On the Structure of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

Biomaterial-based strategies: a new era in spinal cord injury treatment

Enhancing neurological recovery and improving the prognosis of spinal cord injury have gained research attention recently. Spinal cord injury is associated with a complex molecular and cellular microenvironment. This complexity has prompted researchers to elucidate the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and changes and to identify effective treatment strategies. Traditional approaches for spinal cord injury repair include surgery, oral or intravenous medications, and administration of neurotrophic factors; however, the efficacy of these approaches remains inconclusive, and serious adverse reactions continue to be a concern. With advancements in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, emerging strategies for spinal cord injury repair now involve nanoparticle-based nanodelivery systems, scaffolds, and functional recovery techniques that incorporate biomaterials, bioengineering, stem cell, and growth factors as well as three-dimensional bioprinting. Ideal biomaterial scaffolds should not only provide structural support for neuron migration, adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation but also mimic the mechanical properties of natural spinal cord tissue. Additionally, these scaffolds should facilitate axon growth and neurogenesis by offering adjustable topography and a range of physical and biochemical cues. The three-dimensionally interconnected porous structure and appropriate physicochemical properties enabled by three-dimensional biomimetic printing technology can maximize the potential of biomaterials used for treating spinal cord injury. Therefore, correct selection and application of scaffolds, coupled with successful clinical translation, represent promising clinical objectives to enhance the treatment efficacy for and prognosis of spinal cord injury. This review elucidates the key mechanisms underlying the occurrence of spinal cord injury and regeneration post-injury, including neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, axon regeneration, and angiogenesis. This review also briefly discusses the critical role of nanodelivery systems used for repair and regeneration of injured spinal cord, highlighting the influence of nanoparticles and the factors that affect delivery efficiency. Finally, this review highlights tissue engineering strategies and the application of biomaterial scaffolds for the treatment of spinal cord injury. It discusses various types of scaffolds, their integrations with stem cells or growth factors, and approaches for optimization of scaffold design.

Solid lipid nanoparticles in pancreatic cancer treatment

Pancreatic cancer comes with one of the poorest prognoses of all cancers and as such it is crucial that new therapies are developed to improve on the current statistics. Currently, chemotherapy is the cornerstone of pancreatic cancer treatment with several drugs, and combinations of drugs being utilised for their anti-cancer effect. However, pancreatic cancer has a dense stroma around the tumour and intratumoral bacteria which result in drugs having difficulty penetrating the tumour or being metabolised by bacteria rendering them inactive. The utilisation of nanotechnology in chemotherapy for pancreatic cancer has been a huge area of focus for researchers worldwide with most of the focus being on lipid-based, inorganic and polymer-based nanoparticles. Solid lipid nanoparticles which have been studied since being first published in the 1990s, have been poorly researched for pancreatic cancer applications. Being composed of physiological lipids, solid lipid nanoparticles offer a greatly reduced risk of acute or chronic toxicities arising compared to inorganic or polymeric nanoparticles. They also possess the ability to improve on circulation time, permeability, and bioavailability of many first-line chemotherapeutics.

PUCHIK: A Python Package To Analyze Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Aspherical Nanoparticles

Accurately describing a nanoparticle's interface is crucial for understanding its internal structure, interfacial properties, and ultimately, its functionality. While current computational methods provide reasonable descriptions for spherical and quasi-spherical nanoparticles, there remains a need for effective models for aspherical structures such as capsules and rod-like systems. This work introduces Python Utility for Characterizing Heterogeneous Interfaces and Kinetics (PUCHIK), a novel algorithm developed to describe both spherelike and aspherical nanoparticles. With an accurate description of the location of the interface of the nanoparticle, this algorithm then allows for various other important quantities (e.g., densities of different atom/molecule types relative to the interface, volume of the nanoparticle, amount of solubilized molecules within the nanoparticle) to be calculated. Our software development, we focused on providing good performance to computationally demanding projects, while ensuring that the methodological approach can be adapted as a protocol for other code implementations.

Experimental approaches to evaluate solid lipid nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are potential drug carriers due to the several advantages they offer. The physicochemical stability of lipid carriers varies significantly due to their diverse compositions and structures. Appropriate analytical methods are required for the complete characterization of SLNs. Physicochemical characterization includes analysis of bulk properties like particle size, size distribution, zeta potential, morphology, stability, polymorphism, crystallinity, and molecular level properties like microenvironments within nanoparticles and their interactions with drugs. Moreover, drug loading, drug entrapment efficiency, and drug release kinetics are essential parameters to evaluate the efficacy of SLNs as drug delivery systems. In addition to testing the physicochemical stability and functionality of SLN formulations, it is essential to investigate their desired actions through in vivo studies, which are beyond the scope of this article. This review briefly discusses the different experimental techniques and their applications in the field of solid lipid nanoparticles. These techniques can also be used to characterize nanostructure lipid carriers, which are second-generation lipid nanoparticles.

Recent progress in carotenoid encapsulation: Effects on storage stability, bioaccessibility and bioavailability for advanced innovative food applications

The incorporation of bioactive ingredients in food products has attracted considerable interest in recent years because of the numerous health benefits these compounds can offer to the human body. Carotenoids are a group of functional components with notable antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Their addition to food products not only provides coloration but can also deliver certain bioactive effects, leading to both increased shelf life and beneficial health benefits. However, carotenoids are prone to oxidation, as they can be easily degraded from light or heat treatments. To address this, encapsulation has emerged as an effective method to protect carotenoids during their incorporation into foods as well as during storage. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art regarding encapsulation methods utilized for carotenoids entrapment. The effect of various techniques- such as microemulsification, freeze- drying, spray- drying, and novel nanoencapsulation methods like electrospinning and formation of solid-liquid nanoparticles- are discussed with respect to their positive and negative impacts on carotenoid antioxidant activity, bioaccessibility, bioavailability and the shelf life of the final product. Depending on the type of carotenoid or its intended application, different methods could be employed, which could significantly enhance the overall biological activities of the final food product. This review critically presents the advantages and limitations of each method and highlights the potential health implications that nanoencapsulation techniques might pose before introducing new encapsulated products to the food market.

Advances in the use of nanotechnology for treating gout

Gout is a commonly occurring form of inflammatory arthritis caused by persistently elevated levels of uric acid. Its incidence rate rises with the increases of living standards and poor dietary habits, which has a considerable impact on the quality of life of the patients. Although there is a wide assortment of drugs available for the management of gout, the effectiveness and security of these drugs are limited by their poor chemical stability and insufficient targeting. Therefore, development of effective nanomedicine systems to overcome these problems and treat gout becomes a high priority. This review provides a detailed introduction research progress on developing advanced nanomedicines using polymers, hydrogel, nanocapsules, lipids, bionic vesicles, inorganic artificial organelles and electronically controlled conveyor systems carriers to improve gout therapy.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as an Innovative Lipidic Drug Delivery System

In order to overcome some of the drawbacks of traditional formulations, increasing emphasis has recently been paid to lipid-based drug delivery systems. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are promising delivery methods, and they hold promise because of their simplicity in production, capacity to scale up, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of formulation components. Other benefits could be connected to a particular route of administration or the makeup of the ingredients being placed into these delivery systems. This article aims to review the significance of solid lipid nanocarriers, their benefits and drawbacks, as well as their types, compositions, methods of preparation, mechanisms of drug release, characterization, routes of administration, and applications in a variety of delivery systems with a focus on their efficacy.

Uncovering the Emerging Prospects of Lipid-based Nanoparticulate Vehicles in Lung Cancer Management: A Recent Perspective

Lung cancer, a leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally, is gaining research interest more than ever before. Owing to the burden of pathogenesis on the quality of life of patients and subsequently the healthcare system, research efforts focus on its management and amelioration. In an effort to improve bioavailability, enhance stability, minimize adverse effects and reduce the incidence of resistance, nanotechnological platforms have been harnessed for drug delivery and improving treatment outcomes. Lipid nanoparticles, in particular, offer an interesting clinical opportunity with respect to the delivery of a variety of agents. These include synthetic chemotherapeutic agents, immunotherapeutic molecules, as well as phytoconstituents with promising anticancer benefits. In addition to this, these systems are being studied for their usage in conjunction with other treatment strategies. However, their applications remain limited owing to a number of challenges, chiefly clinical translation. There is a need to address the scalability of such technologies, in order to improve accessibility. The authors aim to offer a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of lipid nanoparticles and their application in lung cancer, the interplay of disease pathways and their mechanism of action and the potential for delivery of a variety of agents. Additionally, a discussion with respect to results from preclinical studies has also been provided. The authors have also provided a well-rounded insight into the limitations and future perspectives. While the possibilities are endless, there is a need to undertake focused research to expedite clinical translation and offer avenues for wider applications in disease management.

Alahmari A, A. Alqabbani A, Aldayel AM. Exploring the landscape of Lipid Nanoparticles (LNPs): A comprehensive review of LNPs types and biological sources of lipids

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as promising carriers for delivering therapeutic agents, including mRNA-based immunotherapies, in various biomedical applications. The use of LNPs allows for efficient delivery of drugs, resulting in enhanced targeted delivery to specific tissues or cells. These LNPs can be categorized into several types, including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles. The preparation of LNPs involves the manipulation of their structural, dimensional, compositional, and physical characteristics via the use of different methods in the industry. Lipids used to construct LNPs can also be derived from various biological sources, such as natural lipids extracted from plants, animals, or microorganisms. This review dives into the different types of LNPs and their preparation methods. More importantly, it discusses all possible biological sources that are known to supply lipids for the creation of LNPs. Natural lipid reservoirs have surfaced as promising sources for generating LNPs. The use of LNPs in drug delivery is expected to increase significantly in the coming years. Herein, we suggest some environmentally friendly and biocompatible sources that can produce lipids for future LNPs production.

Nose to Brain: Exploring the Progress of Intranasal Delivery of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

The intranasal (IN) route of drug delivery can effectively penetrate the blood-brain barrier and deliver drugs directly to the brain for the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) disorders via intra-neuronal or extra-neuronal pathways. This approach has several advantages, including avoidance of first-pass metabolism, high bioavailability, ease of administration, and improved patient compliance. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have been conducted using drugs encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), and delivering them to the brain via the IN pathway. SLNs are the first-generation solid lipid nanocarriers, known for their excellent biocompatibility, high drug-loading capacity, and remarkable stability. NLCs, regarded as the second-generation SLNs, not only retain the advantages of SLNs but also exhibit enhanced stability, effectively preventing drug leakage during storage. In this review, we examined in vivo studies conducted between 2019 and 2024 that used SLNs and NLCs to address CNS disorders via the IN route. By using statistical methods to evaluate pharmacokinetic parameters, we found that IN delivery of SLNs and NLCs markedly enhanced drug accumulation and targeting within the brain. Additionally, pharmacodynamic evaluations indicated that this delivery method substantially improved the therapeutic effectiveness of the drugs in alleviating symptoms in rat models of CNS diseases. In addition, methods for enhancing the efficacy of nose-to-brain delivery of SLNs and NLCs are discussed, as well as advances in clinical trials regarding SLNs and NLCs.

The interaction of a self-assembled nanoparticle and a lipid membrane: Binding, disassembly and re-distribution

Here we report a detailed study of the interactions of nanoparticles, formed by the self-assembly of cholesterol-containing porphyrins, with lipid membranes. We show that the interaction is a two-step process: first, the docking and fusion, then, the redistribution of the building blocks of the self-assembled nanoparticles (SANs henceforth). Analysis of the binding and structural data is consistent with the docking step being driven by a multivalence cooperative effect and with the formation of SAN aggregates on the membrane, whilst the solubility of the cholesterol anchor in the membrane is key to both the fusion and redistribution of the SANs building blocks. The tendency of the SAN to aggregate in the membrane helps explain the photosensitizer properties of the SANs, essential to their anti-microbial activity. The solubility of the cholesteryl anchors drives fusion to the membrane and de-assembly of the SAN, explaining the capability of the SANs to deliver therapeutic cargos at the lipid interface. The subsequent redistribution of the SANs building blocks offer a plausible pathway to body clearance that is not immediately available to hard nanoparticles. These properties, and the modularity of the synthesis, point to the SANs being an excellent platform for the development of nanomedicines. An unexpected consequence of unraveling the mechanism of membrane interaction of these SANs is that it allows us to derive a value of the free energy of binding of cholesterol (the membrane anchor of the SAN building blocks) to a lipid membrane, that is consistent with the literature values. This is an additional property that can be exploited to determine the affinity of a variety of membrane anchors to membranes of various compositions.

Solubilization techniques used for poorly water-soluble drugs

About 40% of approved drugs and nearly 90% of drug candidates are poorly water-soluble drugs. Low solubility reduces the drugability. Effectively improving the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs is a critical issue that needs to be urgently addressed in drug development and application. This review briefly introduces the conventional solubilization techniques such as solubilizers, hydrotropes, cosolvents, prodrugs, salt modification, micronization, cyclodextrin inclusion, solid dispersions, and details the crystallization strategies, ionic liquids, and polymer-based, lipid-based, and inorganic-based carriers in improving solubility and bioavailability. Some of the most commonly used approved carrier materials for solubilization techniques are presented. Several approved poorly water-soluble drugs using solubilization techniques are summarized. Furthermore, this review summarizes the solubilization mechanism of each solubilization technique, reviews the latest research advances and challenges, and evaluates the potential for clinical translation. This review could guide the selection of a solubilization approach, dosage form, and administration route for poorly water-soluble drugs. Moreover, we discuss several promising solubilization techniques attracting increasing attention worldwide.

Nanomaterials that Aid in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease, Resolving Blood-Brain Barrier Crossing Ability

As a form of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD) suffers from no efficacious cure, yet AD treatment is still imperative, as it ameliorates the symptoms or prevents it from deteriorating or maintains the current status to the longest extent. The human brain is the most sensitive and complex organ in the body, which is protected by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This yet induces the difficulty in curing AD as the drugs or nanomaterials that are much inhibited from reaching the lesion site. Thus, BBB crossing capability of drug delivery system remains a significant challenge in the development of neurological therapeutics. Fortunately, nano-enabled delivery systems possess promising potential to achieve multifunctional diagnostics/therapeutics against various targets of AD owing to their intriguing advantages of nanocarriers, including easy multifunctionalization on surfaces, high surface-to-volume ratio with large payloads, and potential ability to cross the BBB, making them capable of conquering the limitations of conventional drug candidates. This review, which focuses on the BBB crossing ability of the multifunctional nanomaterials in AD diagnosis and treatment, will provide an insightful vision that is conducive to the development of AD-related nanomaterials.

Advances on Delivery System of Active Ingredients of Dried Toad Skin and Toad Venom

Dried toad skin (TS) and toad venom (TV) are the dried skin of the Bufo bufo gargarizans Cantor and the Bufo melanostictus Schneider, which remove the internal organs and the white secretions of the skin and retroauricular glands. Since 2005, cinobufacini preparations have been approved by the State Food and Drug Administration for use as adjuvant therapies in the treatment of various advanced cancers. Meanwhile, bufalenolides has been identified as the main component of TS/TV, exhibiting antitumor activity, inducing apoptosis of cancer cells and inhibiting cancer cell proliferation or metastasis through a variety of signaling pathways. However, clinical agents frequently face limitations such as inherent toxicity at high concentrations and insufficient tumor targeting. Additionally, the development and utilization of these active ingredients are hindered by poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and rapid clearance from the bloodstream. To address these challenges, the design of a targeted drug delivery system (TDDS) aims to enhance drug bioavailability, improve targeting within the body, increase drug efficacy, and reduce adverse reactions. This article reviews the TDDS for TS/TV, and their active components, including passive, active, and stimuli-responsive TDDS, to provide a reference for advancing their clinical development and use.

Self-Assembled Nanocarrier Delivery Systems for Bioactive Compounds

Although bioactive compounds (BCs) have many important functions, their applications are greatly limited due to their own defects. The development of nanocarriers (NCs) technology has gradually overcome the defects of BCs. NCs are equally important as BCs to some extent. Self-assembly (SA) methods to build NCs have many advantages than chemical methods, and SA has significant impact on the structure and function of NCs. However, the relationship among SA mechanism, structure, and function has not been given enough attention. Therefore, from the perspective of bottom-up building mechanism, the concept of SA-structure-function of NCs is emphasized to promote the development of SA-based NCs. First, the conditions and forces for occurring SA are introduced, and then the SA basis and molecular mechanism of protein, polysaccharide, and lipid are summarized. Then, varieties of the structures formed based on SA are introduced in detail. Finally, facing the defects of BCs and how to be well solved by NCs are also elaborated. This review attempts to describe the great significance of constructing artificial NCs to deliver BCs from the aspects of SA-structure-function, so as to promote the development of SA-based NCs and the wide application of BCs.

Solid lipid nanoparticles: a versatile approach for controlled release and targeted drug delivery

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN), the first type of lipid-based solid carrier systems in the nanometer range, were introduced as a replacement for liposomes. SLN are aqueous colloidal dispersions with solid biodegradable lipids as their matrix. SLN is produced using processes like solvent diffusion method and high-pressure homogenization, among others. Major benefits include regulated release, increased bioavailability, preservation of peptides and chemically labile compounds like retinol against degradation, cost-effective excipients, better drug integration, and a broad range of applications. Solid lipid nanoparticles can be administered via different routes, such as oral, parenteral, pulmonary, etc. SLN can be prepared by using high shear mixing as well as low shear mixing. The next generation of solid lipids, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), can reduce some of the drawbacks of SLN, such as its restricted capacity for drug loading and drug expulsion during storage. NLC are controlled nanostructured lipid particles that enhance drug loading. This review covers a brief introduction of solid lipid nanoparticles, manufacturing techniques, benefits, limitations, and their characterization tests.

Small-angle X-ray scattering unveils the internal structure of lipid nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles own a remarkable potential in nanomedicine, only partially disclosed. While the clinical use of liposomes and cationic lipid-nucleic acid complexes is well-established, liquid lipid nanoparticles (nanoemulsions), solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers have even greater possibilities. However, they face obstacles in being used in clinics due to a lack of understanding about the molecular mechanisms controlling their drug loading and release, interactions with the biological environment (such as the protein corona), and shelf-life stability. To create effective drug delivery carriers and successfully translate bench research to clinical settings, it is crucial to have a thorough understanding of the internal structure of lipid nanoparticles. Through synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering experiments, we determined the spatial distribution and internal structure of the nanoparticles' lipid, surfactant, and the bound water in them. The nanoparticles themselves have a barrel-like shape that consists of coplanar lipid platelets (specifically cetyl palmitate) that are covered by loosely spaced polysorbate 80 surfactant molecules, whose polar heads retain a large amount of bound water. To reduce the interface cost of bound water with unbound water without stacking, the platelets collapse onto each other. This internal structure challenges the classical core-shell model typically used to describe solid lipid nanoparticles and could play a significant role in drug loading and release, biological fluid interaction, and nanoparticle stability, making our findings valuable for the rational design of lipid-based nanoparticles.

Digestion of lipid micelles leads to increased membrane permeability

Lipid-based drug carriers are an attractive option to solubilise poorly water soluble therapeutics. Previously, we reported that the digestion of a short tail PC lipid (2C6PC) by the PLA2 enzyme has a significant effect on the structure and stability of the micelles it forms. Here, we studied the interactions of micelles of varying composition representing various degrees of digestion with a model ordered (70 mol% DPPC & 30 mol% cholesterol) and disordered (100% DOPC) lipid membrane. Micelles of all compositions disassociated when interacting with the two different membranes. As the percentage of digestion products (C6FA and C6LYSO) in the micelle increased, the disassociation occurred more rapidly. The C6FA inserts preferentially into both membranes. We find that all micelle components increase the area per lipid, increase the disorder and decrease the thickness of the membranes, and the 2C6PC lipid molecules have the most significant impact. Additionally, there is an increase in permeation of water into the membrane that accompanies the insertion of C6FA into the DOPC membranes. We show that the natural digestion of lipid micelles result in molecular species that can enhance the permeability of lipid membranes that in turn result in an enhanced delivery of drugs.

Cervical cancer: Novel treatment strategies offer renewed optimism

Cervical cancer poses a significant global public health issue, primarily affecting women, and stands as one of the four most prevalent cancers affecting woman globally, which includes breast cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer and cervical cancer. Almost every instance of cervical cancer is associated with infections caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). Prevention of this disease hinges on screening and immunization of the patients, yet disparities in cervical cancer occurrence exist between developed and developing nations. Multiple factors contribute to cervical cancer, including sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), reproductive and hormonal influences, genetics, and host-related factors. Preventive programs, lifestyle improvements, smoking cessation, and prompt precancerous lesion treatment can reduce the occurrence of cervical cancer. The persistency and recurrence of the cases are inherited even after the innovative treatments available for cervical cancer. For patient's ineligible for curative surgery or radiotherapy, palliative chemotherapy remains the standard treatment. Novel treatment strategies are emerging to combat the limited effectiveness of chemotherapy. Nanocarriers offer the promise of concurrent chemotherapeutic drug delivery as a beacon of hope in cervical cancer research. The primary aim of this review study is to contribute to a thorough understanding of cervical cancer, fostering awareness and informed decision-making and exploring novel treatment methods such as nanocarriers for the treatment of cervical cancer. This manuscript delves into cutting-edge approaches, exploring the potential of nanocarriers and other innovative treatments. Our study underscores the critical need for global awareness, early intervention, and enhanced treatment options. Novel strategies, such as nanocarriers, offer renewed optimism in the battle against cervical cancer. This research provides compelling evidence for the investigation of these novel therapeutic approaches within the medical field. Cervical cancer remains a formidable adversary, but with ongoing advancements and unwavering commitment, we move closer to a future where it is a preventable and treatable disease, even in the most underserved regions.

Development of solid lipid nanoparticles-loaded drugs in parasitic diseases

Parasites cause illnesses with broad spectrum of symptoms from mild to severe, and are responsible for a significant number of outbreaks in the world. Current anti-parasitic drugs are toxic and have significant side effects. Nano-carriers are believed to obviate the limitations of conventional drugs via decreasing side effects and increasing target delivery and drug permeability with a controlled prolonged release of a drug. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), which have frequently been practiced. Suitable release rate, stability, and target delivery make SLNs a good alternative for colloidal carriers. SLNs are supposed to have great potential to deliver natural products with anti-parasitic properties. Nanoparticles have employed to improve stability and capacity loading of SLNs, during recent years. This review describes development of SLNs, the methods of preparation, characterization, and loaded drugs into SLNs in parasitic diseases. In addition, we summarize recent development in anti-parasitic SLNs-loaded drugs.

Polymorphic phase transitions in triglycerides and their mixtures studied by SAXS/WAXS techniques: In bulk and in emulsions

Triacylglycerols (TAGs) exhibit a monotropic polymorphism, forming three main polymorphic forms upon crystallization: α, β' and β. The distinct physicochemical properties of these polymorphs, such as melting temperature, subcell lattice structure, mass density, etc., significantly impact the appearance, texture, and long-term stability of a wide range products in the food and cosmetics industries. Additionally, TAGs are also of special interest in the field of controlled drug delivery and sustained release in pharmaceuticals, being a key material in the preparation of solid lipid nanoparticles. The present article outlines our current understanding of TAG phase behavior in both bulk and emulsified systems. While our primary focus are investigations involving monoacid TAGs and their mixtures, we also include illustrative examples with natural TAG oils, highlighting the knowledge transfer from simple to intricate systems. Special attention is given to recent discoveries via X-ray scattering techniques. The main factors influencing TAG polymorphism are discussed, revealing that a higher occurrence of structural defects in the TAG structure always accelerates the rate of the α → β polymorphic transformation. Diverse approaches can be employed based on the specific system: incorporating foreign molecules or solid particles into bulk TAGs, reducing drop size in dispersed systems, or using surfactants that remain fluid during TAG particle crystallization, ensuring the necessary molecular mobility for the polymorphic transformation. Furthermore, we showcase the role of TAG polymorphism on a recently discovered phenomenon: the creation of nanoparticles as small as 20 nm from initial coarse emulsions without any mechanical energy input. This analysis underscores how the broader understanding of the TAG polymorphism can be effectively applied to comprehend and control previously unexplored processes of notable practical importance.

Current applications of solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers as vehicles in oral delivery systems for antioxidant nutraceuticals: A review

Antioxidant nutraceuticals can be found in several dietary sources and have been utilized for various medical benefits including health promotion, disease prevention, and support for treatment of acute and/or chronic diseases. Nonetheless, there are some limitations in delivering antioxidants via oral administration such as low solubility and permeability, pH and enzyme degradation, and instability of the compounds along the gastrointestinal tract leading to low bioavailability. In order to tackle these challenges, the utilization of lipid nanoparticles has numerous advantages to the escalating delivery system of antioxidants in nutraceuticals across the gastrointestinal tract barrier. Nowadays, several types of lipid nanoparticles can be used in antioxidant nutraceutical delivery systems through the oral route, namely solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers. This review article aims to provide notable information on the importance and applications of lipid nanoparticles in antioxidant delivery systems from nutraceuticals by an oral route. The mechanism in enhancing antioxidant compound transport across the gastrointestinal tract can occur by elevating loading capacity, improving chemical and physical stability, and increasing its bioavailability. To date, lipid nanoparticle vehicles have been developed to improve the delivery of antioxidant compounds to enhance bioavailability via oral routes. Lipid nanoparticles have remarkable benefits in delivering antioxidant nutraceuticals via oral administration. Hence, scale-up and commercialization of antioxidant nutraceutical-loaded lipid nanoparticles have been a potential technology in recent years. Subsequently, several vegetable and natural oils with antioxidant activity can also be utilized for nanoparticle formulation lipid components to increase nutraceuticals' antioxidant properties and bioavailability.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Drug/Gene Delivery: An Overview of the Production Techniques and Difficulties Encountered in Their Industrial Development

Over the past decade, the therapeutic potential of nanomaterials as novel drug delivery systems complementing conventional pharmacology has been widely acknowledged. Among these nanomaterials, lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) have shown remarkable pharmacological performance and promising therapeutic outcomes, thus gaining substantial interest in preclinical and clinical research. In this review, we introduce the main types of LNPs used in drug formulations such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles, focusing on their main physicochemical properties and therapeutic potential. We discuss computational studies and modeling techniques to enhance the understanding of how LNPs interact with therapeutic cargo and to predict the potential effectiveness of such interactions in therapeutic applications. We also analyze the benefits and drawbacks of various LNP production techniques such as nanoprecipitation, emulsification, evaporation, thin film hydration, microfluidic-based methods, and an impingement jet mixer. Additionally, we discuss the major challenges associated with industrial development, including stability and sterilization, storage, regulatory compliance, reproducibility, and quality control. Overcoming these challenges and facilitating regulatory compliance represent the key steps toward LNP's successful commercialization and translation into clinical settings.

Localized delivery of anti-inflammatory agents using extracellular matrix-nanostructured lipid carriers hydrogel promotes cardiac repair post-myocardial infarction

A challenge in treating cardiac injury is the low heart-specificity of the drugs. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are a relatively new format of lipid nanoparticles which have been used to deliver RNA and drugs. However, lipid nanoparticles exhibit higher affinity to the liver than the heart. To improve the delivery efficiency of NLCs into the heart, NLCs can be embedded into a scaffold and be locally released. In this study, a cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM) hydrogel-NLC composite was developed as a platform for cardiac repair. ECM-NLC composite gels at physiological conditions and releases payloads into the heart over weeks. ECM-NLC hydrogel carrying colchicine, an anti-inflammation agent, improved cardiac repair after myocardial infarction in mice. Transcriptome analysis indicated that Egfr downstream effectors participated in ECM-NLC-colchicine induced heart repair. In conclusion, ECM-NLC hydrogel is a potential platform for sustained and localized delivery of biomolecules into the heart, and loading appropriate medicines further increases the therapeutic efficacy of ECM-NLC hydrogel for cardiovascular diseases.

Multifunctional lipid-based nanoparticles for wound healing and antibacterial applications: A review

Wound healing primarily involves preventing severe infections, accelerating healing, and reducing pain and scarring. Therefore, the multifunctional application of lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNs) has received considerable attention in drug discovery due to their solid or liquid lipid core, which increases their ability to provide prolonged drug release, reduce treatment costs, and improve patient compliance. LBNs have also been used in medical and cosmetic practices and formulated for various products based on skin type, disease conditions, administration product costs, efficiency, stability, and toxicity; therefore, understanding their interaction with biological systems is very important. Therefore, it is necessary to perform an in-depth analysis of the results from a comprehensive characterization process to produce lipid-based drug delivery systems with desired properties. This review will provide detailed information on the different types of LBNs, their formulation methods, characterisation, antimicrobial activity, and application in various wound models (both in vitro and in vivo studies). Also, the clinical and commercial applications of LBNs are summarized.

Gout therapeutics and drug delivery

Gout is a common inflammatory arthritis caused by persistently elevated uric acid levels. With the improvement of people's living standards, the consumption of processed food and the widespread use of drugs that induce elevated uric acid, gout rates are increasing, seriously affecting the human quality of life, and becoming a burden to health systems worldwide. Since the pathological mechanism of gout has been elucidated, there are relatively effective drug treatments in clinical practice. However, due to (bio)pharmaceutical shortcomings of these drugs, such as poor chemical stability and limited ability to target the pathophysiological pathways, traditional drug treatment strategies show low efficacy and safety. In this scenario, drug delivery systems (DDS) design that overcome these drawbacks is urgently called for. In this review, we initially describe the pathological features, the therapeutic targets, and the drugs currently in clinical use and under investigation to treat gout. We also comprehensively summarize recent research efforts utilizing lipid, polymeric and inorganic carriers to develop advanced DDS for improved gout management and therapy.

Biophysical characterization of siRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles with different PEG content in an aqueous system

Although lipid nanoparticles (LNP) are potential carriers of various pharmaceutical ingredients, further investigation for maintaining their stability under various environmental stressors must be performed. This study evaluated the influence of PEGylation and stress conditions on the stability of siRNA-loaded LNPs with different concentrations of PEG (0.5 mol%; 0.5 % PEG-LNP and 1.0 mol%; 1.0 % PEG-LNP) anchored to their surface. We applied end-over-end agitation, elevated temperature, and repeated freeze and thaw (F/T) cycles as physicochemical stressors of pH and ionic strength. Dynamic light scattering (DLS), flow imaging microscopy (FIM), and ionic-exchange chromatography (IEX) were to determine the degree of aggregation and change in siRNA content. The results indicate that 0.5 % PEG-LNP resisted aggregation only at low pH levels or with salt, whereas 1.0 % PEG-LNP had increased colloidal stability except at pH 4. 0.5 % PEG-LNP withstood aggregation until 71 °C and three cycles of F/T. In contrast, 1.0 % PEG-LNP maintained colloidal stability at 90 °C and seven F/T cycles. Moreover, 1.0 % PEG-LNP had higher siRNA stability under all stress conditions. Therefore, to ensure the stability of LNP and encapsulated siRNA, the PEG concentration must be carefully controlled while considering LNPs' colloidal instability mechanisms under various stress conditions.

A Water-Soluble Polymer-Lumefantrine Conjugate for the Intravenous Treatment of Severe Malaria

Uncomplicated malaria is effectively treated with oral artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT). Yet, there is an unmet clinical need for the intravenous treatment of the more fatal severe malaria. There is no combination intravenous therapy for uncomplicated due to the nonavailability of a water-soluble partner drug for the artemisinin, artesunate. The currently available treatment is a two-part regimen split into an intravenous artesunate followed by the conventional oral ACT . In a novel application of polymer therapeutics, the aqueous insoluble antimalarial lumefantrine is conjugated to a carrier polymer to create a new water-soluble chemical entity suitable for intravenous administration in a clinically relevant formulation . The conjugate is characterized by spectroscopic and analytical techniques, and the aqueous solubility of lumefantrine is determined to have increased by three orders of magnitude. Pharmacokinetic studies in mice indicate that there is a significant plasma release of lumefantrine and production its metabolite desbutyl-lumefantrine (area under the curve of metabolite is ≈10% that of the parent). In a Plasmodium falciparum malaria mouse model, parasitemia clearance is 50% higher than that of reference unconjugated lumefantrine. The polymer-lumefantrine shows potential for entering the clinic to meet the need for a one-course combination treatment for severe malaria.

Surface-engineered nanoparticles in cancer immune response and immunotherapy: Current status and future prospects

Cancer immunotherapy is a therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis by intervening in the immune response process. Strategies applied to cancer immunotherapy mainly include blocking immune checkpoints, adoptive transfer of engineered immune cells, cytokine therapy, cancer vaccines, and oncolytic virus infection. However, many factors, such as off-target side effects, immunosuppressive cell infiltration and/or upregulation of immune checkpoint expression, cancer cell heterogeneity, and lack of antigen presentation, affect the therapeutic effect of immunotherapy on cancer. To improve the efficacy of targeted immunotherapy and reduce off-target effects, over the past two decades, nanoparticle delivery platforms have been increasingly used in tumor immunotherapy. However, nanoparticles are still subject to biological barriers and biodistribution challenges, which limit their overall clinical potential. This has prompted a series of engineered nanoparticles to overcome specific obstacles and transfer the accumulation of payloads to tumor-infiltrating immune cells. In recent years, new techniques and chemical methods have been employed to modify or functionalize the surfaces of nanoparticles. This review discusses the recent progress of surface-engineered nanoparticles in inducing tumor immune responses and immunotherapy, as well as future directions for the development of next-generation nanomedicines.

Essential Oil-Based Nanoparticles as Antimicrobial Agents in the Food Industry

The use of essential oils (EO) loaded with nanoparticles is the most promising alternative to increase food quality and safety. Interesting works describe the antimicrobial properties of EO for pathogen control in natural and processed foods for human health and animal production, also contributing to sustainability. Their association with different nanosystems allows novel developments in the micronutrition, health promotion, and pathogen control fields, preventing the aggravation of bacterial microevolution and combating antibiotic resistance. Benefits to the environment are also provided, as they are biodegradable and biocompatible. However, such compounds have some physicochemical properties that prevent commercial use. This review focuses on recent developments in antimicrobial EO-based nanoparticles and their application in different food matrices.

Characterization of entrapment behavior of polyphenols in nanostructured lipid carriers and its effect on their antioxidative activity

Polyphenols are widely used as antioxidant agents to protect human health. Resveratrol, kaempferol, and quercetin have been reported to have potent antioxidant activity; however, these compounds have many problems related to their practical application, such as instability and insolubility. Thus, a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) was utilized as a drug delivery system (DDS) to overcome these limitations. This study investigated the particle stability, drug loading performance, and antioxidant activity of polyphenols-incorporated NLCs. The particle size and distribution were suitable for DDS applications, and all the samples demonstrated good stability after 2 months of storage. Based on Raman spectroscopy analysis, polyphenols were successfully encapsulated in NLCs. Quantitative high-performance liquid chromatography analysis indicated that NLCs could load resveratrol more than kaempferol and quercetin. In addition, NLCs have successfully improved all the antioxidant activity per unit concentration of polyphenol (specific antioxidant activity) compared to the free polyphenols. Quercetin-incorporated NLCs showed the highest specific antioxidant activity. This result is the opposite of entrapment efficiency and actual antioxidant activity, most likely influenced by the location of entrapped polyphenol molecules. As it was performed, NLCs are highly recommended to be applied as an antioxidant delivery system.

Modification of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles: An Efficient Delivery System for Nucleic Acid-Based Immunotherapy

Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are biocompatible and biodegradable vesicles that are considered to be one of the most efficient drug delivery platforms. Due to the prominent advantages, such as long circulation time, slow drug release, reduced toxicity, high transfection efficiency, and endosomal escape capacity, such synthetic nanoparticles have been widely used for carrying genetic therapeutics, particularly nucleic acids that can be applied in the treatment for various diseases, including congenital diseases, cancers, virus infections, and chronic inflammations. Despite great merits and multiple successful applications, many extracellular and intracellular barriers remain and greatly impair delivery efficacy and therapeutic outcomes. As such, the current state of knowledge and pitfalls regarding the gene delivery and construction of LBNPs will be initially summarized. In order to develop a new generation of LBNPs for improved delivery profiles and therapeutic effects, the modification strategies of LBNPs will be reviewed. On the basis of these developed modifications, the performance of LBNPs as therapeutic nanoplatforms have been greatly improved and extensively applied in immunotherapies, including infectious diseases and cancers. However, the therapeutic applications of LBNPs systems are still limited due to the undesirable endosomal escape, potential aggregation, and the inefficient encapsulation of therapeutics. Herein, we will review and discuss recent advances and remaining challenges in the development of LBNPs for nucleic acid-based immunotherapy.

Surfactant Effect on the Physicochemical Characteristics of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Based on Pillar[5]arenes

Novel monosubstituted pillar[5]arenes containing both amide and carboxyl functional groups were synthesized. Solid lipid nanoparticles based on the synthesized macrocycles were obtained. Formation of spherical particles with an average hydrodynamic diameter of 250 nm was shown for pillar[5]arenes containing N-(amidoalkyl)amide fragments regardless of their concentration. It was established that pillar[5]arene containing N-alkylamide fragments can form spherical particles with two different sizes (88 and 223 nm) depending on its concentration. Mixed solid lipid nanoparticles based on monosubstituted pillar[5]arenes and surfactant (dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride) were obtained for the first time. The surfactant made it possible to level the effect of the macrocycle concentration. It was found that various types of aggregates are formed depending on the macrocycle/surfactant ratio. Changing the macrocycle/surfactant ratio allows to control the charge of the particles surface. This controlled property will lead to the creation of molecular-scale porous materials that selectively interact with various types of substrates, including biopolymers.

Photothermally Triggered Melting and Perfusion: Responsive Colloidosomes for Cytosolic Delivery of Membrane-Impermeable Drugs in Tumor Therapy

Cell membrane barrier which dominates the therapeutic efficacy and systemic side effects is a major bottleneck in the field of drug delivery. Herein, a therapeutic system capable of photothermally triggered...

The Tiny Big World of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: An Updated Review

Nanotechnology is currently a field of endeavor that has reached a maturation phase beyond the initial hypotheses with an undercurrent challenge to optimize the safety, and scalability for production and clinical trials. Lipid-based nanoparticles (LNP), namely solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid (NLC), carriers are presently among the most attractive and fast-growing areas of research. SLN and NLC are safe, biocompatible nanotechnology-enabled platforms with ubiquitous applications. This review presents a modern vision that starts with a brief description of characteristics, preparation strategies, and composition ingredients, benefits, and limitations. Next, a discussion of applications and functionalization approaches for the delivery of therapeutics via different routes of delivery. Additionally, the review presents a concise perspective into limitations and future advances. A brief recap on the prospects of molecular dynamics simulations in better understanding NP bio-interface interactions is provided. Finally, the alliance between 3D printing and nanomaterials is presented here as well.

Experimental Study on the Resistance of Synthetic Penicillin Solid Lipid Nanoparticles to Clinically Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Background

With the increasing resistance of antibiotics to bacteria, new and effective methods are needed to transform existing antibiotics to solve the problem of long development cycles for new drugs. The antibiotic nanodelivery system has proven to be a promising strategy.

Aim

The purpose of this study is to synthesize penicillin solid lipid nanoparticles (penicillin SLNs) to enhance the antibacterial activity of penicillin against drug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Materials and Methods

Penicillin SLNs were synthesized. And particle size, the polydispersity index (PI), and zeta potential (ZP) of penicillin SLNs were measured. The surface morphology of penicillin SLNs was observed using a transmission electron microscope.

Results

The particle size of penicillin SLNs is 112.3 ± 11.9 nm, the polydispersity index (PI) and zeta potential (ZP) of penicillin SLNs are 0.212 ± 0.03 and -27.6 ± 5.5 mV. The encapsulation efficiency and drug loading were 98.31 ± 1.2% and 4.98 ± 0.05 (%w/w), respectively. Penicillin SLNs had a more significant inhibitory effect on the growth of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) after the drug and the bacteria were incubated for 12 hours. The number of MRSA colonies in the penicillin group increased after 12 hours, while the number of MRSA colonies in the penicillin SLNs group did not change significantly.

Conclusion

Penicillin SLNs enhance the ability of penicillin to enter cells and increase the concentration of penicillin in the cell and also extend the residence time of penicillin in the cell. Our findings indicated that penicillin SLNs enhance the inhibitory effect of penicillin on drug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Nanoantioxidants: Pioneer Types, Advantages, Limitations, and Future Insights

Free radicals are generated as byproducts of normal metabolic processes as well as due to exposure to several environmental pollutants. They are highly reactive species, causing cellular damage and are associated with a plethora of oxidative stress-related diseases and disorders. Antioxidants can control autoxidation by interfering with free radical propagation or inhibiting free radical formation, reducing oxidative stress, improving immune function, and increasing health longevity. Antioxidant functionalized metal nanoparticles, transition metal oxides, and nanocomposites have been identified as potent nanoantioxidants. They can be formulated in monometallic, bimetallic, and multi-metallic combinations via chemical and green synthesis techniques. The intrinsic antioxidant properties of nanomaterials are dependent on their tunable configuration, physico-chemical properties, crystallinity, surface charge, particle size, surface-to-volume ratio, and surface coating. Nanoantioxidants have several advantages over conventional antioxidants, involving increased bioavailability, controlled release, and targeted delivery to the site of action. This review emphasizes the most pioneering types of nanoantioxidants such as nanoceria, silica nanoparticles, polydopamine nanoparticles, and nanocomposite-, polysaccharide-, and protein-based nanoantioxidants. This review overviews the antioxidant potential of biologically synthesized nanomaterials, which have emerged as significant alternatives due to their biocompatibility and high stability. The promising nanoencapsulation nanosystems such as solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and liposome nanoparticles are highlighted. The advantages, limitations, and future insights of nanoantioxidant applications are discussed.

Nanomedicines for the topical treatment of vulvovaginal infections: Addressing the challenges of antimicrobial resistance

Recent years have, surprisingly, witnessed an increase in incidence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). At the same time, antimicrobial therapy came under the threat of ever rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR), resulting in STIs with extremely limited therapy options. In this review, we addressed the challenges of treating vaginal infections in an era of AMR. We focused on published work regarding nanomedicine destined for localized treatment of vaginal infections. Localized therapy offers numerous advantages such as assuring high drug concentration at the infection site, limiting systemic drug exposure that can lead to faster development of AMR reduction in the systemic side effects and potentially safe therapy in pregnancy. We provided a state-of-the-art overview of nanoformulations proposed to topically treat STIs, emphasizing the challenges and advantages of each type of nanocarriers, as well as issues of potential toxicity.

Interplay of lipid and surfactant: Impact on nanoparticle structure

Liquid lipid nanoparticles (LLN) are oil-in-water nanoemulsions of great interest in the delivery of hydrophobic drug molecules. They consist of a surfactant shell and a liquid lipid core. The small size of LLNs makes them difficult to study, yet a detailed understanding of their internal structure is vital in developing stable drug delivery vehicles (DDVs). Here, we implement machine learning techniques alongside small angle neutron scattering experiments and molecular dynamics simulations to provide critical insight into the conformations and distributions of the lipid and surfactant throughout the LLN. We simulate the assembly of a single LLN composed of the lipid, triolein (GTO), and the surfactant, Brij O10. Our work shows that the addition of surfactant is pivotal in the formation of a disordered lipid core; the even coverage of Brij O10 across the LLN shields the GTO from water and so the lipids adopt conformations that reduce crystallisation. We demonstrate the superior ability of unsupervised artificial neural networks in characterising the internal structure of DDVs, when compared to more conventional geometric methods. We have identified, clustered, classified and averaged the dominant conformations of lipid and surfactant molecules within the LLN, providing a multi-scale picture of the internal structure of LLNs.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery: Pharmacological and Biopharmaceutical Aspects

In the golden age of pharmaceutical nanocarriers, we are witnessing a maturation stage of the original concepts and ideas. There is no doubt that nanoformulations are extremely valuable tools for drug delivery applications; the current challenge is how to optimize them to ensure that they are safe, effective and scalable, so that they can be manufactured at an industrial level and advance to clinical use. In this context, lipid nanoparticles have gained ground, since they are generally regarded as non-toxic, biocompatible and easy-to-produce formulations. Pharmaceutical applications of lipid nanocarriers are a burgeoning field for the transport and delivery of a diversity of therapeutic agents, from biotechnological products to small drug molecules. This review starts with a brief overview of the characteristics of solid lipid nanoparticles and discusses the relevancy of performing systematic preformulation studies. The main applications, as well as the advantages that this type of nanovehicles offers in certain therapeutic scenarios are discussed. Next, pharmacokinetic aspects are described, such as routes of administration, absorption after oral administration, distribution in the organism (including brain penetration) and elimination processes. Safety and toxicity issues are also addressed. Our work presents an original point of view, addressing the biopharmaceutical aspects of these nanovehicles by means of descriptive statistics of the state-of-the-art of solid lipid nanoparticles research. All the presented results, trends, graphs and discussions are based in a systematic (and reproducible) bibliographic search that considered only original papers in the subject, covering a 7 years range (2013-today), a period that accounts for more than 60% of the total number of publications in the topic in the main bibliographic databases and search engines. Focus was placed on the therapeutic fields of application, absorption and distribution processes and current efforts for the translation into the clinical practice of lipid-based nanoparticles. For this, the currently active clinical trials on lipid nanoparticles were reviewed, with a brief discussion on what achievements or milestones are still to be reached, as a way of understanding the reasons for the scarce number of solid lipid nanoparticles undergoing clinical trials.

Time-Resolved Fluorescence Anisotropy of a Molecular Rotor Resolves Microscopic Viscosity Parameters in Complex Environments

Understanding viscosity in complex environments remains a largely unanswered question despite its importance in determining reaction rates in vivo. Here, time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy imaging (TR-FAIM) is combined with fluorescent molecular rotors (FMRs) to simultaneously determine two non-equivalent viscosity-related parameters in complex heterogeneous environments. The parameters, FMR rotational correlation time and lifetime, are extracted from fluorescence anisotropy decays, which in heterogeneous environments show dip-and-rise behavior due to multiple dye populations. Decays of this kind are found both in artificially constructed adiposomes and in live cell lipid droplet organelles. Molecular dynamics simulations are used to assign each population to nano-environments within the lipid systems. The less viscous population corresponds to the state showing an average 25° tilt to the lipid membrane normal, and the more viscous population to the state showing an average 55° tilt. This combined experimental and simulation approach enables a comprehensive description of the FMR probe behavior within viscous nano-environments in complex, biological systems.

Nanoparticulate Gels for Cutaneous Administration of Caffeic Acid

Caffeic acid is a natural antioxidant, largely distributed in plant tissues and food sources, possessing anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticarcinogenic properties. The object of this investigation was the development of a formulation for caffeic acid cutaneous administration. To this aim, caffeic acid has been loaded in solid lipid nanoparticles by hot homogenization and ultrasonication, obtaining aqueous dispersions with high drug encapsulation efficiency and 200 nm mean dimension, as assessed by photon correlation spectroscopy. With the aim to improve the consistence of the aqueous nanodispersions, different types of polymers have been considered. Particularly, poloxamer 407 and hyaluronic acid gels containing caffeic acid have been produced and characterized by X-ray and rheological analyses. A Franz cell study enabled to select poloxamer 407, being able to better control caffeic acid diffusion. Thus, a nanoparticulate gel has been produced by addition of poloxamer 407 to nanoparticle dispersions. Notably, caffeic acid diffusion from nanoparticulate gel was eight-fold slower with respect to the aqueous solution. In addition, the spreadability of nanoparticulate gel was suitable for cutaneous administration. Finally, the antioxidant effect of caffeic acid loaded in nanoparticulate gel has been demonstrated by ex-vivo evaluation on human skin explants exposed to cigarette smoke, suggesting a protective role exerted by the nanoparticles.