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Sarkala HB, Jahanshahi M, Dolatabadi LK, Namavar MR. G-CSF improved the memory and dendritic morphology impairments in the hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons after brain ischemia in the male rats. Metab Brain Dis 2023; 38:2573-2581. [PMID: 37728699 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-023-01286-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stroke remains the leading cause of death and disability in the world. A new potential treatment for stroke is the granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), which exerts neuroprotective effects through multiple mechanisms. Memory impairment is the most common cognitive problem after a stroke. The suggested treatment for memory impairments is cognitive rehabilitation, which is often ineffective. The hippocampus plays an important role in memory formation. This project aimed to study the effect of G-CSF on memory and dendritic morphology of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO)in rats. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups: the sham, control (MCAO + Vehicle), and treatment (MCAO + G-CSF) groups. G-CSF (50 µg/kg S.C) was administered at 6, 24, and 48 h after brain ischemia induction. The passive avoidance task to evaluate learning and memory was performed on days 6 and 7 post-ischemia. Seven days after MCAO, the brain was removed and the hippocampal slices were stained with Golgi. After that, the neurons were analyzed for dendritic morphology and maturity. OUTCOMES The data showed that stroke was associated with a significant impairment in the acquisition and retention of passive avoidance tasks, while the G-CSF improved learning and memory loss. The dendritic length, arborization, spine density, and mature spines of the hippocampus CA1 neurons were significantly reduced in the control group, and treatment with G-CSF significantly increased these parameters. CONCLUSION G-CSF, even with three doses, improved learning and memory deficits, and dendritic morphological changes in the CA1 hippocampal neurons resulted from brain ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamzeh Badeli Sarkala
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehrdad Jahanshahi
- Neuroscience Research Center, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Leila Kamali Dolatabadi
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Alzahra Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Namavar
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
- Histomorphometry and Stereology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
- Clinical Neurology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
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2
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Gürkan G, Atasoy Ö, Çini N, Sever İH, Özkul B, Yaprak G, Şirin C, Uyanıkgil Y, Kızmazoğlu C, Erdoğan MA, Erbaş O. Reparative, Neuroprotective and Anti-neurodegenerative Effects of Granulocyte Colony Stimulating Factor in Radiation-Induced Brain Injury Model. J Korean Neurosurg Soc 2023; 66:511-524. [PMID: 37165625 PMCID: PMC10483164 DOI: 10.3340/jkns.2023.0049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This animal model aimed to compare the rat group that received brain irradiation and did not receive additional treatment (only saline) and the rat group that underwent brain irradiation and received Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) treatment. In addition, the effects of G-CSF on brain functions were examined by magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and histopathologically. METHODS This study used 24 female Wistar albino rats. Drug administration (saline or G-CSF) was started at the beginning of the study and continued for 15 days after whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT). WBRT was given on day 7 of the start of the study. At the end of 15 days, the behavioral tests, including the three-chamber sociability test, open field test, and passive avoidance learning test, were done. After the behavioral test, the animals performed the MR spectroscopy procedure. At the end of the study, cervical dislocation was applied to all animals. RESULTS G-CSF treatment positively affected the results of the three-chamber sociability test, open-space test and passive avoidance learning test, cornu Ammonis (CA) 1, CA3, and Purkinje neuron counts, and the brain levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and postsynaptic density protein-95. However, G-CSF treatment reduced the glial fibrillary acidic protein immunostaining index and brain levels of malondialdehyde, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, nuclear factor kappa-B, and lactate. In addition, on MR spectroscopy, G-CSF had a reversible effect on brain lactate levels. CONCLUSION In this first designed brain irradiation animal model, which evaluated G-CSF effects, we observed that G-CSF had reparative, neuroprotective and anti-neurodegenerative effects and had increased neurotrophic factor expression, neuronal counts, and morphology changes. In addition, G-CSF had a proven lactate-lowering effect in MR spectroscopy and brain materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gökhan Gürkan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Izmir Katip Celebi University Atatürk Training and Research Hospital, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Özüm Atasoy
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Kartal City Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Nilsu Çini
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Kartal City Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Bahattin Özkul
- Department of Radiology, Istanbul Atlas University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gökhan Yaprak
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Lutfi Kirdar Kartal Education and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Cansın Şirin
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Yiğit Uyanıkgil
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Ceren Kızmazoğlu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
| | | | - Oytun Erbaş
- Department of Physiology, Demiroğlu Bilim University, Istanbul, Turkey
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3
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Stem Cell Therapy for Sequestration of Traumatic Brain Injury-Induced Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810286. [PMID: 36142198 PMCID: PMC9499317 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of long-term neurological disabilities in the world. TBI is a signature disease for soldiers and veterans, but also affects civilians, including adults and children. Following TBI, the brain resident and immune cells turn into a “reactive” state, characterized by the production of inflammatory mediators that contribute to the development of cognitive deficits. Other injuries to the brain, including radiation exposure, may trigger TBI-like pathology, characterized by inflammation. Currently there are no treatments to prevent or reverse the deleterious consequences of brain trauma. The recognition that TBI predisposes stem cell alterations suggests that stem cell-based therapies stand as a potential treatment for TBI. Here, we discuss the inflamed brain after TBI and radiation injury. We further review the status of stem cells in the inflamed brain and the applications of cell therapy in sequestering inflammation in TBI.
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4
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Song S, Kong X, Wang B, Sanchez-Ramos J. Administration of Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Following Controlled Cortical Impact Restores Hippocampal-Dependent Working Memory and Locomotor Function. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2022; 7:424-435. [PMID: 34747647 PMCID: PMC9418466 DOI: 10.1089/can.2021.0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypothesis: Administration of the phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) will enhance brain repair and improve short-term spatial working memory in mice following controlled cortical impact (CCI) by upregulating granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and other neurotrophic factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF], glial-derived neurotrophic factor [GDNF]) in hippocampus (HP), cerebral cortex, and striatum. Materials and Methods: C57BL/6J mice underwent CCI and were treated for 3 days with Δ9-THC 3 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.). Short-term working memory was determined using the spontaneous alternations test during exploratory behavior in a Y-maze. Locomotor function was measured as latency to fall from a rotating drum (rotometry). These behaviors were recorded at baseline and 3, 7, and 14 days after CCI. Groups of mice were euthanized at 7 and 14 days. Extent of microgliosis, astrocytosis, and G-CSF, BDNF, and GDNF expression were measured at 7 and 14 days in cerebral cortex, striatum, and HP on the side of the trauma. Levels of the most abundant endocannabinoid (2-arachidonoyl-glycerol [2-AG]) was also measured at these times. Results: Δ9-THC-treated mice exhibited marked improvement in performance on the Y-maze indicating that treatment with the phytocannabinoid could reverse the deficit in working memory caused by the CCI. Δ9-THC-treated mice ran on the rotarod longer than vehicle-treated mice and recovered to normal rotarod performance levels at 2 weeks. Δ9-THC-treated mice, compared with vehicle-treated animals, exhibited significant upregulation of G-CSF as well as BDNF and GDNF in the cerebral cortex, striatum, and HP. Levels of 2-AG were also increased in the Δ9-THC-treated mice. Conclusion: Administration of the phytocannabinoid Δ9-THC promotes significant functional recovery from traumatic brain injury (TBI) in the realms of working memory and locomotor function. This beneficial effect is associated with upregulation of brain 2-AG, G-CSF, BDNF, and GDNF. The latter three neurotrophic factors have been previously shown to mediate brain self-repair following TBI and stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Song
- James Haley VA Medical Center and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Xiaoyuan Kong
- James Haley VA Medical Center and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Bangmei Wang
- James Haley VA Medical Center and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Juan Sanchez-Ramos
- Department of Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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5
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Song S, Kong X, Wang B, Sanchez-Ramos J. Recovery from Traumatic Brain Injury Following Treatment with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Is Associated with Increased Expression of Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor and Other Neurotrophic Factors. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2022; 7:415-423. [PMID: 33998887 PMCID: PMC9418356 DOI: 10.1089/can.2020.0119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The hematopoietic cytokine granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) is well known to stimulate proliferation of blood stem/progenitor cells of the leukocyte lineage, but is also recognized as a neurotrophic factor involved in brain self-repair processes. G-CSF administration has been shown to promote recovery from experimental models of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and to modulate components of the endocannabinoid system (eCS). Conversely, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9THC) treatment of normal mice has been shown to increase blood levels of G-CSF in the periphery. Hypothesis: Administration of the phytocannabinoid Δ9THC will enhance brain repair following controlled cortical impact (CCI) by upregulating G-CSF and other neurotrophic factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF] and glial-derived neurotrophic factor [GDNF]) in brain regions. Materials and Methods: C57BL/6J mice underwent CCI and were treated for 3 days with THC 3 mg/kg intraperitoneally. Motor function on a rotarod was recorded at baseline and 3, 7, and 14 days after CCI. Groups of mice were euthanized at 7 and 14 days. G-CSF, BDNF, and GDNF expression were measured at 7 and 14 days in cerebral cortex, striatum, and hippocampus on the side of the trauma. Results: Δ9THC-treated mice ran on the rotarod longer than vehicle-treated mice and recovered to normal rotarod performance levels at 2 weeks. These mice, compared to vehicle-treated animals, exhibited significant upregulation of G-CSF as well as BDNF and GDNF in cerebral cortex, striatum, and hippocampus. Conclusion: Administration of the phytocannabinoid Δ9THC promotes significant recovery from TBI and is associated with upregulation of brain G-CSF, BDNF, and GDNF, neurotrophic factors previously shown to mediate brain self-repair following TBI and stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Song
- James Haley VA Medical Center, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | | | - Bangmei Wang
- James Haley VA Medical Center, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Juan Sanchez-Ramos
- Department of Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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6
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Durankuş F, Albayrak Y, Erdoğan F, Albayrak N, Erdoğan MA, Erbaş O. Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor Has a Sex-Dependent Positive Effect in the Maternal Immune Activation-Induced Autism Model. Int J Dev Neurosci 2022; 82:716-726. [PMID: 35904498 DOI: 10.1002/jdn.10221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The medical intervention for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is restricted to ameliorating comorbid situations. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) is a growth factor that enhances the proliferation, differentiation and survival of hematopoietic progenitor cells. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of G-CSF in a maternal immune activation-induced autism model. METHODS Sixteen female and 6 male Wistar adult rats were included in the study. After 21 days, forty-eight littermates (8 male controls, 8 female controls, 16 male lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-exposed rats and 16 female LPS-exposed rats) were divided into groups. Sixteen male LPS-exposed and 16 female LPS-exposed rats were divided into saline and G-CSF treatment groups. RESULTS In male rats, the LPS-exposed group was found to have significantly higher levels of TNF-α, IL-2, and IL-17 than the LPS-exposed G-CSF group. Levels of nerve growth factor, brain PSD-95 and brain GAD67 were higher in the LPS-exposed G-CSF group than in the LPS-exposed group in male rats. In female rats, brain NGF levels were similar between groups. There was no difference between groups in terms of brain GAD 67 levels. Brain PSD-95 levels were higher in the control group than in both the LPS-exposed and LPS-exposed G-CSF groups in female rats. Both neuronal CA1 and neuronal CA2 levels were lower, and the GFAP immunostaining index (CA1) and GFAP immunostaining index (CA3) were higher in the LPS-exposed group than in the LPS-exposed G-CSF group in male rats. However, neuronal count CA1 and Neuronal count CA3 values were found to be similar between groups in female rats. CONCLUSIONS The present research is the first to demonstrate the beneficial effects of G-CSF on core symptoms of ASD experimentally depending on male sex. G-CSF can be a good candidate for ameliorating the core symptoms of ASD without serious side effects in males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferit Durankuş
- Department of Pediatrics, Istanbul Medeniyet University, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Yakup Albayrak
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey
| | - Fırat Erdoğan
- Department of Pediatrics, Istanbul Medeniyet University, İstanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Mümin Alper Erdoğan
- Department of Physiology, Katip Çelebi University Medical School, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Oytun Erbaş
- Medical School, Department of Physiology, Demiroğlu Bilim University, İstanbul, Turkey
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7
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Postolache TT, Wadhawan A, Can A, Lowry CA, Woodbury M, Makkar H, Hoisington AJ, Scott AJ, Potocki E, Benros ME, Stiller JW. Inflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 74:1-28. [PMID: 32176646 DOI: 10.3233/jad-191150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is an increasing evidence that inflammation contributes to clinical and functional outcomes in traumatic brain injury (TBI). Many successful target-engaging, lesion-reducing, symptom-alleviating, and function-improving interventions in animal models of TBI have failed to show efficacy in clinical trials. Timing and immunological context are paramount for the direction, quality, and intensity of immune responses to TBI and the resulting neuroanatomical, clinical, and functional course. We present components of the immune system implicated in TBI, potential immune targets, and target-engaging interventions. The main objective of our article is to point toward modifiable molecular and cellular mechanisms that may modify the outcomes in TBI, and contribute to increasing the translational value of interventions that have been identified in animal models of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teodor T Postolache
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Veterans Health Administration, Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Veterans Integrated Service Network (VISN) 19, Aurora, CO, USA.,Military and Veteran Microbiome: Consortium for Research and Education (MVM-CoRE), Aurora, CO, USA.,Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Veterans Integrated Service Network (VISN) 5, VA Capitol Health Care Network, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Abhishek Wadhawan
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Saint Elizabeths Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Adem Can
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christopher A Lowry
- Veterans Health Administration, Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Veterans Integrated Service Network (VISN) 19, Aurora, CO, USA.,Military and Veteran Microbiome: Consortium for Research and Education (MVM-CoRE), Aurora, CO, USA.,Department of Integrative Physiology and Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation and Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Margaret Woodbury
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,VA Maryland Healthcare System, Baltimore VA Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hina Makkar
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Andrew J Hoisington
- Veterans Health Administration, Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Veterans Integrated Service Network (VISN) 19, Aurora, CO, USA.,Systems Engineering and Management, Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA
| | - Alison J Scott
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Eileen Potocki
- VA Maryland Healthcare System, Baltimore VA Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michael E Benros
- Copenhagen Research Center for Mental Health-CORE, Mental Health Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - John W Stiller
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Maryland State Athletic Commission, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Saint Elizabeths Hospital, Neurology Consultation Services, Washington, DC, USA
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8
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The Role of BDNF in Experimental and Clinical Traumatic Brain Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073582. [PMID: 33808272 PMCID: PMC8037220 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in the world with no current pharmacological treatment. The role of BDNF in neural repair and regeneration is well established and has also been the focus of TBI research. Here, we review experimental animal models assessing BDNF expression following injury as well as clinical studies in humans including the role of BDNF polymorphism in TBI. There is a large heterogeneity in experimental setups and hence the results with different regional and temporal changes in BDNF expression. Several studies have also assessed different interventions to affect the BDNF expression following injury. Clinical studies highlight the importance of BDNF polymorphism in the outcome and indicate a protective role of BDNF polymorphism following injury. Considering the possibility of affecting the BDNF pathway with available substances, we discuss future studies using transgenic mice as well as iPSC in order to understand the underlying mechanism of BDNF polymorphism in TBI and develop a possible pharmacological treatment.
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Martínez-Drudis L, Amorós-Aguilar L, Torras-Garcia M, Serra-Elias B, Costa-Miserachs D, Portell-Cortés I, Coll-Andreu M. Delayed voluntary physical exercise restores "when" and "where" object recognition memory after traumatic brain injury. Behav Brain Res 2021; 400:113048. [PMID: 33279639 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Physical exercise has been associated with improved cognition and may even reduce memory deficits after brain injuries. The aims of this work were to: 1) assess whether voluntary physical exercise can reduce the deficits associated with traumatic brain injury (TBI) in two different components of episodic-like memory based on object recognition, temporal order memory ("when"), and object location memory ("where"); and 2) determine whether changes in levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, as well as alterations in hippocampal cytokines, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), may influence the effects exercise has on either or both tasks. The rats were distributed into a sham group, a TBI group that remained sedentary (TBI-sed), and a TBI group that had access to a running wheel for a 25-day period from post-injury day 11 (TBI-exe). The rats were sacrificed after the "where" memory task, at post-injury day 37. Physical exercise restored the "when" and "where" memories, which had been impaired by the TBI, and increased the concentration of BDNF in the hippocampus, but not the prefrontal cortex. Neither TBI nor exercise were found to significantly affect hippocampal cytokines, IGF-1 or VEGF at this time post-injury. BDNF levels showed significant positive correlations with exercise, and with "when" (but not "where") memory. These results indicate that post-injury physical exercise restores "when" and "where" object recognition memory tasks after TBI, and that increased BDNF seems to be involved in this effect, particularly with regard to "when" memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Martínez-Drudis
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain; CHU de Quebec Research Center, Axe Neurosciences, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Laura Amorós-Aguilar
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Meritxell Torras-Garcia
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Bruna Serra-Elias
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Costa-Miserachs
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isabel Portell-Cortés
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Margalida Coll-Andreu
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain.
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10
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Dumbuya JS, Chen L, Wu JY, Wang B. The role of G-CSF neuroprotective effects in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE): current status. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:55. [PMID: 33612099 PMCID: PMC7897393 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is an important cause of permanent damage to central nervous system (CNS) that may result in neonatal death or manifest later as mental retardation, epilepsy, cerebral palsy, or developmental delay. The primary cause of this condition is systemic hypoxemia and/or reduced cerebral blood flow with long-lasting neurological disabilities and neurodevelopmental impairment in neonates. About 20 to 25% of infants with HIE die in the neonatal period, and 25-30% of survivors are left with permanent neurodevelopmental abnormalities. The mechanisms of hypoxia-ischemia (HI) include activation and/or stimulation of myriad of cascades such as increased excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor hyperexcitability, mitochondrial collapse, inflammation, cell swelling, impaired maturation, and loss of trophic support. Different therapeutic modalities have been implicated in managing neonatal HIE, though translation of most of these regimens into clinical practices is still limited. Therapeutic hypothermia, for instance, is the most widely used standard treatment in neonates with HIE as studies have shown that it can inhibit many steps in the excito-oxidative cascade including secondary energy failure, increases in brain lactic acid, glutamate, and nitric oxide concentration. Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) is a glycoprotein that has been implicated in stimulation of cell survival, proliferation, and function of neutrophil precursors and mature neutrophils. Extensive studies both in vivo and ex vivo have shown the neuroprotective effect of G-CSF in neurodegenerative diseases and neonatal brain damage via inhibition of apoptosis and inflammation. Yet, there are still few experimentation models of neonatal HIE and G-CSF's effectiveness, and extrapolation of adult stroke models is challenging because of the evolving brain. Here, we review current studies and/or researches of G-CSF's crucial role in regulating these cytokines and apoptotic mediators triggered following neonatal brain injury, as well as driving neurogenesis and angiogenesis post-HI insults.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Sieh Dumbuya
- Department of Pediatrics, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, People's Republic of China
| | - Jang-Yen Wu
- Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, People's Republic of China.
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11
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Song S, Kong X, Borlongan C, Sava V, Sanchez-Ramos J. Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor Enhances Brain Repair Following Traumatic Brain Injury Without Requiring Activation of Cannabinoid Receptors. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2021; 6:48-57. [PMID: 33614952 PMCID: PMC7891202 DOI: 10.1089/can.2019.0090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI) with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) has been shown to enhance brain repair by direct neurotrophic actions on neural cells and by modulating the inflammatory response. Administration of cannabinoids after TBI has also been reported to enhance brain repair by similar mechanisms. Objectives: The primary objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that G-CSF mediates brain repair by interacting with the endocannabinoid system. Methods and Results: (i) Mice that underwent controlled cortical impact (CCI) were treated with G-CSF for 3 days either alone or in the presence of selective cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1-R) or cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2-R) agonists and antagonists. The trauma resulted in decreased expression of CB1-R and increased expression of CB2-R in the cortex, striatum, and hippocampus. Cortical and striatal levels of the major endocannabinoid ligand, 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol, were also increased by the CCI. Administration of the hematopoietic cytokine, G-CSF, following TBI, resulted in mitigation or reversal of trauma-induced CB1-R downregulation and CB2-R upregulation in the three brain regions. Treatment with CB1-R agonist (WIN55) or CB2-R agonist (HU308) mimicked the effects of G-CSF. (ii) Pharmacological blockade of CB1-R or CB2-R was not effective in preventing G-CSF's mitigation or reversal of trauma-induced alterations in these receptors. Conclusions: These results suggest that cellular and molecular mechanisms that mediate subacute effects of G-CSF do not depend on activation of CB1 or CB2 receptors. Failure of selective CB receptor antagonists to prevent the effects of G-CSF in this model has to be accepted with caution. CB receptor antagonists can interact with other CB and non-CB receptors. Investigation of the role of CB receptors in this TBI model will require studies with CB1-R and in CB2-R knockout mice to avoid nonspecific interaction of CB receptor agents with other receptors.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arachidonic Acids/metabolism
- Arachidonic Acids/physiology
- Brain/metabolism
- Brain Injuries, Traumatic/drug therapy
- Brain Injuries, Traumatic/etiology
- Brain Injuries, Traumatic/metabolism
- Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists/pharmacology
- Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists/therapeutic use
- Cannabinoid Receptor Antagonists/pharmacology
- Cannabinoid Receptor Antagonists/therapeutic use
- Disease Models, Animal
- Endocannabinoids/metabolism
- Endocannabinoids/physiology
- Glycerides/metabolism
- Glycerides/physiology
- Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor/pharmacology
- Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor/therapeutic use
- Male
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/metabolism
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/metabolism
- Receptors, Cannabinoid/genetics
- Receptors, Cannabinoid/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Song
- James Haley VA Medical Center, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurology and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | | | - Cesar Borlongan
- James Haley VA Medical Center, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Vasyl Sava
- James Haley VA Medical Center, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurology and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Juan Sanchez-Ramos
- Department of Neurology and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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12
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Vu PA, McNamara EH, Liu J, Tucker LB, Fu AH, McCabe JT. Behavioral responses following repeated bilateral frontal region closed head impacts and fear conditioning in male and female mice. Brain Res 2020; 1750:147147. [PMID: 33091394 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The frontal lobes are among the most vulnerable sites in traumatic brain injuries. In the current study, a balanced 2 × 2 × 2 design (n = 18 mice/group), female and male C57Bl/6J mice received repeated bilateral frontal concussive brain injury (frCBI) and underwent fear conditioning (FC) to assess how injured mice respond to adverse conditions. Shocks received during FC impacted behavior on all subsequent tests except the tail suspension test. FC resulted in more freezing behavior in all mice that received foot shocks when evaluated in subsequent context and cue tests and induced hypoactivity in the open field (OF) and elevated zero maze (EZM). Mice that sustained frCBI learned the FC association between tone and shock. Injured mice froze less than sham controls during context and cue tests, which could indicate memory impairment, but could also suggest that frCBI resulted in hyperactivity that overrode the rodent's natural freezing response to threat, as injured mice were also more active in the OF and EZM. There were notable sex differences, where female mice exhibited more freezing behavior than male mice during FC context and cue tests. The findings suggest frCBI impaired, but did not eliminate, FC retention and resulted in an overall increase in general activity. The injury was characterized pathologically by increased inflammation (CD11b staining) in cortical regions underlying the injury site and in the optic tracts. The performance of male and female mice after injury suggested the complexity of possible sex differences for neuropsychiatric symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Vu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Genetics, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Eileen H McNamara
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Genetics, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Jiong Liu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Genetics, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Laura B Tucker
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Genetics, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States; Pre-Clinical Studies Core, Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Amanda H Fu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Genetics, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States; Pre-Clinical Studies Core, Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Joseph T McCabe
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Genetics, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States; Pre-Clinical Studies Core, Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, F.E. Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, United States.
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13
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Macheda T, Roberts KN, Morganti JM, Braun DJ, Bachstetter AD. Optimization and validation of a modified radial-arm water maze protocol using a murine model of mild closed head traumatic brain injury. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232862. [PMID: 32810143 PMCID: PMC7433858 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive impairments can be a significant problem after a traumatic brain injury (TBI), which affects millions worldwide each year. There is a need for establish reproducible cognitive assays in rodents to better understand disease mechanisms and to develop therapeutic interventions towards treating TBI-induced impairments. Our goal was to validate and standardize the radial arm water maze (RAWM) test as an assay to screen for cognitive impairments caused by TBI. RAWM is a visuo-spatial learning test, originally designed for use with rats, and later adapted for mice. The present study investigates whether test procedures, such us the presence of extra-maze cues influences learning and memory performance. C57BL/6 mice were tested in an 8-arm RAWM using a four-day protocol. We demonstrated that two days of training, exposing the mice to extra-maze cues and a visible platform, influenced learning and memory performance. Mice that did not receive training performed poorer compared to mice trained. To further validate our RAWM protocol, we used scopolamine. We, also, demonstrated that a single mild closed head injury (CHI) caused deficits in this task at two weeks post-CHI. Our data supported the use of 7 trials per day and a spaced training protocol as key factor to unmask memory impairment following CHI. Here, we provide a detailed standard operating procedure for RAWM test, which can be applied to a variety of mouse models including neurodegenerative diseases and pathology, as well as when pharmacological approaches are used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Macheda
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Kelly N. Roberts
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Josh M. Morganti
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - David J. Braun
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Adam D. Bachstetter
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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14
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Kempuraj D, Ahmed ME, Selvakumar GP, Thangavel R, Dhaliwal AS, Dubova I, Mentor S, Premkumar K, Saeed D, Zahoor H, Raikwar SP, Zaheer S, Iyer SS, Zaheer A. Brain Injury-Mediated Neuroinflammatory Response and Alzheimer's Disease. Neuroscientist 2020; 26:134-155. [PMID: 31092147 PMCID: PMC7274851 DOI: 10.1177/1073858419848293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health problem in the United States, which affects about 1.7 million people each year. Glial cells, T-cells, and mast cells perform specific protective functions in different regions of the brain for the recovery of cognitive and motor functions after central nervous system (CNS) injuries including TBI. Chronic neuroinflammatory responses resulting in neuronal death and the accompanying stress following brain injury predisposes or accelerates the onset and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in high-risk individuals. About 5.7 million Americans are currently living with AD. Immediately following brain injury, mast cells respond by releasing prestored and preactivated mediators and recruit immune cells to the CNS. Blood-brain barrier (BBB), tight junction and adherens junction proteins, neurovascular and gliovascular microstructural rearrangements, and dysfunction associated with increased trafficking of inflammatory mediators and inflammatory cells from the periphery across the BBB leads to increase in the chronic neuroinflammatory reactions following brain injury. In this review, we advance the hypothesis that neuroinflammatory responses resulting from mast cell activation along with the accompanying risk factors such as age, gender, food habits, emotional status, stress, allergic tendency, chronic inflammatory diseases, and certain drugs can accelerate brain injury-associated neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duraisamy Kempuraj
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Mohammad Ejaz Ahmed
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Govindhasamy Pushpavathi Selvakumar
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Ramasamy Thangavel
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Arshdeep S. Dhaliwal
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Iuliia Dubova
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Shireen Mentor
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Keerthivaas Premkumar
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Daniyal Saeed
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Haris Zahoor
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Sudhanshu P. Raikwar
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Smita Zaheer
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Shankar S. Iyer
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Asgar Zaheer
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Department of Neurology, and the Center for Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
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15
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Song S, Kong X, Sanchez-Ramos J. Method for Stimulation of Hippocampal Neurogenesis by Transient Microneedle Insertion. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1919:227-235. [PMID: 30656634 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9007-8_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Brief stereotaxic insertion and removal of a microneedle into the hippocampus of mice result in stimulation of hippocampal neurogenesis. This approach has been previously applied to a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (Song et al., Cell Transplant 25:1853-1861, 2016). Further studies of fundamental cellular mechanisms of the brain's response to micro-injury will be useful for investigation of potential neuroprotective and deleterious effects of targeted microlesions and deep brain stimulation in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Song
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
- Department of Neurology, James A. Haley VAH Research Service, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
| | - Xiaoyung Kong
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
- College of Medicine Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
- College of Medicine Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Juan Sanchez-Ramos
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
- Department of Neurology, James A. Haley VAH Research Service, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
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16
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Pavlou MAS, Grandbarbe L, Buckley NJ, Niclou SP, Michelucci A. Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms underlying astrocyte identity. Prog Neurobiol 2018; 174:36-52. [PMID: 30599178 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes play a significant role in coordinating neural development and provide critical support for the function of the CNS. They possess important adaptation capacities that range from their transition towards reactive astrocytes to their ability to undergo reprogramming, thereby revealing their potential to retain latent features of neural progenitor cells. We propose that the mechanisms underlying reactive astrogliosis or astrocyte reprogramming provide an opportunity for initiating neuronal regeneration, a process that is notably reduced in the mammalian nervous system throughout evolution. Conversely, this plasticity may also affect normal astrocytic functions resulting in pathologies ranging from neurodevelopmental disorders to neurodegenerative diseases and brain tumors. We postulate that epigenetic mechanisms linking extrinsic cues and intrinsic transcriptional programs are key factors to maintain astrocyte identity and function, and critically, to control the balance of regenerative and degenerative activity. Here, we will review the main evidences supporting this concept. We propose that unravelling the epigenetic and transcriptional mechanisms underlying the acquisition of astrocyte identity and plasticity, as well as understanding how these processes are modulated by the local microenvironment under specific threatening or pathological conditions, may pave the way to new therapeutic avenues for several neurological disorders including neurodegenerative diseases and brain tumors of astrocytic lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Angeliki S Pavlou
- Life Sciences Research Unit, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; NORLUX Neuro-Oncology Laboratory, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Luc Grandbarbe
- Life Sciences Research Unit, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Noel J Buckley
- Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Simone P Niclou
- NORLUX Neuro-Oncology Laboratory, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg, Luxembourg; KG Jebsen Brain Tumour Research Center, Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Alessandro Michelucci
- NORLUX Neuro-Oncology Laboratory, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg, Luxembourg; Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-Belval, Luxembourg.
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17
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Azmy MS, Menze ET, El-Naga RN, Tadros MG. Neuroprotective Effects of Filgrastim in Rotenone-Induced Parkinson's Disease in Rats: Insights into its Anti-Inflammatory, Neurotrophic, and Antiapoptotic Effects. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:6572-6588. [PMID: 29327204 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0855-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
All current treatments of Parkinson's disease (PD) focus on enhancing the dopaminergic effects and providing symptomatic relief; however, they cannot delay the disease progression. Filgrastim, a recombinant methionyl granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, demonstrated neuroprotection in many neurodegenerative and neurological diseases. This study aimed to assess the neuroprotective effects of filgrastim in rotenone-induced rat model of PD and investigate the potential underlying mechanisms of filgrastim actions. The effects of two doses of filgrastim (20 and 40 μg/kg) on spontaneous locomotion, catalepsy, body weight, histology, and striatal dopamine (DA) content, as well as tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and α-synuclein expression, were evaluated. Then, the effective dose was further tested for its potential anti-inflammatory, neurotrophic, and antiapoptotic effects. Filgrastim (40 μg/kg) prevented rotenone-induced motor deficits, weight reduction, striatal DA depletion, and histological damage. Besides, it significantly inhibited rotenone-induced decrease in TH expression and increase in α-synuclein immunoreactivity in the midbrains and striata of the rats. These effects were associated with reduction of rotenone-induced neuroinflammation, apoptosis, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor depletion. Collectively, these results suggest that filgrastim might be a good candidate for management of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariama S Azmy
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Esther T Menze
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Reem N El-Naga
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mariane G Tadros
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
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18
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Semple BD, Zamani A, Rayner G, Shultz SR, Jones NC. Affective, neurocognitive and psychosocial disorders associated with traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic epilepsy. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 123:27-41. [PMID: 30059725 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2018] [Revised: 07/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Survivors of traumatic brain injury (TBI) often develop chronic neurological, neurocognitive, psychological, and psychosocial deficits that can have a profound impact on an individual's wellbeing and quality of life. TBI is also a common cause of acquired epilepsy, which is itself associated with significant behavioral morbidity. This review considers the clinical and preclinical evidence that post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) acts as a 'second-hit' insult to worsen chronic behavioral outcomes for brain-injured patients, across the domains of emotional, cognitive, and psychosocial functioning. Surprisingly, few well-designed studies have specifically examined the relationship between seizures and behavioral outcomes after TBI. The complex mechanisms underlying these comorbidities remain incompletely understood, although many of the biological processes that precipitate seizure occurrence and epileptogenesis may also contribute to the development of chronic behavioral deficits. Further, the relationship between PTE and behavioral dysfunction is increasingly recognized to be a bidirectional one, whereby premorbid conditions are a risk factor for PTE. Clinical studies in this arena are often challenged by the confounding effects of anti-seizure medications, while preclinical studies have rarely examined an adequately extended time course to fully capture the time course of epilepsy development after a TBI. To drive the field forward towards improved treatment strategies, it is imperative that both seizures and neurobehavioral outcomes are assessed in parallel after TBI, both in patient populations and preclinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridgette D Semple
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, 99 Commercial Road, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), The University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Akram Zamani
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, 99 Commercial Road, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Genevieve Rayner
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne Brain Centre (Austin Campus), Heidelberg, VIC, Australia; Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia; Comprehensive Epilepsy Program, Alfred Health, Australia.
| | - Sandy R Shultz
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, 99 Commercial Road, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), The University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Nigel C Jones
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, 99 Commercial Road, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), The University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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19
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Zhou S, Yin DP, Wang Y, Tian Y, Wang ZG, Zhang JN. Dynamic changes in growth factor levels over a 7-day period predict the functional outcomes of traumatic brain injury. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:2134-2140. [PMID: 30323142 PMCID: PMC6199919 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.241462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can result in poor functional outcomes and death, and overall outcomes are varied. Growth factors, such as angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), play important roles in the neurological functions. This study investigated the relationship between serum growth factor levels and long-term outcomes after TBI. Blood samples from 55 patients were collected at 1, 3 and 7 days after TBI. Blood samples from 39 healthy controls were collected as a control group. Serum Ang-1, G-CSF, and VEGF levels were measured using ELISA. Patients were monitored for 3 months using the Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOSE). Patients having a GOSE score of > 5 at 3 months were categorized as a good outcome, and patients with a GOSE score of 1–5 were categorized as a bad outcome. Our data demonstrated that TBI patients showed significantly increased growth factor levels within 7 days compared with healthy controls. Serum levels of Ang-1 at 1 and 7 days and G-CSF levels at 7 days were significantly higher in patients with good outcomes than in patients with poor outcomes. VEGF levels at 7 days were remarkably higher in patients with poor outcomes than in patients with good outcomes. Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed that the best cut-off points of serum growth factor levels at 7 days to predict functional outcome were 1,333 pg/mL for VEGF, 447.2 pg/mL for G-CSF, and 90.6 ng/mL for Ang-1. These data suggest that patients with elevated levels of serum Ang-1, G-CSF, and decreased VEGF levels had a better prognosis in the acute phase of TBI (within 7 days). This study was registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (registration number: ChiCTR1800018251) on September 7, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Zhou
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital; Tianjin Neurological Institute; Key Laboratory of Post-Trauma Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System; Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Dong-Pei Yin
- Tianjin Neurological Institute; Key Laboratory of Post-Trauma Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System; Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Tianjin Neurological Institute; Key Laboratory of Post-Trauma Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System; Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Ye Tian
- Tianjin Neurological Institute; Key Laboratory of Post-Trauma Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System; Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Zeng-Guang Wang
- Tianjin Neurological Institute; Key Laboratory of Post-Trauma Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System; Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Jian-Ning Zhang
- Tianjin Neurological Institute; Key Laboratory of Post-Trauma Neuro-Repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System; Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
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Osier N, Dixon CE. Mini Review of Controlled Cortical Impact: A Well-Suited Device for Concussion Research. Brain Sci 2017; 7:E88. [PMID: 28726717 PMCID: PMC5532601 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci7070088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is increasingly recognized as a significant public health problem which warrants additional research. Part of the effort to understand mTBI and concussion includes modeling in animals. Controlled cortical impact (CCI) is a commonly employed and well-characterized model of experimental TBI that has been utilized for three decades. Today, several commercially available pneumatic- and electromagnetic-CCI devices exist as do a variety of standard and custom injury induction tips. One of CCI's strengths is that it can be scaled to a number of common laboratory animals. Similarly, the CCI model can be used to produce graded TBI ranging from mild to severe. At the mild end of the injury spectrum, CCI has been applied in many ways, including to study open and closed head mTBI, repeated injuries, and the long-term deficits associated with mTBI and concussion. The purpose of this mini-review is to introduce the CCI model, discuss ways the model can be applied to study mTBI and concussion, and compare CCI to alternative pre-clinical TBI models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Osier
- School of Nursing, Holistic Adult Health Division, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78701, USA.
- Dell Medical School, Department of Neurology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78701, USA.
| | - C Edward Dixon
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA.
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.
- VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA 15240, USA.
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Inhibition of the integrated stress response reverses cognitive deficits after traumatic brain injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E6420-E6426. [PMID: 28696288 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1707661114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of long-term neurological disability, yet the mechanisms underlying the chronic cognitive deficits associated with TBI remain unknown. Consequently, there are no effective treatments for patients suffering from the long-lasting symptoms of TBI. Here, we show that TBI persistently activates the integrated stress response (ISR), a universal intracellular signaling pathway that responds to a variety of cellular conditions and regulates protein translation via phosphorylation of the translation initiation factor eIF2α. Treatment with ISRIB, a potent drug-like small-molecule inhibitor of the ISR, reversed the hippocampal-dependent cognitive deficits induced by TBI in two different injury mouse models-focal contusion and diffuse concussive injury. Surprisingly, ISRIB corrected TBI-induced memory deficits when administered weeks after the initial injury and maintained cognitive improvement after treatment was terminated. At the physiological level, TBI suppressed long-term potentiation in the hippocampus, which was fully restored with ISRIB treatment. Our results indicate that ISR inhibition at time points late after injury can reverse memory deficits associated with TBI. As such, pharmacological inhibition of the ISR emerges as a promising avenue to combat head trauma-induced chronic cognitive deficits.
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Effects of an Inhibitor of Monocyte Recruitment on Recovery from Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice Treated with Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18071418. [PMID: 28671601 PMCID: PMC5535910 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18071418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Administration of the hematopoietic growth factor granulocyte-colony stimulating Factor (G-CSF) has been reported to enhance recovery from controlled cortical impact (CCI) in rodent models. G-CSF exerts actions in both the periphery (stimulation of hematopoiesis) and in the brain, where it serves as a neurotrophic factor, promoting neuronal survival and stimulating neural stem/progenitor cell proliferation in the hippocampus. In order to distinguish the direct CNS actions of G-CSF from its peripheral actions, experiments were designed to block the recruitment of peripheral monocytes to the site of the lesion produced by CCI. The selective C-C motif receptor 2 (CCR2) antagonist (RS504303) was co-administered with G-CSF for three days after CCI in a chimeric mouse previously transplanted with GFP-expressing (GFP+) blood stem-progenitor cells. Results: The drug significantly impaired infiltration of GFP+ bone marrow-derived cells to the frontal cortex and striatum without impeding recovery performance and hippocampal neurogenesis in the behavioral test, the Radial Arm Water Maze (RAWM). Administration of the CCR2 antagonist alone, without G-CSF, was effective in promoting recovery in RAWM. These results support the hypothesis that the direct action of G-CSF on neural cells, independent of its hematopoietic effects, is primarily responsible for enhanced recovery from CCI. In addition, this study confirms the importance of CCR2 and its ligand, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), in mediating the inflammatory response following CCI.
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McKee CA, Lukens JR. Emerging Roles for the Immune System in Traumatic Brain Injury. Front Immunol 2016. [PMID: 27994591 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.201600556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects an ever-growing population of all ages with long-term consequences on health and cognition. Many of the issues that TBI patients face are thought to be mediated by the immune system. Primary brain damage that occurs at the time of injury can be exacerbated and prolonged for months or even years by chronic inflammatory processes, which can ultimately lead to secondary cell death, neurodegeneration, and long-lasting neurological impairment. Researchers have turned to rodent models of TBI in order to understand how inflammatory cells and immunological signaling regulate the post-injury response and recovery mechanisms. In addition, the development of numerous methods to manipulate genes involved in inflammation has recently expanded the possibilities of investigating the immune response in TBI models. As results from these studies accumulate, scientists have started to link cells and signaling pathways to pro- and anti-inflammatory processes that may contribute beneficial or detrimental effects to the injured brain. Moreover, emerging data suggest that targeting aspects of the immune response may offer promising strategies to treat TBI. This review will cover insights gained from studies that approach TBI research from an immunological perspective and will summarize our current understanding of the involvement of specific immune cell types and cytokines in TBI pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia A McKee
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, School of Medicine, University of Virginia , Charlottesville, VA , USA
| | - John R Lukens
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, School of Medicine, University of Virginia , Charlottesville, VA , USA
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McKee CA, Lukens JR. Emerging Roles for the Immune System in Traumatic Brain Injury. Front Immunol 2016; 7:556. [PMID: 27994591 PMCID: PMC5137185 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects an ever-growing population of all ages with long-term consequences on health and cognition. Many of the issues that TBI patients face are thought to be mediated by the immune system. Primary brain damage that occurs at the time of injury can be exacerbated and prolonged for months or even years by chronic inflammatory processes, which can ultimately lead to secondary cell death, neurodegeneration, and long-lasting neurological impairment. Researchers have turned to rodent models of TBI in order to understand how inflammatory cells and immunological signaling regulate the post-injury response and recovery mechanisms. In addition, the development of numerous methods to manipulate genes involved in inflammation has recently expanded the possibilities of investigating the immune response in TBI models. As results from these studies accumulate, scientists have started to link cells and signaling pathways to pro- and anti-inflammatory processes that may contribute beneficial or detrimental effects to the injured brain. Moreover, emerging data suggest that targeting aspects of the immune response may offer promising strategies to treat TBI. This review will cover insights gained from studies that approach TBI research from an immunological perspective and will summarize our current understanding of the involvement of specific immune cell types and cytokines in TBI pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia A. McKee
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - John R. Lukens
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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Tanaka S, Takizawa N, Honda Y, Koike T, Oe S, Toyoda H, Kodama T, Yamada H. Hypocretin/orexin loss changes the hypothalamic immune response. Brain Behav Immun 2016; 57:58-67. [PMID: 27318095 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypocretin, also known as orexin, maintains the vigilance state and regulates various physiological processes, such as arousal, sleep, food intake, energy expenditure, and reward. Previously, we found that when wild-type mice and hypocretin/ataxin-3 littermates (which are depleted of hypothalamic hypocretin-expressing neurons postnatally) were administered lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the two genotypes exhibited significant differences in their sleep/wake cycle, including differences in the degree of increase in sleep periods and in recovery from sickness behaviour. In the present study, we examined changes in the hypothalamic vigilance system and in the hypothalamic expression of inflammatory factors in response to LPS in hypocretin/ataxin-3 mice. Peripheral immune challenge with LPS affected the hypothalamic immune response and vigilance states. This response was altered by the loss of hypocretin. Hypocretin expression was inhibited after LPS injection in both hypocretin/ataxin-3 mice and their wild-type littermates, but expression was completely abolished only in hypocretin/ataxin-3 mice. Increases in the number of histidine decarboxylase (HDC)-positive cells and in Hdc mRNA expression were found in hypocretin/ataxin-3 mice, and this increase was suppressed by LPS. Hypocretin loss did not impact the change in expression of hypothalamic inflammatory factors in response to LPS, except for interferon gamma and colony stimulating factor 3. The number of c-Fos-positive/HDC-positive cells in hypocretin/ataxin-3 mice administered LPS injections was elevated, even during the rest period, in all areas, suggesting that there is an increase in the activity of histaminergic neurons in hypocretin/ataxin-3 mice following LPS injection. Taken together, our results suggest a novel role for hypocretin in the hypothalamic response to peripheral immune challenge. Our findings contribute to the understanding of the pathophysiology of narcolepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susumu Tanaka
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Science, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan; SLEEP Disorders Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Nae Takizawa
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Science, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan
| | - Yoshiko Honda
- SLEEP Disorders Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Taro Koike
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Science, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan
| | - Souichi Oe
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Science, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan
| | - Hiromi Toyoda
- SLEEP Disorders Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tohru Kodama
- SLEEP Disorders Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hisao Yamada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Science, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Japan
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