile of the mouse, and this was mirrored by the mRNA levels determined by in situ hybridisation. Immunohistochemistry of CA-II and CARP also demonstrated the progressive dendritic growth of the mouse and rat Purkinje cells. CA-II and CARP immunoreactivity ceased by the end of cerebellar maturation. The onset of Purkinje cell degeneration was detected at day 10 in the lurcher mouse, with concomitant marked decrease in CA-II level: however CARP expression was found to be unchanged. By postnatal day 16 neither CA-II mRNA, protein, nor activity was detectable in contrast to CARP which remained at a decreased level unit the Purkinje cells population had completely degenerated. Our findings suggest a role of CA-II in the degenerative processes of the lurcher Purkinje cells, with CARP playing an important role in the development and maturation of the cerebellar cortex.

Carbonic anhydrase II in microglia in forebrains of neonatal rats

In the brains of adult rodents carbonic anhydrase II (CA) immunoreactivity has been observed in the choroid plexus and in oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and myelin. Localization and functions of CA in the neonatal brain, however, have been controversial. One issue is whether the CAII-immunopositive round and ameboid cells in the corpus callosum and cingulum in the rat CNS during the first postnatal week are oligodendrocytes or microglia. Colocalization of CAII with the microglial antigen, ED1, and the microglia-specific isolectin, BSI-B4, suggested that most (approx. 60%) of the CAII-positive round and ameboid cells in rat brain during the first postnatal week were, indeed, macrophages and microglia. During that initial week, some CAII-positive protoplasmic astrocytes (approx. 40%) were observed as well. At the end of the first postnatal week smooth-surfaced CAII-positive cells began to appear in the corpus callosum. Those cells also bound MAbO4, a marker for the oligodendrocyte cell line. We conclude that during the first postnatal week most of the CAII-positive cells are macrophages and microglia, and that some are protoplasmic astrocytes. During the second postnatal week CAII-positive cells in the oligodendrocyte lineage become apparent, and by the end of that week there are few CAII-positive microglia. Confocal microscopy suggests that in brains of three-day-old rats the ameboid microglia are associated with nerve fibers, where they may perform phagocytosis of axons, directional guidance of axons, or disinhibition of axonal growth.

Glial cells in transected optic nerves of immature rats. II. An immunohistochemical study

The glia response to Wallerian degeneration was studied in optic nerves 21 days after unilateral enucleation (PED21) of immature rats, 21 days old (P21), using immunohistochemical labelling. Nerves from normal P21 and P42 nerves were also studied for comparison. At PED21, there was a virtual loss of axons apart from a few solitary fibres of unknown origin. The nerve comprised a homogeneous glial scar tissue formed by dense astrocyte processes, oriented parallel to the long axis of the nerve along the tracks of degenerated axons. Astrocytes were almost perfectly co-labelled by antibodies to glial fibrillary acid protein and vimentin in both normal and transected nerves. However, there was a small population of VIM+GFAP- cells in normal P21 and P42 nerves, and we discuss the possibility that they correspond to O-2A progenitor cells described in vitro. Significantly, double immunofluorescence labelling in transected nerves revealed a distinct population of hypertrophic astrocytes which were GFAP+VIM-. These cells represented a novel morphological and antigenic subtype of reactive astrocyte. It was also noted that the number of oligodendrocytes in transected nerves did not appear to be less than in normal nerves, on the basis of double immunofluorescence staining for carbonic anhydrase II, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, myelin basic protein, glial fibrillary acid protein and ED-1 (for macrophages), although it was not excluded that a small proportion may have been microglia. A further prominent feature of transected nerves was that they contained a substantial amount of myelin debris, notwithstanding that OX-42 and ED1 immunostaining showed that there were abundant microglia and macrophages, sufficient for the rapid and almost complete removal of axonal debris. In conclusion, glial cells in the immature P21 rat optic nerve reacted to Wallerian degeneration in a way equivalent to the adult CNS, i.e. astrocytes underwent pronounced reactive changes and formed a dense glial scar, oligodendrocytes persisted and were not dependent on axons for their continued survival, and there was ineffective phagocytosis of myelin possibly due to incomplete activation of microglia/macrophages.

A reappraisal of ganglioside GD3 expression in the CNS

GD3 ganglioside is a major glycolipid component of the developing central nervous system but diminishes considerably as the CNS matures. Despite consistent biochemical data, the cellular localization of GD3 expression has been controversial. In this commentary we will review the cellular expression of GD3 during CNS development and in neuropathological circumstances as determined by studies with the two most commonly used anti GD3 monoclonal antibodies, R24 and LB1. GD3 is not restricted to any one cell lineage, being expressed in development to varying degrees by immature neuroectodermal cells, oligodendrocyte progenitors, ameboid microglia, and subpopulations of developing neurons and astrocytes. In the adult CNS, GD3 is expressed in low amounts by some neuronal subpopulations, on reactive and resting microglia, and by reactive astrocytes. In the appropriate contexts of development or neuropathology, anti-GD3 antibodies are useful for cell type identification and for cell isolation, but caution should be exercised because of the lack of cellular specificity.

Strongly GD3+ cells in the developing and adult rat cerebellum belong to the microglial lineage rather than to the oligodendrocyte lineage

A recent study has shown that ramified microglia in the adult rat optic nerve express the ganglioside GD3 [Wolswijk Glia 10:244-249, 1994], thereby raising the possibility that some GD3+ in the developing rat central nervous system (CNS) belong to the microglial lineage rather than to the oligodendrocyte lineage, as previously thought. To examine this possibility, sections of postnatal and adult cerebellum were double-labelled with markers for rat microglia [the B4 isolectin derived from Griffonia simplicifolia (GSI-B4), the ED1 monoclonal antibody (mAb), and the OX-42 mAb] and anti-GD3 mAbs (the mAbs R24 and LB1). These immunolabellings showed that ramified microglia as well as amoeboid microglia are strongly GD3+ in vivo. Moreover, most, if not all, cells that express high levels of GD3 in sections of developing cerebellum appear to belong to the microglial lineage. These observations contradict previous suggestions that the strongly GD3+ cells in the putative white matter regions of the developing brain are oligodendrocyte-type-2 astrocyte (O-2A) progenitor cells; the cells that give rise to oligodendrocytes in the CNS. The present study did, however, confirm that some O-2A progenitor cells in sections of postnatal cerebellum are weakly GD3+ in vivo. Amoeboid microglia are present in areas of the developing cerebellum where newly generated oligodendrocytes are found, suggesting that these cells play a role in the phagocytosis of the large numbers of oligodendrocytes that die as part of CNS development.

GD3+ cells in the adult rat optic nerve are ramified microglia rather than O-2Aadult progenitor cells

The adult central nervous system (CNS) contains a population of adult oligodendrocyte-type-2 astrocyte (O-2A) progenitor cells (O-2Aadult progenitor cells). These cells may provide a source of the new oligodendrocytes that are needed to repair demyelinated lesions. In order to examine the role of O-2Aadult progenitor cells in the regeneration of the oligodendrocyte population following demyelinating damage, it is essential to be able to identify such cells unambiguously in sections of adult CNS tissue. The present study examined whether antibodies to the ganglioside GD3 specifically label O-2Aadult progenitor cells in cultures and sections of adult optic nerve, since previous studies on the developing CNS had suggested that O-2Aperinatal progenitor cells were GD3+ in vitro and in vivo. Evidence is presented indicating that, although O-2Aadult progenitor cells in vitro were labelled with the R24 mAb (an anti-GD3 mAb), all GD3+ cells in sections of adult optic nerve bound the OX-42 mAb and the B4 isolectin derived from Griffonia Simplicifolia, and thus were not O-2Aadult progenitor cells, but ramified microglia. The data suggest that O-2Aadult progenitor cells become GD3+ when placed in culture and that ramified microglia lose GD3-expression in vitro.

Localization of acetazolamide-resistant carbonic anhydrase III in human and rat choroid plexus by immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridisation

Carbonic anhydrase is an essential metabolic enzyme of the central nervous system and has an important role in the production and regulation of cerebrospinal fluid. Although it has been known for over 30 years that inhibition of the enzyme with acetazolamide dramatically but not completely reduces the production of cerebrospinal fluid, the precise mechanism of the inhibitory action has been only recently revealed. In this study we present evidence that apart from carbonic anhydrase II, the catalytically highly active isozyme, carbonic anhydrase III, an acetazolamide-resistant and kinetically different isozyme could be demonstrated in the epithelial cells of the developing and mature rodent and human choroid plexuses. Both isozymes express intense immunostaining revealed with specific antisera, and by using in situ hybridisation histochemistry, carbonic anhydrase III mRNA was also observed. Since the kinetic properties and proportion of brain carbonic anhydrase III in the human choroid plexus are not revealed the function of this isozyme in choroid plexus is still to be determined.