Decrease in coupling of Gs in v-src-transformed NIH-3T3 fibroblasts: possible involvement of tyrosine phosphorylation of Gs by pp60v-src

[Cellular and molecular pharmacological studies on membrane receptor-signaling and stress-responses in the brain]

Studies on the cellular and molecular mechanism of neurotransmitter receptor-signaling and of neuronal and glial cell responses to stresses seem to be important to elucidate the action mechanism of centrally-acting drugs and to develop novel therapeutics against several diseases in the brain. The present review shows our findings with regard to the membrane receptor-signaling mechanism including serotonin, noradrenaline, glutamate receptors, ion channels, G-proteins, protein kinases and drug actions in Xenopus oocytes injected with rat brain mRNA, NG108-15 cells and brain membranes. Regarding the results of studies on the inter- and intra-cellular mechanism of neurons and glial cells against cerebral ischemia/hypoxia, we review the involvement of a transcription factor NF-kappa B in LPS-elicited inducible NO synthase (iNOS) expression in rat astroglial cells. Then we describe possible involvement of: 1) ADP-ribosylation/nitrosylation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and 2) decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, release of caspase-3 from mitochondria and degradation of the inhibitor of caspase-activated DNase by activated caspase in NO-induced neuronal apoptosis. We observed that hypoxia results in expression of a molecular chaperon such as protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) and HSP70 in astroglial cells. Our recent findings indicate that overexpression of PDI in the rat hippocampus (in vivo) and in neuroblastoma SK-N-MC cells (in vitro) significantly suppress the hypoxia-induced neuronal death. From physiological/pathophysiological and pharmacological aspects, we review the importance of studies on the cellular and molecular mechanism of membrane receptor-signaling and of stress-responses in the brain to identify functional roles of neuro-glial- as well as neuro-neuronal interaction in the brain.

Src tyrosine kinase is a novel direct effector of G proteins

Heterotrimeric G proteins transduce signals from cell surface receptors to modulate the activity of cellular effectors. Src, the product of the first characterized proto-oncogene and the first identified protein tyrosine kinase, plays a critical role in the signal transduction of G protein-coupled receptors. However, the mechanism of biochemical regulation of Src by G proteins is not known. Here we demonstrate that Galphas and Galphai, but neither Galphaq, Galpha12 nor Gbetay, directly stimulate the kinase activity of downregulated c-Src. Galphas and Galphai similarly modulate Hck, another member of Src-family tyrosine kinases. Galphas and Galphai bind to the catalytic domain and change the conformation of Src, leading to increased accessibility of the active site to substrates. These data demonstrate that the Src family tyrosine kinases are direct effectors of G proteins.

Comparison of atypical beta3-adrenoceptor agonists with their respective metabolic activities in rat white adipocytes

The metabolic activities of four types of beta3-adrenoceptor (AR) agonists, BRL35135A, BRL28410, ICI215001 and CL316243, were compared with those of other beta1- and beta2-AR agonists in rat white adipocytes. All the beta3-AR agonists caused cAMP formation, free fatty acid release and 2-deoxyglucose uptake; the maximum activity levels were similar except for ICI215001, which was lower. However, the magnitude of potency and selectivity of these agonists differed. The most potent and selective beta3-agonist was CL316243. Metabolic activities and Northern blotting showed that there were three beta-AR subtypes that were coupled to adenylyl cyclase and contributed to the induction of lipolysis and glucose uptake. The rank order of the amounts of beta-AR subtypes was beta3 >>beta1> beta2. However, the physiological functions of beta-AR subtypes were essentially similar in rat white adipocytes. On the other hand, cAMP accumulation and Northern blotting showed that human adipocytes predominantly contained beta2-AR, with far lower levels of beta1- and beta3-ARs. These findings suggested that the beta3-AR plays an important role in energy metabolism and thermogenesis in which cross talk exists between beta1- and beta3-ARs in rat adipocytes, while beta2-AR is the most important for the lipolysis regulation in human subcutaneous adipocytes.

Corticosterone alters G protein alpha-subunit levels in the rat hippocampus

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulates the synthesis and secretion of corticosteroid hormones. The hippocampus, a component of the limbic system, contains the highest concentration of corticosteroid receptors in the brain and may play an important role in regulating hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and mediating physiological responses to stress. The corticosteroid hormone corticosterone alters the response elicited by activation of several different G protein-linked neurotransmitter receptors in the hippocampus. In the present study we used Western blot and immunohistochemical techniques to determine the effects of chronic adrenalectomy (ADX), low basal (CT) and high (HCT) corticosterone treatments on Gs, Gi1 and 2 and Go alpha-subunit levels and intracellular location in the rat hippocampus. CT treatment increased Gs alpha-subunit levels and HCT treatment increased the levels of Gs, Gi1 and 2 and Go alpha-subunits when compared to sham as detected on Western blots. No change in the intracellular location of the G protein alpha-subunits was detected using immunohistochemistry. Based on our results, we conclude that corticosterone alters G protein alpha-subunit levels in the rat hippocampus without altering their intracellular location. These results provide an important piece of information towards understanding how corticosteroids alter G protein-linked neurotransmitter receptor-mediated responses.

Angiotensin II signaling in vascular smooth muscle. New concepts

Angiotensin II is a multifunctional hormone that affects both contraction and growth of vascular smooth muscle cells through a complex series of intracellular signaling events initiated by the interaction of angiotensin II with the AT1 receptor. The cellular response to angiotensin II is multiphasic, involving stimulation within seconds of phospholipase C and Ca2+ mobilization; activation within minutes of phospholipase D, A2, protein kinase C, and MAP kinase; and stimulation after a period of hours of gene transcription and NADH/NADPH oxidase activity. Angiotensin II also activates numerous intracellular tyrosine kinases. In this respect, it shares some aspects of signaling with growth factor and cytokine receptors, including activation of phospholipase C-gamma, src, and ras; association of shc with grb2; and stimulation of the Jak/STAT pathway. The cellular events responsible for this unique series of events may involve receptor movement and the creation of a signaling domain. Elucidation of these pathways is important to our understanding of AT1 receptor function as a final effector of the renin-angiotensin system.

Staurosporine and herbimycin A augment agonist-induced elevation of cAMP in Jurkat T-lymphoblasts

Cross-talk between signalling pathways appears to play an important role in T-lymphocyte activation. In the present work, we have studied the effects of different inhibitors of protein tyrosine kinases or protein serine/ threonine kinases on the agonist-induced cAMP accumulation in the human T-lymphoblast cell line Jurkat. Staurosporine, a potent but nonspecific inhibitor of protein kinases, produced a ten-fold enhancement of the response to PGE2. No significant effect was obtained with two specific protein kinase C inhibitors (GF 109203X and H7), whereas herbimycin A, a specific protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor, markedly enhanced the PGE2-induced cAMP accumulation: its effect was approximately 60% that of staurosporine. It was confirmed that both staurosporine and herbimycin A inhibited by more than 90% the release of IP3 induced by ligation of the T-cell receptor, a known protein tyrosine kinase-dependent mechanism. To our knowledge, this study provides the first indication of a protein tyrosine kinase-mediated inhibition of agonist-induced cAMP accumulation. The possible targets of this inhibition are discussed.

Identification of the in vitro phosphorylation sites on Gs alpha mediated by pp60c-src

Overexpression of pp60c-src in mouse fibroblasts potentiates both agonist-induced signalling through beta-adrenergic receptors and cyclic AMP accumulation in response to cholera toxin [Bushman, Wilson, Luttrell, Moyers and Parsons (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87, 7462-7466; Moyers, Bouton and Parsons (1993) Mol. Cell. Biol. 13, 2391-2400]. In reconstitution experiments in vitro, phosphorylation of Gs alpha by immune-complexed pp60c-src resulted in enhanced rates of receptor-mediated guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (GTP[S]) binding and GTP hydrolysis [Hausdorff, Pitcher, Luttrell, Linder, Kurose, Parsons, Caron and Lefkowitz (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89, 5720-5724]. These results suggest that one mechanism by which pp60c-src affects signalling through the beta-adrenergic receptor is by phosphorylation and functional alteration of the G protein. To elucidate how phosphorylation of Gs alpha might affect its function, we subjected phosphorylated, recombinant Gs alpha to tryptic phosphopeptide analysis. Phosphotryptic peptides were purified by h.p.l.c. and analysed by Edman degradation to determine the cycle numbers at which radiolabelled phosphotyrosine was released. Candidate peptides that contained Tyr residues at the corresponding positions were synthesized, phosphorylated in vitro by pp60c-src, and their migrations in two-dimensional electrophoresis/t.l.c. were compared with those of tryptic phosphopeptides from intact Gs alpha. We report here that Gs alpha is phosphorylated on two residues by pp60c-src, namely, Tyr-37 and Tyr-377. Tyr-37 lies near the site of beta gamma binding in the N-terminus, within a region postulated to modulate GDP dissociation and activation by GTP [Johnson, Dhanasekaran, Gupta, Lowndes, Vaillancourt and Ruoho (1991) J. Cell Biochem. 47, 136-146], while Tyr-377 is located in the extreme C-terminus, within a region of Gs alpha important for receptor interaction [Sullivan, Miller, Masters, Beiderman, Heideman and Bourne (1987) Nature (London) 334, 712-715]. The location of these residues suggests that phosphorylation may affect the function of both of these regulatory domains.

Characterization of caveolin-rich membrane domains isolated from an endothelial-rich source: implications for human disease

Caveolae are 50-100-nm membrane microdomains that represent a subcompartment of the plasma membrane. Previous morphological studies have implicated caveolae in (a) the transcytosis of macromolecules (including LDL and modified LDLs) across capillary endothelial cells, (b) the uptake of small molecules via a process termed potocytosis involving GPI-linked receptor molecules and an unknown anion transport protein, (c) interactions with the actin-based cytoskeleton, and (d) the compartmentalization of certain signaling molecules, including G-protein coupled receptors. Caveolin, a 22-kD integral membrane protein, is an important structural component of caveolae that was first identified as a major v-Src substrate in Rous sarcoma virus transformed cells. This finding initially suggested a relationship between caveolin, transmembrane signaling, and cellular transformation. We have recently developed a procedure for isolating caveolin-rich membrane domains from cultured cells. To facilitate biochemical manipulations, we have applied this procedure to lung tissue--an endothelial and caveolin-rich source-allowing large scale preparation of these complexes. These membrane domains retain approximately 85% of caveolin and approximately 55% of a GPI-linked marker protein, while they exclude > or = 98% of integral plasma membrane protein markers and > or = 99.6% of other organelle-specific membrane markers tested. Characterization of these complexes by micro-sequencing and immuno-blotting reveals known receptors for modified forms of LDL (scavenger receptors: CD 36 and RAGE), multiple GPI-linked proteins, an anion transporter (plasma membrane porin), cytoskeletal elements, and cytoplasmic signaling molecules--including Src-like kinases, hetero-trimeric G-proteins, and three members of the Rap family of small GTPases (Rap 1--the Ras tumor suppressor protein, Rap 2, and TC21). At least a fraction of the actin in these complexes appeared monomeric (G-actin), suggesting that these domains could represent membrane bound sites for microfilament nucleation/assembly during signaling. Given that the majority of these proteins are known molecules, our current studies provide a systematic basis for evaluating these interactions in vivo.