Frequent expression of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-induced gene, EBI3, an IL-12 p40-related cytokine, in Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells

Gut microbiota derived indole-3-acetic acid ameliorates precancerous inflammatory intestinal milieu to inhibit tumorigenesis through IL-35

BACKGROUND

Gut microbiota can significantly alter the risk or progression of cancer by maintaining gut immune system homeostasis. However, the exact mechanism by which the gut microbiota and its metabolites influence colorectal tumorigenesis is unclear.

METHODS

The roles of tryptophan metabolite indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in inflammation and tumor development were investigated in dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) and azoxymethane (AOM)-DSS mouse models with or without IAA supplementation and with or without Lactobacillus reuteri-produced IAA. Pregnane X receptor (PXR) knockout (KO) mice and aryl hydrocarbon receptor KO mice were used to explore the mechanism by which IAA regulates interleukin (IL)-35 expression. IL-35+ immune cells were stimulated in vitro and analyzed by flow cytometry. Additionally, metabolites were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

We found that IAA, a metabolite of tryptophan produced in the gut by L. reuteri, can inhibit the development of colitis by inducing IL-35 expression in immunosuppressant cells. HuREG3αIECtg mice had high levels of intestinal microbiota-derived IAA, and these mice were resistant to AOM-DSS-induced cancer. Patients with colorectal cancer also had low peripheral blood levels of IAA. Further studies revealed that IAA-producing L. reuteri alleviated colitis symptoms and inhibited colon tumors by inducing macrophages, T cells, and B cells to produce IL-35. Finally, PXR KO completely abolished the effects of IAA on immune cells.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate that gut microbiota-derived IAA can improve the precancerous colon inflammatory environment through IL-35, thereby inhibiting tumorigenesis, suggesting that IAA may be a preventive factor for colitis-related cancers.

Human Immune Responses to Epstein-Barr Virus Highlighted by Immunodeficiencies

Inborn errors of immunity (IEIs) represent unique in natura models that uncover key components of immunity in humans, in particular those that predispose to infections. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is one of the most common opportunistic infectious agents in humans and is responsible for several diseases, including infectious mononucleosis, nonmalignant and malignant lymphoproliferative disorders, hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and smooth muscle and epithelial tumors. For most individuals, EBV infection persists for life without pathological consequences. IEIs that do not predispose to EBV infection suggest that innate and humoral responses are not necessary or redundant for the immune response to EBV. IEIs associated with high susceptibility to EBV infection provide unequivocal genetic proof of the central role of CD8+ T cell responses in immunity to EBV. They also highlight the distinct steps and pathways required for, on the one hand, the effector cytotoxic functions of CD8+ T cells and, on the other hand, the expansion and maturation of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells.

Cutting-Edge Therapy and Immune Escape Mechanisms in EBV-Associated Tumors

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), the first identified human tumor virus, significantly influences the immune microenvironment of associated cancers. EBV-induced expression of viral antigens by tumor cells triggers immune recognition and elicits a pro-inflammatory response. While mild inflammation may help eliminate malignant cells, intense inflammation can accelerate tumor progression. Moreover, EBV can establish lifelong latency in human hosts, characterized by low immunogenicity of its proteins and noncoding RNAs. This enables tumor cells to evade immune detection and impair immune cell function, disrupting immune homeostasis. Consequently, EBV-associated malignancies pose a considerable public health challenge globally, often complicating the prognosis of cancer patients under conventional treatment. With deeper research into the oncogenic expressions and mechanisms of EBV, novel targeted therapies against EBV are gaining prominence. This review discusses recent advancements in understanding how EBV helps tumor cells evade immune surveillance and induce immune dysfunction. It also examines the clinical potential of targeting EBV-associated tumors, providing fresh perspectives on the mechanisms and therapeutic strategies for these cancers.

Malignant behaviors and immune response in melanoma: Epstein-Barr virus induced gene 3 as a therapeutic target based on an in-vitro exploration

Background

Epstein-Barr virus induced gene 3 (EBI3), a member of the IL-12 family, is known to be involved in malignant progression in a variety of cancers, but its role in melanoma is unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the effects of EBI3 on the malignant phenotype melanoma to reveal its potential as a therapeutic target.

Methods

In this study, we used bioinformatics to analyze the expression of EBI3 in pan-cancer and verified its expression level in melanoma cells by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Subsequently, the effects of EBI3 knockdown on cell proliferation, migration and invasion were detected using the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and Transwell assays. Changes in immune-related cytokines were detected by ELISA, and macrophage polarization was observed using immunofluorescence. Finally, the phosphorylation levels of signaling pathways such as Smad3, STAT6 and cGAS-STING were analyzed by Western blot.

Results

EBI3 was evidently highly-expressed in melanoma, and silencing of EBI3 could visibly suppress the survival and migration/invasion of melanoma cells, concurrent with the increased levels of BAX and CDH1 and the decreased expressions of BCL2 and CDH2. Meanwhile, EBI3 knockdown diminished the phosphorylation levels of both Smad3 and STAT6 and the levels of immune response-relevant cytokines in melanoma cells, while aggravating the macrophage M1 polarization and the expression of cGAS, p-STING and p-IRE1 α in THP-1 monocyte-derived macrophages co-cultured with EBI3-silenced melanoma cells.

Conclusion

This study filled the blank on the involvement of EBI3 in melanoma, hinting the possibility of controlling EBI3 as a therapeutic strategy in the management of melanoma.

Role of IL-27 in Epstein-Barr virus infection revealed by IL-27RA deficiency

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection can engender severe B cell lymphoproliferative diseases1,2. The primary infection is often asymptomatic or causes infectious mononucleosis (IM), a self-limiting lymphoproliferative disorder3. Selective vulnerability to EBV has been reported in association with inherited mutations impairing T cell immunity to EBV4. Here we report biallelic loss-of-function variants in IL27RA that underlie an acute and severe primary EBV infection with a nevertheless favourable outcome requiring a minimal treatment. One mutant allele (rs201107107) was enriched in the Finnish population (minor allele frequency = 0.0068) and carried a high risk of severe infectious mononucleosis when homozygous. IL27RA encodes the IL-27 receptor alpha subunit5,6. In the absence of IL-27RA, phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT3 by IL-27 is abolished in T cells. In in vitro studies, IL-27 exerts a synergistic effect on T-cell-receptor-dependent T cell proliferation7 that is deficient in cells from the patients, leading to impaired expansion of potent anti-EBV effector cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. IL-27 is produced by EBV-infected B lymphocytes and an IL-27RA-IL-27 autocrine loop is required for the maintenance of EBV-transformed B cells. This potentially explains the eventual favourable outcome of the EBV-induced viral disease in patients with IL-27RA deficiency. Furthermore, we identified neutralizing anti-IL-27 autoantibodies in most individuals who developed sporadic infectious mononucleosis and chronic EBV infection. These results demonstrate the critical role of IL-27RA-IL-27 in immunity to EBV, but also the hijacking of this defence by EBV to promote the expansion of infected transformed B cells.

Gut microbiota CLA and IL-35 induction in macrophages through Gαq/11-mediated STAT1/4 pathway: an animal-based study

Gut microbiota/metabolites not only participate in the food and energy metabolism but also contribute to the host immune response and homeostasis. The alternation of gut microbiota/metabolites has been widely related to intestinal and extra-intestinal disorders such as intestinal bowel diseases (IBDs). Bactericidal substances from gut epithelial cells can regulate the composition of gut microbiota. However, the effects of regenerating protein 4 (REG4) (human)/(Reg4) (mice), a potentially bactericidal substance from gut epithelial cells, on the gut immune homeostasis maintain elusive. Here, we found that REG4/Reg4 is essential in maintaining gut immune homeostasis through REG4/Reg4 associated gut microbiota. Reg4 knockout (KO) mice were highly sensitive to DSS-mediated colitis, whereas human REG4 intestine epithelial cell transgenic (huREG4IECtg) mice exhibited more resistance to DSS-mediated colitis. Mechanistically, sequencing of gut microbiota and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that REG4/Reg4 could affect the composition of gut microbiota. REG4/Reg4 associated gut microbiota such as Lactobacillus could metabolize linoleic acid (LA) into conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Immunoprecipitation and immunoblot showed that CLA could effectively promote the expression of IL-35 in macrophages through Gαq/11 mediated activation STAT1/4. Thus, our results demonstrate that REG4/Reg4 plays a critical role in maintaining gut immune homeostasis through CLA-mediated IL-35+ macrophages.

Elevated Plasma Interleukin-35 as a Prognostic Indicator in Localized Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma

Purpose

The aim of the study is to investigate the prognostic value of plasma interleukin-35 in the surgical treatment of patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). Material and Methods. Plasma IL-35 levels were measured in patients with ccRCC. The cut-off value of IL-35 was determined by the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis and the area under the curve (AUC). The effects of the IL-35 and other clinicopathological characteristics on overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) were evaluated using the univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis.

Result

Sixty-four ccRCC patients admitted to the urology department at the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University were selected, of whom 50 were diagnosed with localized ccRCC. Plasma interleukin-35 levels were significantly higher in patients with ccRCC than that in healthy controls. The cut-off value of IL-35 was 99.7 pg/mL. Multivariate analysis selected by univariate analyses demonstrated that the preoperative IL-35 was an independent prognostic factor for 5-year OS (OR: 1.02, 95% CI: 1.01 to 1.04, p < 0.0001) and 5-year PFS (OR: 1.02, 95% CI: 1.00 to 1.03, p=0.011) in all patients with localized ccRCC.

Conclusion

Current results indicate that preoperative IL-35 is an independent prognostic marker for OS and RFS in patients with localized ccRCC after surgery.

Regulation of the Immune Checkpoint Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase Expression by Epstein-Barr Virus

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an oncovirus ubiquitously distributed and associated with different types of cancer. The reason why only a group of infected people develop cancer is still unknown. EBV-associated cancers represent about 1.8% of all cancer deaths worldwide, with more than 150,000 new cases of cancer being reported annually. Since EBV-associated cancers are described as more aggressive and more resistant to the usual treatment compared to EBV-negative ones, the recent introduction of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting immune checkpoints (ICs) in the treatment of cancer patients represents a possible therapy for EBV-associated diseases. However, the current mAb therapies available still need improvement, since a group of patients do not respond well to treatment. Therefore, the main objective of this review is to summarize the progress made regarding the contribution of EBV infection to the expression of the IC indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) thus far. This IC has the potential to be used as a target in new immune therapies, such as mAbs. We hope that this work helps the development of future immunotherapies, improving the prognosis of EBV-associated cancer patients.

Fermented food Tempeh induces interleukin 12 and enhances macrophage phagocytosis

It is known that lactic acid bacteria induce the IL-12. The IL-12 activates NK cells and promotes the production of IFN-γ. The IFN-γ activates macrophages resulting in enhanced phagocytosis and bactericidal activity. We have been investigating fermented foods that activate the immune function. In this study, we investigated the IL-12 inducibility of fermented foods using the specific antibody. Fermented soybean foods such as Tempeh and Natto are attracting attention in terms of nutrition, functionality, and food problems. In this study, Tempeh induced 1,080 µg/ml of IL-12, and IFN-γ associated with the induction of IL-12 was also induced at 682 µg/ml. This was more than twice the induced intensity of PBS. On the contrary, Natto hardly induced IL-12 and IFN-γ. Tempeh also accelerated phagocytosis of the macrophage THP-1 cells. In this study, it was found that the fermented soybean-derived food, Tempeh, has a function of activating the immune function. This is the first report that Tempeh activates innate immunity. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Tempeh, a fermented soybean food induced the IL-12 and IFN-γ production and the increase of macrophage phagocytosis in this study suggested a new function to enhance immunity. Tempeh is also expected to be effective in preventing lifestyle diseases. Fermented soybean products of Tempeh was considered to be a very useful health food for the problems of modern society such as maintaining health by eating, improving immunity, and ingesting vegetable protein due to diversifying food.

Engineered exosomes delivering specific tumor-suppressive RNAi attenuate oral cancer progression

Exosomes are involved in a wide range of biological processes in human cells. Considerable evidence suggests that engineered exosomes (eExosomes) containing therapeutic agents can attenuate the oncogenic activity of human cancer cells. Despite its biomedical relevance, no information has been available for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), and therefore the development of specific OSCC-targeting eExosomes (octExosomes) is urgently needed. We demonstrated that exosomes from normal fibroblasts transfected with Epstein-Barr Virus Induced-3 (EBI3) cDNA were electroporated with siRNA of lymphocyte cytoplasmic protein 1 (LCP1), as octExosomes, and a series of experiments were performed to evaluate the loading specificity/effectiveness and their anti-oral cancer cell activities after administration of octExosomes. These experiments revealed that octExosomes were stable, effective for transferring siLCP1 into OSCC cells and LCP1 was downregulated in OSCC cells with octExosomes as compared with their counterparts, leading to a significant tumor-suppressive effect in vitro and in vivo. Here we report the development of a new valuable tool for inhibiting tumor cells. By engineering exosomes, siLCP1 was transferred to specifically suppress oncogenic activity of OSCC cells. Inhibition of other types of human malignant cells merits further study.

Interleukin-35 promotes the differentiation of regulatory T cells and suppresses Th2 response in IgG4-related type 1 autoimmune pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

IgG4-related disease (IgG4-RD) is a systemic inflammatory disease, which includes type 1 autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP). Interleukin-35 (IL-35) exhibits immunosuppressive effects in several autoimmune diseases. However, the expression of IL-35 had not been reported so far in type 1 AIP. We evaluated the association between IL-35 and several cytokines, which mediate the function of Tregs in type 1 AIP.

METHODS

Plasma was collected from patients with type 1 AIP, alcoholic chronic pancreatitis (ACP), and healthy controls (HC) and assayed for cytokine expression. Total mRNA separated from peripheral blood was isolated from naïve Tregs (nTregs) and effector Tregs (eTregs). EBI3 and IL-12p35 gene expressions were tested in these cells by quantitative PCR. In addition, expression of IL-35 subunits in the pancreatic tissues of patients with type 1 AIP and ACP was analyzed by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

IL-35 was significantly elevated in type 1 AIP (n = 32) plasma compared with ACP (n = 16) and HC (n = 22), but IL-27 was not. We also detected many cells expressing both EBI3 and IL-12p35 in type 1 AIP tissues. Moreover, in peripheral blood lymphocyte, the percentage of nTregs and eTregs of CD4⁺ T cells in patients with type 1 AIP (n = 14) compared with HC (n = 15) was significantly decreased and increased, respectively. There were no significant differences of gene expression in patients with type 1 AIP and HC.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified elevated expression of plasma IL-35 and tissue IL-35 subunits in patients with type 1 AIP. This might lead to inflammation suppression via activated eTregs. IL-35 might be associated with this anti-inflammatory role, especially against the Th2 response through several cytokines and the differentiation of Tregs in type 1 AIP.

Interleukin 39: a new member of interleukin 12 family

Interleukin (IL)-12 family member is a heterodimer glycoprotein, composed of two covalently linked subunits, α and β chains. The α subunit consists of IL-23p19, IL-27p28, and IL-12p35, and the β subunit includes IL-12p40 and Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene (Ebi3). IL-39 is a new heterodimeric IL-12 family member composed of IL-23p19 and Ebi3 subunits. IL-39 is secreted by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated B cells. Other immune cells, such as dendritic cells and macrophages, express IL-39 mRNA. In lupus-like mice, GL7⁺B cells and CD138⁺plasma cells are highly activated and widely expressed, promoting high expression of IL-39. IL-39 mediates inflammatory responses through binding to a heterodimer of IL-23R/gp130 receptor and activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)1/STAT3 signal molecules. The serum levels of IL-39 were significantly increased in patients with acute coronary syndrome compared with patients with normal coronary arteries. This review discusses the biological characteristics, receptor, and signal pathway as well as biological activity of IL-39 and its potential role in inflammation and other diseases.

IL-35 and IL-18 Serum Levels in Children With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: The Relationship With Prognostic Factors

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of cancer among children. In this study, we investigated the serum levels of interleukin (IL)-35 and IL-18 in children with ALL to compare with healthy subjects and find their relationship with prognostic factors and response to therapy. IL-35 and IL-18 serum concentrations in 40 children diagnosed with ALL and 35 age-matched and sex-matched healthy children were measured using ELISA. The association between cytokine levels and patients' clinical and laboratory data were determined. A significant difference was found in IL-35 serum levels between the patients (3.6±1.5 ng/mL) and controls (2.5±1.8 ng/mL) (P=0.007). No significant difference in IL-18 serum levels between these groups was observed. A positive correlation between IL-35 and IL-18 levels was detected (P=0.001). The authors found that patients with lower platelet count had higher IL-35 concentration (P=0.003). By considering a cut-off value of 6.21 ng/mL (mean±2SD of controls) for IL-35, it was found that white blood cell (WBC) count was higher in patients with IL-35 >6.21 ng/mL (P=0.016), and the majority of these patients had T-ALL (P=0.01). Although the mean overall survival in patients with IL-35 >6.21 ng/mL was shorter (937±381 d) than in those with IL-35 ≤6.21 ng/mL (1567±103 d), but the result was not significant (P=0.1, log-rank test). The IL-18 level was associated with a lower hemoglobin level (P=0.027). These data suggested a role for IL-35 in ALL development. The significant relation of IL-35 to white blood cells and platelet counts may imply a possible influence of IL-35 on ALL prognosis.

Decoding the Role of Interleukin-30 in the Crosstalk Between Cancer and Myeloid Cells

In the last few years, a new actor hit the scene of the tumor microenvironment, the p28 subunit of interleukin (IL)-27, known as IL-30. Its molecular structure allows it to function as an autonomous cytokine and, alternatively, to pair with other subunits to form heterodimeric complexes and enables it to play different, and not fully elucidated, roles in immunity. However, data from the experimental models and clinical samples, suggest IL-30′s engagement in the relationship between cancer and myeloid cells, which fosters the tumor microenvironment and the cancer stem cell niche, boosting the disease progression. Activated myeloid cells are the primary cellular source and one of the targets of IL-30, which can also be produced by cancer cells, especially, in aggressive tumors, as observed in the breast and prostate. This review briefly reports on the immunobiology of IL-30 and related cytokines, by comparing mouse and human counterparts, and then focuses on the mechanisms whereby IL-30 amplifies intratumoral myeloid cell infiltrate and triggers a vicious cycle that worsens immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and constitutes a real threat for a successful immunotherapeutic strategy.

Interleukin-35 Regulates Immune Microenvironment of Autoimmune Hepatitis Through Inducing the Expansion of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells

Interleukin-35 (IL-35) is a novel anti-inflammatory cytokine of IL12 cytokine family, however, the role of IL-35 in patients with AIH and its effect on myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) has not yet been analyzed. The expression of IL-35 subunits (p35 and EBI3) in liver tissues was quantified by immunochemistry and its correlation with clinical parameters was explored in patients with AIH. The expression of MDSCs and IL-35 receptor (gp130 and IL-12Rβ2) were analyzed using flow cytometry and confocal staining. Besides, we utilized in vitro culture to explore the role of IL-35 on MDSCs expansion and activation. We found that the elevated expression of both IL-35 subunits (EBI3 and p35) in liver tissue was positively associated with degrees of hepatic inflammatory and fibrosis in patients with AIH. Furthermore, the expression of EBI3 in liver was positively correlated with patient age, serum IgG levels and serum AST, and was negatively correlated with hemoglobin and albumin. Moreover, our results showed that ratio of MDSC in peripheral blood increased significantly in AIH patients as compared with healthy controls. Further study showed that CD33, a representative marker of MDSCs, co-localized well with gp130 and IL12Rβ2, suggesting MDSCs as target cell for IL-35. Consistently, MDSCs from AIH displayed a substantial higher abundance of gp130 and IL12Rβ2 and were expanded by IL-35 in vitro. IL-35-induced MDSCs showed a significant increase in Nitric oxide (NO) production but not reactive oxygen species (ROS). Conclusions: IL-35 might play an important role in AIH by regulating MDSCs and it could provide new insights into the therapy of AIH.

Expression of A New Endogenous Retrovirus-Associated Transcript in Hodgkin Lymphoma Cells

During characterization of a cDNA library from the Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) cell line L-1236, we discovered a new transcript derived from chromosome 1 at the long intergenic non-protein coding RNA 1768 (LINC01768)/colony stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) region. The first exon of this transcript from Hodgkin lymphoma cells (THOLE) starts in the predicted exon 4 of LINC01768 and is part of an endogenous retrovirus (ERV) from the HUERS-P1/LTR8 family. High expression of THOLE was only detectable in HL cell line L-1236. The expression of THOLE in L-1236 cell is another example for ERV/LTR-associated gene expression in HL cells. At the genome level, the HUERS-P1/LTR8 region including THOLE is only present in Hominoidea. The influence of ERV/LTRs on gene expression might explain the characteristic phenotype of human HL.

Interleukin 30 to Interleukin 40

Cytokines are important molecules that regulate the ontogeny and function of the immune system. They are small secreted proteins usually produced upon activation of cells of the immune system, including lymphocytes and myeloid cells. Many cytokines have been described, and several have been recognized as pivotal players in immune responses and in human disease. In fact, several anticytokine antibodies have proven effective therapeutics, especially in various autoimmune diseases. In the last 15 years, new cytokines have been described, and many remain poorly understood. Among the most recent cytokines discovered are interleukins-30 (IL-30) to IL-40. Several of these are members of other cytokine superfamilies, including several IL-1 superfamily members (IL-33, IL-36, IL-37, and IL-38) as well as several new members of the IL-12 family (IL-30, IL-35, and IL-39). The rest (IL-31, IL-32, IL-34, and IL-40) are encoded by genes that do not belong to any cytokine superfamily. Our aim of this review was to present a concise version of the information available on these novel cytokines to facilitate their understanding by members of the immunological community.

IL-27, IL-30, and IL-35: A Cytokine Triumvirate in Cancer

The role of the immune system in anti-tumor immunity cannot be overstated, as it holds the potential to promote tumor eradication or prevent tumor cell escape. Cytokines are critical to influencing the immune responses and interactions with non-immune cells. Recently, the IL-12 and IL-6 family of cytokines have accumulated newly defined members each with specific immune functions related to various cancers and tumorigenesis. There is a need to better understand how cytokines like IL-27, IL-30, and IL-35 interact with one another, and how a developing tumor can exploit these interactions to enhance immune suppression. Current cytokine-based immunotherapies are associated with cytotoxic side effects which limits the success of treatment. In addition to this toxicity, understanding the complex interactions between immune and cancer cells may be one of the greatest challenges to developing a successful immunotherapy. In this review, we bring forth IL-27, IL-30, and IL-35, “sister cytokines,” along with more recent additions to the IL-12 family, which serve distinct purposes despite sharing structural similarities. We highlight how these cytokines function in the tumor microenvironment by examining their direct effects on cancer cells as well their indirect actions via regulatory functions of immune cells that act to either instigate or inhibit tumor progression. Understanding the context dependent immunomodulatory outcomes of these sister cytokines, as well as their regulation within the tumor microenvironment, may shed light onto novel cancer therapeutic treatments or targets.

Evidence for IL-35 Expression in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma and Impact on the Patient's Prognosis

IL-35 is an immunosuppressive cytokine of the IL-12 family consisting of two subunits, EBV-induced gene 3 (EBI3) and p35. It has been shown to play a pro-tumor role in murine tumor models, and in various types of human cancer such as colorectal, pancreatic, or liver carcinoma, its expression has been associated with a worse clinical outcome. Here, we show by analyzing gene expression data from public databases and by immunohistochemical studies that IL-35 is overexpressed by tumor cells in diffuse-large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) compared to another type of mature aggressive B-cell lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma. However, while high IL-35 expression was significantly associated with a worse overall survival in DLBCL patients treated with chemotherapy only (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone, CHOP), no significant correlation between IL-35 expression levels and the patient outcome was observed in DLBCL patients treated with CHOP combined to rituximab (R-CHOP), the current conventional treatment. In addition, we found that an anti-IL-35 antibody, clone 15k8D10, used to assess IL-35 expression by immunohistochemistry in various human tissues including tumors does not recognize IL-35 heterodimer, nor its individual subunits EBI3 and p35, but cross-reacts with human IgG1, indicating that IL-35 expression in human cancers needs to be re-evaluated.

Interleukin-35 as an Emerging Player in Tumor Microenvironment

IL-35 is the newest member of IL-12 family. A dimeric protein consisting of two separate subunits has manifested suppressive actions on immune system, which is counterproductive in the context of cancers. Various reports have confirmed its inhibitory role on immune system which is carried out via formation of IL-35-producing regulatory T cells (iTr35), increased Treg development and suppressive Th17 cells growth. Although last decade has seen a great deal of scientific interest on this subject, the exact role, precise signal transduction and elaborative functions of IL-35 in tumor microenvironment (TME) remained elusive. Search for anti-IL-35 therapies have exhibited limited success in animal models. Contrarily, few studies have denied the idea that IL-35 plays a role in cancer. The purpose of this review is to analyze the reported scientific data on continuous symphony of IL-35 in cancers since the inception of former.

Aberrant IL-35 levels in patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome

OBJECTIVE

IL-35 is a newly discovered immunoregulatory cytokine that possesses the ability to inhibit CD4 + effector T cells and alleviate autoimmune diseases. The objective of this study was to investigate IL-35 levels in patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome (pSS) and explore the roles of IL-35 in the pathogenesis of pSS.

METHODS

Thirty-four hospitalized patients with pSS were recruited, and 34 volunteers were enrolled as healthy controls. An ELISA was adopted to measure plasma IL-35 levels. The levels of P35 and EBI3 mRNAs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were determined using real-time quantitative PCR. The percentage of CD4 + EBI3 + T cells and CD19 + EBI3 + B cells was analysed using flow cytometry. Correlations between IL-35 levels, P35 and EBI3 mRNAs, numbers of CD4 + EBI3 + T cells, CD19 + EBI3 + B cells and clinical parameters were analysed.

RESULTS

Significantly lower plasma IL-35 levels, P35 and EBI3 mRNA levels, and percentages of CD4 + EBI3 + T cells but increased percentages of CD19 + EBI3 + B cells were observed in patients with pSS than in healthy controls. IL-35 levels, EBI3 mRNA expression and the percentage of CD4 + EBI3 + T cells exhibited negative correlations with the ESSDAI score, whereas levels of the IL-35 protein and EBI3 mRNA were negatively correlated with the ESR. Patients who were positive for anti-SSB antibodies presented with lower IL-35 levels and percentages of CD4 + EBI3 + T cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these results, a decrease in the IL-35 levels may play an important role in the pathogenesis of pSS. IL-35 may act as a potential therapeutic agent against inflammation in patients with pSS.

IL35 Hinders Endogenous Antitumor T-cell Immunity and Responsiveness to Immunotherapy in Pancreatic Cancer

Although successes in cancer immunotherapy have generated considerable excitement, this form of treatment has been largely ineffective in patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA). Mechanisms that contribute to the poor antitumor immune response in PDA are not well understood. Here, we demonstrated that cytokine IL35 is a major immunosuppressive driver in PDA and potentiates tumor growth via the suppression of endogenous antitumor T-cell responses. The growth of pancreatic tumors in mice deficient for IL35 was significantly reduced. An analysis of tumor-infiltrating immune cells revealed a role for IL35 in the expansion of regulatory T cells and the suppression of CD4⁺ effector T cells. We also detected a robust increase in both the infiltration and activation of cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells, suggesting that targeting IL35 may be an effective strategy to convert PDA from an immunologically "cold" to "hot" tumor. Although PDA is typically resistant to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy, we demonstrated robust synergistic reduction in tumor growth when IL35 deficiency was combined with anti-PD-1 treatment. These findings provide new insight into the function of IL35 in the pathogenesis of pancreatic cancer and underscore the potential significance of IL35 as a therapeutic target for use in combination immunotherapy approaches in this deadly malignancy. Cancer Immunol Res; 6(9); 1014-24. ©2018 AACR.

Interleukin-35 on B cell and T cell induction and regulation

Interleukin (IL)-35 is a relatively newly discovered member of IL-12 cytokine family that is unique in that it is a dimer formed by two subunits. The review documents the structure, secretion and signal transduction of IL-35, the regulation effect of IL-35 on B cells and T cells as well as the adoptive transfer of IL-35+ regulatory B cells (Breg), therapeutic prospects of recombinant IL-35 (rIL-35) and IL-35 regulation role in various diseases. B-cell regulation expands the regulatory range of IL-35 and alters the view that IL-10 is the chief immune mechanism for Breg cells which secrete IL-35. IL-35 induces Breg cells, which then can induce Treg cells. IL-35 also plays an immunomodulatory role in the human body.

Interleukin-35 as a predictor of prostate cancer in patients undergoing initial prostate biopsy

Background

Interleukin (IL)-35 is a novel inhibitory cytokine and has recently been implicated in tumor immunity. However, the role of IL-35 in prostate cancer (PCa) has not been elucidated.

Objective

To evaluate the role of plasma IL-35 in the diagnosis and prognosis of PCa in Chinese patients undergoing initial prostate biopsy.

Materials and methods

Using ELISA, plasma IL-35 levels were measured in 180 patients, who underwent a prostate biopsy. The clinical correlation of IL-35 with clinicopathological parameters was also evaluated. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis were performed to establish the role of IL-35 as a clinical biomarker.

Results

Seventy-five (41.6%) of patients were histopathologically confirmed to have PCa. Plasma IL-35 levels were significantly higher in PCa patients (134.48±78.48 pg/mL) compared to non-PCa patients (67.22±24.08 pg/mL). ROC analysis showed that IL-35 was an independent predictor of PCa. Furthermore, IL-35 was found to be a significantly independent predictor of PCa in a group of patients with prostate-specific antigen levels between 4 and 10 ng/mL; was also able to predict advanced PCa from localized PCa and bone metastasis positive PCa from negative PCa.

Conclusion

Our data suggest for the first time that plasma IL-35 levels are correlated with PCa and is the independent predictor of PCa progression and metastasis. Thus, IL-35 could be utilized as a potential biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis of PCa, could also aid in decision making and predict the stage of the disease.

Significant reduction of peripheral blood interleukin-35 and CD4+EBI3+ T cells, which are negatively correlated with an increase in the plasma IL-17 and cTnI level, in viral myocarditis patients

Introduction

Viral myocarditis (VMC) has become an increasingly common heart disease that endangers human health. In the present study, the plasma interleukin-35 (IL-35) level and the percentage of CD4⁺EBI3⁺ T cells in VMC patients were detected to investigate the significance of changes in these parameters in the plasma of VMC patients and their association with the disease.

Material and methods

ELISA was performed to detect the plasma IL-35 level and the percentage of peripheral blood CD4⁺EBI3⁺ T cells in 40 VMC patients and in 20 healthy individuals. Moreover, the plasma IL-17 levels in the VMC patients and in the healthy individuals were detected using an ELISA, and the cardiac Troponin-I (cTnI) levels were detected using a chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay to compare the differences in the groups.

Results

Plasma IL-35 level and the percentage of CD4⁺EBI3⁺ T cells in acute phase VMC patients was lower than that in the healthy control group and the convalescent phase VMC patients. Additionally, the plasma IL-35 level in the VMC patients exhibited a negative correlation with the levels of cTnI and IL-17. The percentage of CD4⁺EBI3⁺ T cells also showed a negative correlation with the levels of cTnI and IL-17.

Conclusions

The plasma IL-35 level and the percentage of CD4⁺EBI3⁺ T cells in VMC patients was reduced, and the amount of the decrease was associated with the severity of the disease. These results suggest that IL-35 and CD4⁺EBI3⁺ T might play important roles in the progression of VMC and could be used as indictors of the disease.

IL-35 expression is increased in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma and in the peripheral blood of patients

Interleukin-35 (IL-35) has been proposed as a novel immune-suppressing cytokine. However, the function of IL-35 in malignant diseases is yet to be elucidated. The present study investigated IL-35 expression levels in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) tissues and the peripheral blood of patients to explore the potential involvement of IL-35 in LSCC progression. In the present study, IL-35 expression levels in tissues and peripheral blood were analyzed by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The association between IL-35 expression levels and clinical characteristics was also evaluated. The present results demonstrated that IL-35 expression in tumor tissues was significantly higher than in adjacent normal tissues, and a significant association between IL-35 expression levels in tissues and the tumor site was detected. Furthermore, the expression of IL-35 in the peripheral blood of patients was significantly decreased subsequent to tumor resection. No correlation between peripheral blood IL-35 expression and clinical characteristics was detected. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that IL-35 is highly expressed in LSCC tissues and in the peripheral blood of patients with LSCC. There was a notable, significant reduction of peripheral blood IL-35 expression following surgical resection of tumors. These results may be useful for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes in patients with LSCC.

Interleukin-35-Producing CD8α+ Dendritic Cells Acquire a Tolerogenic State and Regulate T Cell Function

Dendritic cells (DCs) play a central role in shaping immunogenic as well as tolerogenic adaptive immune responses and thereby dictate the outcome of adaptive immunity. Here, we report the generation of a CD8α⁺ DC line constitutively secreting the tolerogenic cytokine interleukin (IL)-35. IL-35 secretion led to impaired CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocyte proliferation and interfered with their function in vitro and also in vivo. IL-35 was furthermore found to induce a tolerogenic phenotype on CD8α⁺ DCs, characterized by the upregulation of CD11b, downregulation of MHC class II, a reduced costimulatory potential as well as production of the immunomodulatory molecule IL-10. Vaccination of mice with IL-35-expressing DCs promoted tumor growth and reduced the severity of autoimmune encephalitis not only in a preventive but also after induction of encephalitogenic T cells. The reduction in experimental autoimmune encephalitis severity was significantly more pronounced when antigen-pulsed IL-35⁺ DCs were used. These findings suggest a new, indirect effector mechanism by which IL-35-responding antigen-presenting cells contribute to immune tolerance. Furthermore, IL-35-transfected DCs may be a promising approach for immunotherapy in the context of autoimmune diseases.

Tumour-derived Interleukin 35 promotes pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell extravasation and metastasis by inducing ICAM1 expression

Interleukin 35 (IL-35) is a novel member of the IL-12 family, consisting of an EBV-induced gene 3 (EBI3) subunit and a P35 subunit. IL-35 is an immune-suppressive cytokine mainly produced by regulatory T cells. However, the role of IL-35 in cancer metastasis and progression is not well understood. Here we demonstrate that IL-35 is overexpressed in human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) tissues, and that IL-35 overexpression is associated with poor prognosis in PDAC patients. IL-35 has critical roles in PDAC cell extravasation and metastasis by facilitating the adhesion to endothelial cells and transendothelial extravasation. Mechanistically, IL-35 promotes ICAM1 overexpression through a GP130-STAT1 signalling pathway, which facilitates endothelial adhesion and transendothelial migration via an ICAM1-fibrinogen-ICAM1 bridge. In an orthotopic xenograft model, IL-35 promotes spontaneous pancreatic cancer metastasis in an ICAM1-dependent manner. Together, our results indicate additional functions of IL-35 in promoting PDAC metastasis through mediating ICAM1 expression.

Prognostic Biomarkers for Hodgkin Lymphoma

The prognosis of patients with classical Hodgkin lymphoma following chemo- and radiotherapy has been excellent during the last 4 decades. However, the development of secondary malignancies is of major concern. Therefore, the reduction of radiotherapy application is a major objective of ongoing clinical trials. De-escalation of treatment may increase the risk of relapses and thus may lead to reappearance of prognostic factors. Prognostic biomarkers might help to identify patients who are at increased risk of relapse. This review summarizes the current knowledge about potential prognostic biomarkers for patients with classical Hodgkin lymphoma.

Molecular Pathways: Interleukin-35 in Autoimmunity and Cancer

Immunosuppressive functions conferred by regulatory cytokines are important for maintaining homeostasis in immune responses. IL35 has recently emerged as a novel regulator of immune responses. Once thought to be specifically expressed by T regulatory cells, induction of IL35 expression has now been detected in multiple cell types in a variety of diseases, prompting research into regulation of its expression, signaling specificity, target cell populations, and functional outputs. Recent studies have revealed that by directing de novo generation of regulatory T and B cells and inhibiting T effector responses, IL35 plays an important role in the development of autoimmune diseases and cancer. IL35 is overexpressed in a variety of cancers and may exert its function both on antitumor immune responses as well as directly on tumor cells. As such, IL35 is rapidly emerging as a promising biomarker and an attractive cancer therapy target. Clin Cancer Res; 22(20); 4973-8. ©2016 AACR.

Epstein-Barr Virus-Induced Gene 3 (EBI3) Blocking Leads to Induce Antitumor Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Response and Suppress Tumor Growth in Colorectal Cancer by Bidirectional Reciprocal-Regulation STAT3 Signaling Pathway

Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3 (EBI3) is a member of the interleukin-12 (IL-12) family structural subunit and can form a heterodimer with IL-27p28 and IL-12p35 subunit to build IL-27 and IL-35, respectively. However, IL-27 stimulates whereas IL-35 inhibits antitumor T cell responses. To date, little is known about the role of EBI3 in tumor microenvironment. In this study, firstly we assessed EBI3, IL-27p28, IL-12p35, gp130, and p-STAT3 expression with clinicopathological parameters of colorectal cancer (CRC) tissues; then we evaluated the antitumor T cell responses and tumor growth with a EBI3 blocking peptide. We found that elevated EBI3 may be associated with IL-12p35, gp130, and p-STAT3 to promote CRC progression. EBI3 blocking peptide promoted antitumor cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response by inducing Granzyme B, IFN-γ production, and p-STAT3 expression and inhibited CRC cell proliferation and tumor growth to associate with suppressing gp130 and p-STAT3 expression. Taken together, these results suggest that EBI3 may mediate a bidirectional reciprocal-regulation STAT3 signaling pathway to assist the tumor escape immune surveillance in CRC.

IL-35 over-expression is associated with genesis of gastric cancer

Overexpression of interleukin (IL)-35 has been found in a variety of malignancies, but the expression status in gastric cancer has yet to be elucidated clearly. In the present study, positive expression of EBI3 and p35 was 63.3% and 70.0% of cases, respectively. EBI3 expression was strongly related with larger tumor size and invasion depth (P<0.05). Similarly, expression of p35 was also correlated with larger tumor size (P<0.05). These results indicate that IL-35 might be involved in growth of gastric cancer. Interestingly, EBI3 and p35 expressions were positive correlated with Ki-67 expression. Moreover, EBI3 immunoreactivity was associated with Bcl-2 staining. Our data suggest IL-35 is correlated with genesis of gastric cancer by regulating growth and apoptosis.

Expression of Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3 in cervical cancer: Association with clinicopathological parameters and prognosis

Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3 (EBI3) encodes a secretory glycoprotein, and has previously been identified as upregulated in a series of cancers. However, the clinical significance of EBI3 in cervical cancer and the potential of EBI3 as a therapeutic target for this disease have not been elucidated. In the present study, EBI3 expression was analyzed by immunohistochemistry in 90 clinicopathologically characterized cervical cancer tissue samples. The association between EBI3 expression and survival of patients with cervical cancer was also analyzed. The expression level of EBI3 in cervical cancer tissues was found to be significantly increased compared with the expression levels in the normal squamous epithelium. In addition, EBI3 expression was significantly correlated with the clinical stage and size of tumors (P<0.05). Furthermore, the presence of EBI3 expression was associated with a poor prognosis compared with patients without EBI3 expression. Multivariate analysis revealed that EBI3 expression was an independent predictor of overall survival (hazard ratio, 4.032; 95% confidence interval, 1.538-7.436; P=0.035). To the best of our knowledge, the present results indicate for the first time that EBI3 expression is significantly associated with the progression and poor prognosis of cervical cancer. EBI3 may be a potential prognostic marker and a therapeutic target in cervical cancer.

Interleukin-35 is upregulated in systemic sclerosis and its serum levels are associated with early disease

OBJECTIVES

IL-35 is a member of the IL-12 family consisting of p35/IL-12a and EBI3/IL-27b subunits. IL-35 exerts immunomodulatory activities in experimental and human autoimmune inflammatory conditions. Our aim was to assess IL-35 expression in the skin and circulation of SSc patients and to characterize its potential association with SSc-related features.

METHODS

Expression of IL-35 in skin and dermal fibroblasts was quantified by quantitative PCR, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. Serum levels of IL-35 (by ELISA), CRP (by turbidimetry), ANA (by immunofluorescence) and autoantibodies of the ENA complex (by immunoblot) were measured in 40 SSc patients. Serum IL-35 was determined in 40 age- and sex-matched healthy controls.

RESULTS

IL-35 expression was increased in SSc skin and dermal fibroblasts in a TGF-β-dependent manner. IL-35 induced an activated phenotype in resting fibroblasts and enhanced the release of collagen. IL-35 serum levels were increased in patients with SSc compared with healthy controls [median 83.9 (interquartile range 45.1-146.1) vs 36.2 (interquartile range 17.2-49.4) pg/ml, P < 0.0001]. Serum IL-35 was negatively correlated with disease duration (r = -0.4339, P = 0.0052). In line with this finding, serum IL-35 was increased in patients with an early SSc pattern on capillaroscopy assessment compared with those with active and late SSc patterns.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates overexpression of IL-35 in SSc skin, dermal fibroblasts and serum. TGF-β induces IL-35, which in turn activates resting fibroblasts and enhances the release of collagen, thereby contributing to aberrant TGF-β signalling in SSc. Increased serum IL-35 is associated with early, inflammatory stages of SSc.

Interleukin 35 is an independent prognostic factor and a therapeutic target for nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Aim of the study

Interleukin (IL)-35 is composed of two subunits: Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 3 (EBI3) and IL-12p35. Recently, overexpression of IL-35 has been found in several types of cancers. However, its clinical significance in nasopharyngeal carcinoma is still obscure. We have studied the clinical significance of IL-35 expression and its correlation with outcome of nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients.

Material and methods

Interleukin 35 expression was investigated in 80 nasopharyngeal carcinoma cases by immunohistochemistry. Moreover, Fisher's exact test, Kaplan-Meier plots, and Cox proportional hazards regression were utilized to analyse these results.

Results

In the present study, IL-35 is highly expressed in the majority of nasopharyngeal carcinoma samples. EBI3 and p35 immunoreactivity in nasopharyngeal carcinoma samples was 67.5% and 51.3%, respectively. Both EBI3 and p35 expressions were significantly associated with advancement of tumour stage. In addition, EBI3 expression was also correlated with lymph node metastasis. Further analysis showed that EBI3 or p35 staining indicated unfavourable prognosis (p < 0.05). Multivariate analysis suggested EBI3 was an independent prognostic predictor (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Our results indicate for the first time that IL-35 is correlated with progression of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Therefore, IL-35 may be a useful target for the treatment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Interleukin-35: Expanding Its Job Profile

Counter-regulation afforded by specialized regulatory cell populations and immunosuppressive cytokines is critical for balancing immune outcome. The inhibitory potential of the established suppressive cytokines, IL-10 and TGFβ, has been well elucidated in diverse inflammatory scenarios in conjunction with their key roles in Treg development and function. Despite the early predictions for an immunomodulatory role for the Ebi3/p35 heterodimer in placental trophoblasts, IL-35 biology remained elusive until 2007 when it was established as a Treg-restricted inhibitory cytokine. Since then, Treg-derived IL-35 has been shown to exhibit its suppressive activities in a range of autoimmune diseases and cancer models. Recent studies are beginning to explore other cellular sources of IL-35, such as Bregs and CD8(+) Tregs. Despite these new cellular sources and targets, the mode of IL-35 suppression remains restricted to inhibition of proliferation and induction of an IL-35-producing induced regulatory T cell population referred to as iTr35. In this review, we explore the early beginnings, status quo, and future prospects of IL-35 biology. The unparalleled opportunity of targeting multiple immunosuppressive populations (Tregs, Bregs, CD8(+) Tregs) through IL-35 is highly exciting and offers tremendous promise from a translational standpoint, particularly for cancer immunotherapies.

Pro-inflammatory effects of interleukin-35 in rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

Interleukin-35 (IL-35) is a heterodimeric member of the IL-12 family consisting of p35/IL-12a and EBI3/IL-27b subunits. Expressed in murine Treg cells, IL-35 controls inflammatory diseases in mouse models. However, human IL-35 is expressed in Teff cells rather than in Treg cells and is shown to be upregulated under inflammatory conditions. Our aim was to examine the involvement of IL-35 in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

Immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence analysis was used to determine the expression and localization of IL-35 and its subunits (p35/EBI3) and IL-35 receptor (IL12Rβ2/gp130) in RA, osteoarthritis (OA) and psoriatic arthritis (PsA) synovial tissues. Expression of p35/EBI3 subunits and release of inflammatory cytokines upon stimulation with IL-35 were assessed in RA synovial fibroblasts (SFs) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs).

RESULTS

Both IL-35 and its subunits were upregulated in RA in comparison with OA or PsA synovium. Using cell-specific markers, p35 and EBI3 were identified in macrophages, dendritic cells, SFs, and T as well as B cells in RA synovium. Both p35 and EBI3 were induced by TNFα in RASFs and PBMCs. IL-35 dose-dependently upregulated release of pro-inflammatory mediators IL-1β, IL-6 and MCP-1 in PBMCs. While gp130 receptor subunit was upregulated in RA synovium and was expressed in RASFs and PBMCs, there was no difference in IL12Rβ2 expression subunit among tissues and its presence in RASFs was lacking.

CONCLUSION

Upregulation of IL-35 at sites of inflammation in RA and its pro-inflammatory potential suggests that IL-35 might play an important role in RA pathogenesis.

Elevated plasma interleukin-35 levels predict poor prognosis in patients with non-small cell lung cancer

Interleukin-35 (IL-35) has recently been implicated in tumor immunity. The aim of this study was to explore the clinical role of plasma IL-35 in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Plasma collected from 106 patients with NSCLC cases and 78 healthy controls (HC) were subjected to IL-35 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and relationships between plasma IL-35 levels and clinical characteristics were evaluated. The correlation of IL-35 and overall survival was analyzed using Kaplan-Meier method. The prognostic value of IL-35 was tested using univariate and multivariate analysis. Circulating IL-35 levels were significantly higher in the NSCLC group in comparison with the HC group (21.37 ± 11.55 pg/ml vs. 10.09 ± 5.32 pg/ml, p < 0.001). Correlation analysis by subgroup indicated that plasma IL-35 correlated positively with tumor TNM stage (p < 0.001) and lymph node metastases (p < 0.0001). Using a cutoff level of 20.26 pg/ml (median value), IL-35 showed an inverse correlation with overall survival. Univariate and multivariate analysis indicated that plasma IL-35 was an independent prognostic factor for NSCLC patients. Circulating IL-35 in NSCLC patients significantly increased. IL-35 is a promising potential biomarker in prognostication of clinical outcome of NSCLC patients and the regulation of IL-35 expression may provide a new target for the treatment of NSCLC patients.

Mathematical modeling of Interleukin-35 promoting tumor growth and angiogenesis

Interleukin-35 (IL-35), a cytokine from the Interleukin-12 cytokine family, has been considered as an anti-inflammatory cytokine which promotes tumor progression and tumor immune evasion. It has also been demonstrated that IL-35 is secreted by regulatory T cells. Recent mouse experiments have shown that IL-35 produced by cancer cells promotes tumor growth via enhancing myeloid cell accumulation and angiogenesis, and reducing the infiltration of activated CD8[Formula: see text] T cells into tumor microenvironment. In the present paper we develop a mathematical model based on these experimental results. We include in the model an anti-IL-35 drug as treatment. The extended model (with drug) is used to design protocols of anti-IL-35 injections for treatment of cancer. We find that with a fixed total amount of drug, continuous injection has better efficacy than intermittent injections in reducing the tumor load while the treatment is ongoing. We also find that the percentage of tumor reduction under anti-IL-35 treatment improves when the production of IL-35 by cancer is increased.

Decreased interleukin 35 and CD4+EBI3+ T cells in patients with active systemic lupus erythematosus

BACKGROUND

Interleukin 35 (IL-35) is likely to contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases, as the Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene protein 3 (EBI3) is the specificity subunit of IL-35. Nevertheless, until recently, no studies have evaluated its role in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in humans. The objective of this study was to investigate the serum IL-35 level and the percentage of CD4EBI3 T cells in the peripheral blood of patients with SLE and explore the roles of double-positive T cells and IL-35 in the pathogenesis of SLE and the effects of glucocorticoid on these roles.

METHODS

Fifty-five hospitalized patients with SLE were recruited, and 20 volunteers were enrolled as healthy controls. Serum IL-35 levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and the percentage of CD4EBI3 T cells was analyzed by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The serum IL-35 level and the percentage of CD4EBI3 T cells were significantly decreased in patients with active SLE compared with healthy controls and patients with inactive SLE. The serum IL-35 level and the percentage of CD4EBI3 T cells were negatively correlated with the SLE disease activity index. The percentages of CD4EBI3 T cells and serum IL-35 levels in 10 untreated patients with active SLE were increased at days l, 3, and 7 after the treatment with methylprednisolone (0.8 mg·kg·d) compared with the percentages before the treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that abnormalities in IL-35 and CD4EBI3 T cells may play important roles in the pathogenesis of SLE; the percentage of double-positive T cells and the level of IL-35 are parameters for the evaluation of SLE activity and severity.

Expression of IL-27 by tumor cells in invasive cutaneous and metastatic melanomas [corrected]

Interleukin (IL)-27 is a cytokine of the IL-12 family that displays either immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive functions depending on the context. In various murine tumor models including melanoma models, ectopic expression of IL-27 has been shown to play an anti-tumoral role and to favor tumor regression. In this study, we investigated whether IL-27 might play a role in the development of melanoma in humans. We analyzed the in situ expression of IL-27 in melanocytic lesions (n = 82) representative of different stages of tumor progression. IL-27 expression was not observed in nevus (n = 8) nor in in situ melanoma (n = 9), but was detected in 28/46 (61%) cases of invasive cutaneous melanoma, notably in advanced stages (19/23 cases of stages 3 and 4). In most cases, the main source of IL-27 was tumor cells. Of note, when IL-27 was detected in primary cutaneous melanomas, its expression was maintained in metastatic lesions. These in situ data suggested that the immunosuppressive functions of IL-27 may dominate in human melanoma. Consistent with this hypothesis, we found that IL-27 could induce suppressive molecules such as PD-L1, and to a lesser extent IL-10, in melanoma cells, and that the in situ expression of IL-27 in melanoma correlated with those of PD-L1 and IL-10.

The microenvironment in classical Hodgkin lymphoma: an actively shaped and essential tumor component

Classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) is characterized by a minority of tumor cells derived from germinal center B-cells and a vast majority of non-malignant reactive cells. The tumor cells show a loss of B-cell phenotype including lack of the B-cell receptor, which makes the tumor cells vulnerable to apoptosis. To overcome this threat, tumor cells and their precursors depend on anti-apoptotic and growth stimulating factors that are obtained via triggering of multiple membrane receptors. In addition, tumor cells shape the environment by producing a wide variety of chemokines and cytokines. These factors alter the composition of the microenvironment and modulate the nature and effectiveness of the infiltrating cells. The attracted cells enhance the pro-survival and growth stimulating signals for the tumor cells. To escape from an effective anti-tumor response tumor cells avoid recognition by T and NK cells, by downregulation of HLA molecules and modulating NK and T-cell receptors. In addition, the tumor cells produce immune suppressive cytokines that inhibit cytotoxic responses. In this review the relevance of the microenvironment in the pathogenesis of cHL will be discussed.

A lesson for cancer research: placental microarray gene analysis in preeclampsia

Tumor progression and pregnancy share many common features, such as immune tolerance and invasion. The invasion of trophoblasts in the placenta into the uterine wall is essential for fetal development, and is thus precisely regulated. Its deregulation has been implicated in preeclampsia, a leading cause for maternal and perinatal mortality and morbidity. Pathogenesis of preeclampsia remains to be defined. Microarray-based gene profiling has been widely used for identifying genes responsible for preeclampsia. In this review, we have summarized the recent data from the microarray studies with preeclamptic placentas. Despite the complex of gene signatures, suggestive of the heterogeneity of preeclampsia, these studies identified a number of differentially expressed genes associated with preeclampsia. Interestingly, most of them have been reported to be tightly involved in tumor progression. We have discussed these interesting genes and analyzed their potential molecular functions in preeclampsia, compared with their roles in malignancy development. Further investigations are warranted to explore the involvement in molecular network of each identified gene, which may provide not only novel strategies for prevention and therapy for preeclampsia but also a better understanding of cancer cells. The trophoblastic cells, with their capacity for proliferation and differentiation, apoptosis and survival, migration, angiogenesis and immune modulation by exploiting similar molecular pathways, make them a compelling model for cancer research.

Tumor-derived IL-35 promotes tumor growth by enhancing myeloid cell accumulation and angiogenesis

IL-35 is a member of the IL-12 family of cytokines that is comprised of an IL-12 p35 subunit and an IL-12 p40-related protein subunit, EBV-induced gene 3 (EBI3). IL-35 functions through IL-35R and has a potent immune-suppressive activity. Although IL-35 was demonstrated to be produced by regulatory T cells, gene-expression analysis revealed that it is likely to have a wider distribution, including expression in cancer cells. In this study, we demonstrated that IL-35 is produced in human cancer tissues, such as large B cell lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and melanoma. To determine the roles of tumor-derived IL-35 in tumorigenesis and tumor immunity, we generated IL-35-producing plasmacytoma J558 and B16 melanoma cells and observed that the expression of IL-35 in cancer cells does not affect their growth and survival in vitro, but it stimulates tumorigenesis in both immune-competent and Rag1/2-deficient mice. Tumor-derived IL-35 increases CD11b(+)Gr1(+) myeloid cell accumulation in the tumor microenvironment and, thereby, promotes tumor angiogenesis. In immune-competent mice, spontaneous CTL responses to tumors are diminished. IL-35 does not directly inhibit tumor Ag-specific CD8(+) T cell activation, differentiation, and effector functions. However, IL-35-treated cancer cells had increased expression of gp130 and reduced sensitivity to CTL destruction. Thus, our study indicates novel functions for IL-35 in promoting tumor growth via the enhancement of myeloid cell accumulation, tumor angiogenesis, and suppression of tumor immunity.

Decreased plasma IL-35 levels are related to the left ventricular ejection fraction in coronary artery diseases

Background

Accumulating evidence shows that the novel anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-35 can efficiently suppress effector T cell activity and alter the progression of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The two subunits of IL-35, EBI3 and p35, are strongly expressed in human advanced plaque, suggesting a potential role of IL-35 in atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease (CAD). However, the plasma levels of IL-35 in patients with CAD have yet to be investigated.

Methods

Plasma IL-35, IL-10, TGF-β1, IL-12 and IL-27 levels were measured using an ELISA in 43 stable angina pectoris (SAP) patients, 62 unstable angina pectoris (UAP) patients, 56 acute myocardial infarction (AMI) patients and 47 chest pain syndrome patients as a control group.

Results

The results showed that plasma IL-35 levels were significantly decreased in the SAP group (90.74±34.22 pg/ml), the UAP group (72.20±26.63 pg/ml), and the AMI group (50.21±24.69 pg/ml) compared with chest pain syndrome group (115.06±32.27 pg/ml). Similar results were also demonstrated with IL-10 and TGF-β1. Plasma IL-12 and IL-27 levels were significantly increased in the UAP group (349.72±85.22 pg/ml, 101.75±51.42 pg/ml, respectively) and the AMI group (318.05±86.82 pg/ml, 148.88±68.45 pg/ml, respectively) compared with chest pain syndrome group (138.68±34.37 pg/ml, 63.60±22.75 pg/ml, respectively) and the SAP group (153.84±53.86 pg/ml, 70.84±38.77 pg/ml, respectively). Furthermore, lower IL-35 levels were moderately positively correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) in CAD patients (R = 0.416, P<0.01), whereas higher IL-27 levels were weakly negatively correlated with LVEF in CAD patients(R = −0.205, P<0.01).

Conclusions

The results of the present study show that circulating IL-35 is a potentially novel biomarker for coronary artery disease. Regulating the expression of IL-35 also provides a new possible target for the treatment of atherosclerosis and CAD.