1
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Messina JM, Luo M, Hossan MS, Gadelrab HA, Yang X, John A, Wilmore JR, Luo J. Unveiling cytokine charge disparity as a potential mechanism for immune regulation. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2023:S1359-6101(23)00091-6. [PMID: 38184374 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2023.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Cytokines are small signaling proteins that regulate the immune responses to infection and tissue damage. Surface charges of cytokines determine their in vivo fate in immune regulation, e.g., half-life and distribution. The overall negative charges in the extracellular microenvironment and the acidosis during inflammation and infection may differentially impact cytokines with different surface charges for fine-tuned immune regulation via controlling tissue residential properties. However, the trend and role of cytokine surface charges has yet to be elucidated in the literature. Interestingly, we have observed that most pro-inflammatory cytokines have a negative charge, while most anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines have a positive charge. In this review, we extensively examined the surface charges of all cytokines and chemokines, summarized the pharmacokinetics and tissue adhesion of major cytokines, and analyzed the link of surface charge with cytokine biodistribution, activation, and function in immune regulation. Additionally, we identified that the general trend of charge disparity between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines represents a unique opportunity to develop precise immune modulation approaches, which can be applied to many inflammation-associated diseases including solid tumors, chronic wounds, infection, and sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Messina
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States
| | - Minghao Luo
- Department of Clinical Medicine, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
| | - Md Shanewaz Hossan
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States
| | - Hadil A Gadelrab
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States
| | - Xiguang Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States
| | - Anna John
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States
| | - Joel R Wilmore
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States; Upstate Sepsis Interdisciplinary Research Center, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States
| | - Juntao Luo
- Department of Pharmacology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States; Department of Surgery, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States; Upstate Cancer Center, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States; Upstate Sepsis Interdisciplinary Research Center, State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, United States.
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2
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IL-7: Comprehensive review. Cytokine 2022; 160:156049. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2022.156049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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3
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Tang F, Brune JE, Chang MY, Reeves SR, Altemeier WA, Frevert CW. Defining the Versican Interactome in Lung Health and Disease. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C249-C276. [PMID: 35649251 PMCID: PMC9291419 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00162.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) imparts critical mechanical and biochemical information to cells in the lungs. Proteoglycans are essential constituents of the ECM and play a crucial role in controlling numerous biological processes, including regulating cellular phenotype and function. Versican, a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan required for embryonic development, is almost absent from mature, healthy lungs and is re-expressed and accumulates in acute and chronic lung disease. Studies using genetically engineered mice show that the versican-enriched matrix can be pro- or anti-inflammatory depending on the cellular source or disease process studied. The mechanisms whereby versican develops a contextual ECM remain largely unknown. The primary goal of this review is to provide an overview of the interaction of versican with its many binding partners, the "versican interactome," and how through these interactions, versican is an integrator of complex extracellular information. Hopefully, the information provided in this review will be used to develop future studies to determine how versican and its binding partners can develop contextual ECMs that control select biological processes. While this review focuses on versican and the lungs, what is described can be extended to other proteoglycans, tissues, and organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengying Tang
- Center for Lung Biology, the University of Washington at South Lake Union, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Jourdan E Brune
- Center for Lung Biology, the University of Washington at South Lake Union, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Mary Y Chang
- Center for Lung Biology, the University of Washington at South Lake Union, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Stephen R Reeves
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States.,Division of Pulmonary and Sleep Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - William A Altemeier
- Center for Lung Biology, the University of Washington at South Lake Union, Seattle, WA, United States.,ivision of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Charles W Frevert
- Center for Lung Biology, the University of Washington at South Lake Union, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States.,ivision of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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4
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Holder PG, Lim SA, Huang CS, Sharma P, Dagdas YS, Bulutoglu B, Sockolosky JT. Engineering interferons and interleukins for cancer immunotherapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 182:114112. [PMID: 35085624 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines are a class of potent immunoregulatory proteins that are secreted in response to various stimuli and act locally to regulate many aspects of human physiology and disease. Cytokines play important roles in cancer initiation, progression, and elimination, and thus, there is a long clinical history associated with the use of recombinant cytokines to treat cancer. However, the use of cytokines as therapeutics has been limited by cytokine pleiotropy, complex biology, poor drug-like properties, and severe dose-limiting toxicities. Nevertheless, cytokines are crucial mediators of innate and adaptive antitumor immunity and have the potential to enhance immunotherapeutic approaches to treat cancer. Development of immune checkpoint inhibitors and combination immunotherapies has reinvigorated interest in cytokines as therapeutics, and a variety of engineering approaches are emerging to improve the safety and effectiveness of cytokine immunotherapy. In this review we highlight recent advances in cytokine biology and engineering for cancer immunotherapy.
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5
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Insights into Interactions between Interleukin-6 and Dendritic Polyglycerols. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052415. [PMID: 33670858 PMCID: PMC7957513 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is involved in physiological and pathological processes. Different pharmacological agents have been developed to block IL-6 deleterious effects and to recover homeostatic IL-6 signaling. One of the proposed nanostructures in pre-clinical investigations which reduced IL-6 concentrations is polyglycerol dendrimer, a nano-structure with multiple sulfate groups. The aim of the present study was to uncover the type of binding between critical positions in the human IL-6 structure available for binding dPGS and compare it with heparin sulfate binding. We studied these interactions by performing docking simulations of dPGS and heparins with human IL-6 using AutoDock Vina. These molecular docking analyses indicate that the two ligands have comparable affinities for the positively charged positions on the surface of IL-6. All-atom molecular dynamics simulations (MD) employing Gromacs were used to explore the binding sites and binding strengths. Results suggest two major binding sites and show that the strengths of binding are similar for heparin and dPGS (−5.5–6.4 kcal/ mol). dPGS or its analogs could be used in the therapeutic intervention in sepsis and inflammatory disorders to reduce unbound IL-6 in the plasma or tissues and its binding to the receptors. We propose that analogs of dPGS could specifically block IL-6 binding in the desired signaling mode and would be valuable new probes to establish optimized therapeutic intervention in inflammation.
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Bednarz-Misa I, Bromke MA, Krzystek-Korpacka M. Interleukin (IL)-7 Signaling in the Tumor Microenvironment. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1290:9-49. [PMID: 33559853 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-55617-4_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-7 plays an important immunoregulatory role in different types of cells. Therefore, it attracts researcher's attention, but despite the fact, many aspects of its modulatory action, as well as other functionalities, are still poorly understood. The review summarizes current knowledge on the interleukin-7 and its signaling cascade in context of cancer development. Moreover, it provides a cancer-type focused description of the involvement of IL-7 in solid tumors, as well as hematological malignancies.The interleukin has been discovered as a growth factor crucial for the early lymphocyte development and supporting the growth of malignant cells in certain leukemias and lymphomas. Therefore, its targeting has been explored as a treatment modality in hematological malignancies, while the unique ability to expand lymphocyte populations selectively and without hyperinflammation has been used in experimental immunotherapies in patients with lymphopenia. Ever since the early research demonstrated a reduced growth of solid tumors in the presence of IL-7, the interleukin application in boosting up the anticancer immunity has been investigated. However, a growing body of evidence indicative of IL-7 upregulation in carcinomas, facilitating tumor growth and metastasis and aiding drug-resistance, is accumulating. It therefore becomes increasingly apparent that the response to the IL-7 stimulus strongly depends on cell type, their developmental stage, and microenvironmental context. The interleukin exerts its regulatory action mainly through phosphorylation events in JAK/STAT and PI3K/Akt pathways, while the significance of MAPK pathway seems to be limited to solid tumors. Given the unwavering interest in IL-7 application in immunotherapy, a better understanding of interleukin role, source in tumor microenvironment, and signaling pathways, as well as the identification of cells that are likely to respond should be a research priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iwona Bednarz-Misa
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Mariusz A Bromke
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
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7
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Magnani HN. Rationale for the Role of Heparin and Related GAG Antithrombotics in COVID-19 Infection. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2021; 27:1076029620977702. [PMID: 33539214 PMCID: PMC7868468 DOI: 10.1177/1076029620977702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has focused attention on prevention, restriction and treatment methods that are acceptable worldwide. This means that they should be simple and inexpensive. This review examines the possible role of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) antithrombotics in the treatment of COVID-19. The pathophysiology of this disease reveals a complex interplay between the hemostatic and immune systems that can be readily disrupted by SARS-CoV-2. Some of the GAG antithrombotics also possess immune-modulatory actions and since they are relatively inexpensive they could play an important role in the management of COVID-19 and its complications.
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8
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Miao R, Lim VY, Kothapalli N, Ma Y, Fossati J, Zehentmeier S, Sun R, Pereira JP. Hematopoietic Stem Cell Niches and Signals Controlling Immune Cell Development and Maintenance of Immunological Memory. Front Immunol 2020; 11:600127. [PMID: 33324418 PMCID: PMC7726109 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.600127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies over the last couple of decades have shown that hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are critically dependent on cytokines such as Stem Cell Factor and other signals provided by bone marrow niches comprising of mesenchymal stem and progenitor cells (MSPCs) and endothelial cells (ECs). Because of their critical roles in HSC maintenance the niches formed by MSPCs and ECs are commonly referred to as HSC niches. For the most part, the signals required for HSC maintenance act in a short-range manner, which imposes the necessity for directional and positional cues in order for HSCs to localize and be retained properly in stem cell niches. The chemokine CXCL12 and its Gαi protein coupled receptor CXCR4, besides promoting HSC quiescence directly, also play instrumental roles in enabling HSCs to access bone marrow stem cell niches. Recent studies have revealed, however, that HSC niches also provide a constellation of hematopoietic cytokines that are critical for the production of most, if not all, blood cell types. Some hematopoietic cytokines, namely IL-7 and IL-15 produced by HSC niches, are not only required for lymphopoiesis but are also essential for memory T cell maintenance. Consequently, hematopoietic progenitors and differentiated immune cells, such as memory T cell subsets, also depend on the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis for migration into bone marrow and interactions with MSPCs and ECs. Similarly, subsets of antibody-secreting plasma cells also reside in close association with CXCL12-producing MSPCs in the bone marrow and require the CXCR4/CXCL12 axis for survival and long-term maintenance. Collectively, these studies demonstrate a broad range of key physiological roles, spanning blood cell production and maintenance of immunological memory, that are orchestrated by stem cell niches through a common and simple mechanism: CXCL12/CXCR4-mediated cell recruitment followed by receipt of a maintenance and/or instructive signal. A fundamental flaw of this type of cellular organization is revealed by myeloid and lymphoid leukemias, which target stem cell niches and induce profound transcriptomic changes that result in reduced hematopoietic activity and altered mesenchymal cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runfeng Miao
- Department of Immunobiology and Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Vivian Y Lim
- Department of Immunobiology and Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Neeharika Kothapalli
- Department of Immunobiology and Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Yifan Ma
- Department of Immunobiology and Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Julia Fossati
- Department of Immunobiology and Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Sandra Zehentmeier
- Department of Immunobiology and Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Ruifeng Sun
- Department of Immunobiology and Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - João P Pereira
- Department of Immunobiology and Yale Stem Cell Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
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9
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Hachim D, Whittaker TE, Kim H, Stevens MM. Glycosaminoglycan-based biomaterials for growth factor and cytokine delivery: Making the right choices. J Control Release 2019; 313:131-147. [PMID: 31629041 PMCID: PMC6900262 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Controlled, localized drug delivery is a long-standing goal of medical research, realization of which could reduce the harmful side-effects of drugs and allow more effective treatment of wounds, cancers, organ damage and other diseases. This is particularly the case for protein "drugs" and other therapeutic biological cargoes, which can be challenging to deliver effectively by conventional systemic administration. However, developing biocompatible materials that can sequester large quantities of protein and release them in a sustained and controlled manner has proven challenging. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) represent a promising class of bio-derived materials that possess these key properties and can additionally potentially enhance the biological effects of the delivered protein. They are a diverse group of linear polysaccharides with varied functionalities and suitabilities for different cargoes. However, most investigations so far have focused on a relatively small subset of GAGs - particularly heparin, a readily available, promiscuously-binding GAG. There is emerging evidence that for many applications other GAGs are in fact more suitable for regulated and sustained delivery. In this review, we aim to illuminate the beneficial properties of various GAGs with reference to specific protein cargoes, and to provide guidelines for informed choice of GAGs for therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Hachim
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas E Whittaker
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Hyemin Kim
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Molly M Stevens
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
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10
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Luria-Pérez R, Candelaria PV, Daniels-Wells TR, Rodríguez JA, Helguera G, Penichet ML. Amino acid residues involved in the heparin-binding activity of murine IL-12 in the context of an antibody-cytokine fusion protein. Cytokine 2019; 120:220-226. [PMID: 31121497 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2019.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
An antibody-cytokine fusion protein, composed of the murine single-chain cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12) genetically fused to a human IgG3 specific for the human tumor-associated antigen HER2/neu maintains antigen binding, cytokine bioactivity, and IL-12 heparin-binding activity. This latter property is responsible for the binding of the cytokine to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) on the cell surface and the extracellular matrix and has been implicated in modulating IL-12 bioactivity. Previous studies indicate that the p40 subunit of human and murine IL-12 is responsible for the heparin-binding activity of this heterodimeric cytokine. In the present study we used bioinformatic analysis and site-directed mutagenesis to develop a version of the antibody-(IL-12) fusion protein without heparin-binding activity. This was accomplished by replacing the basic arginine (R) and lysine (K) residues in the cluster of amino acids 254-260 (RKKEKMK) of the murine IL-12 p40 subunit by the neutral non-polar amino acid alanine (A), generating an AAAEAMA mutant fusion protein. ELISA and flow cytometry demonstrated that the antibody fusion protein lacks heparin-binding activity but retains antigen binding. A T-cell proliferation assay showed IL-12 bioactivity in this construct. However, the IL-12 bioactivity is decreased compared to its non-mutated counterpart, which is consistent with an ancillary role of the heparin-binding site of IL-12 in modulating its activity. Thus, we have defined a cluster of amino acid residues with a crucial role in the heparin-binding activity of murine IL-12 in the context of an antibody-cytokine fusion protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosendo Luria-Pérez
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Pierre V Candelaria
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Tracy R Daniels-Wells
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - José A Rodríguez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA; UCLA-DOE Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA; The Molecular Biology Institute, UCLA, CA, USA
| | - Gustavo Helguera
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Manuel L Penichet
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA; The Molecular Biology Institute, UCLA, CA, USA; Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLA, CA, USA; UCLA AIDS Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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11
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Nguyen KG, Gillam FB, Hopkins JJ, Jayanthi S, Gundampati RK, Su G, Bear J, Pilkington GR, Jalah R, Felber BK, Liu J, Thallapuranam SK, Zaharoff DA. Molecular mechanisms of heparin-induced modulation of human interleukin 12 bioactivity. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:4412-4424. [PMID: 30670588 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.006193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human interleukin-12 (hIL-12) is a heparin-binding cytokine whose activity was previously shown to be enhanced by heparin and other sulfated glycosaminoglycans. The current study investigated the mechanisms by which heparin increases hIL-12 activity. Using multiple human cell types, including natural killer cells, an IL-12 indicator cell line, and primary peripheral blood mononuclear and T cells, along with bioactivity, flow cytometry, and isothermal titration calorimetry assays, we found that heparin-dependent modulation of hIL-12 function correlates with several of heparin's biophysical characteristics, including chain length, sulfation level, and concentration. Specifically, only heparin molecules longer than eight saccharide units enhanced hIL-12 activity. Furthermore, heparin molecules with three sulfate groups per disaccharide unit outperformed heparin molecules with one or two sulfate groups per disaccharide unit in terms of enhanced hIL-12 binding and activity. Heparin also significantly reduced the EC50 value of hIL-12 by up to 11.8-fold, depending on the responding cell type. Cytokine-profiling analyses revealed that heparin affected the level, but not the type, of cytokines produced by lymphocytes in response to hIL-12. Interestingly, although murine IL-12 also binds heparin, heparin did not enhance its activity. Using the gathered data, we propose a model of hIL-12 stabilization in which heparin serves as a co-receptor enhancing the interaction between heterodimeric hIL-12 and its receptor subunits. The results of this study provide a foundation for further investigation of heparin's interactions with IL-12 family cytokines and for the use of heparin as an immunomodulatory agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khue G Nguyen
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599.,the Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
| | - Francis B Gillam
- the Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
| | - Jared J Hopkins
- the Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
| | - Srinivas Jayanthi
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701
| | - Ravi Kumar Gundampati
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701
| | - Guowei Su
- the Division of Chemical Biology and Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, and
| | - Jenifer Bear
- the Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, NCI-Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - Guy R Pilkington
- the Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, NCI-Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - Rashmi Jalah
- the Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, NCI-Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - Barbara K Felber
- the Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, NCI-Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702
| | - Jian Liu
- the Division of Chemical Biology and Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, and
| | | | - David A Zaharoff
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, .,the Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
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12
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Collins LE, Troeberg L. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 105:81-92. [PMID: 30376187 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3ru0618-246r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate is found on the surface of most cell types, as well as in basement membranes and extracellular matrices. Its strong anionic properties and highly variable structure enable this glycosaminoglycan to provide binding sites for numerous protein ligands, including many soluble mediators of the immune system, and may promote or inhibit their activity. The formation of ligand binding sites on heparan sulfate (HS) occurs in a tissue- and context-specific fashion through the action of several families of enzymes, most of which have multiple isoforms with subtly different specificities. Changes in the expression levels of these biosynthetic enzymes occur in response to inflammatory stimuli, resulting in structurally different HS and acquisition or loss of binding sites for immune mediators. In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Collins
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Linda Troeberg
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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13
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Llacua LA, Faas MM, de Vos P. Extracellular matrix molecules and their potential contribution to the function of transplanted pancreatic islets. Diabetologia 2018; 61:1261-1272. [PMID: 29306997 PMCID: PMC6449002 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-017-4524-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules are responsible for structural and biochemical support, as well as for regulation of molecular signalling and tissue repair in many organ structures, including the pancreas. In pancreatic islets, collagen type IV and VI, and laminins are the most abundant molecules, but other ECM molecules are also present. The ECM interacts with specific combinations of integrin α/β heterodimers on islet cells and guides many cellular processes. More specifically, some ECM molecules are involved in beta cell survival, function and insulin production, while others can fine tune the susceptibility of islet cells to cytokines. Further, some ECM induce release of growth factors to facilitate tissue repair. During enzymatic isolation of islets for transplantation, the ECM is damaged, impacting islet function. However, restoration of the ECM in human islets (for example by adding ECM to the interior of immunoprotective capsules) has been shown to enhance islet function. Here, we provide current insight into the role of ECM molecules in islet function and discuss the clinical potential of ECM manipulation to enhance pancreatic islet function and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Alberto Llacua
- Section of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 EA11, 9700 RB, Groningen, the Netherlands.
- University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Marijke M Faas
- Section of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 EA11, 9700 RB, Groningen, the Netherlands
- University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Paul de Vos
- Section of Immunoendocrinology, Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 EA11, 9700 RB, Groningen, the Netherlands
- University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
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14
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Garnier P, Mummery R, Forster MJ, Mulloy B, Gibbs RV, Rider CC. The localisation of the heparin binding sites of human and murine interleukin-12 within the carboxyterminal domain of the P40 subunit. Cytokine 2018; 110:159-168. [PMID: 29753267 PMCID: PMC6109204 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate differences in the specificity of heparin binding between human and murine IL-12s. Heparin predominantly protects the p40 subunit against proteolysis by LysC. A truncated IL-12 polypeptide lacking the carboxyterminal D3 domain fails to bind heparin. The C′D′ loop of the D3 domain contains a large cluster of surface accessible basic residues. This loop is the region of greatest sequence variation between murine and human p40s.
We have previously shown that the heterodimeric cytokine interleukin-12, and the homodimer of its larger subunit p40, both bind to heparin and heparan sulfate with relatively high affinity. In the present study we characterised these interactions using a series of chemically modified heparins as competitive inhibitors. Human interleukin-12 and p40 homodimer show indistinguishable binding profiles with a panel of heparin derivatives, but that of murine interleukin-12 is distinct. Heparin markedly protects the human and murine p40 subunits, but not the p35 subunits, from cleavage by the bacterial endoprotease LysC, further implicating the larger subunit as the location of the heparin binding site. Moreover the essential role of the carboxyterminal D3 domain in heparin binding is established by the failure of a truncated construct of the p40 subunit lacking this domain to bind. Predictive docking calculations indicate that a cluster of basic residues at the tip of the exposed C′D′ loop within D3 is important in heparin binding. However since the human and murine C′D′ loops differ considerably in length, the mode and three dimensional orientation of heparin binding are likely to differ substantially between the human and murine p40s. Thus overall the binding of IL-12 via its p40 subunit to heparin-related polysaccharides of the extracellular matrix appears to be functionally important since it has been conserved across mammalian species despite this structural divergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascale Garnier
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Rosemary Mummery
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Mark J Forster
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Herts EN6 3QG, UK; Scientific Computing Department, Daresbury Laboratory, Warrington, Cheshire WA4 4AD, UK(2)
| | - Barbara Mulloy
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK; National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Herts EN6 3QG, UK
| | - Roslyn V Gibbs
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, White Swan Road, Portsmouth, Hants PO1 2DT, UK
| | - Christopher C Rider
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK.
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15
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Kang I, Chang MY, Wight TN, Frevert CW. Proteoglycans as Immunomodulators of the Innate Immune Response to Lung Infection. J Histochem Cytochem 2018; 66:241-259. [PMID: 29328866 DOI: 10.1369/0022155417751880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteoglycans (PGs) are complex, multifaceted molecules that participate in diverse interactions vital for physiological and pathological processes. As structural components, they provide a scaffold for cells and structural organization that helps define tissue architecture. Through interactions with water, PGs enable molecular and cellular movement through tissues. Through selective ionic interactions with growth factors, chemokines, cytokines, and proteases, PGs facilitate the ability of these soluble ligands to regulate intracellular signaling events and to influence the inflammatory response. In addition, recent findings now demonstrate that PGs can activate danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and other signaling pathways to influence production of many of these soluble ligands, indicating a more direct role for PGs in influencing the immune response and tissue inflammation. This review will focus on PGs that are selectively expressed during lung inflammation and will examine the novel emerging concept of PGs as immunomodulatory regulators of the innate immune responses in lungs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inkyung Kang
- Matrix Biology Program, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, Washington
| | - Mary Y Chang
- Comparative Pathology Program, Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington
| | - Thomas N Wight
- Matrix Biology Program, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, Washington
| | - Charles W Frevert
- Center for Lung Biology, Division of Pulmonary/Critical Care Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington
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16
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Zhao J, Liu Y, Pan B, Gao G, Liu Y, Liu S, Liang N, Zhou D, Vijver MG, Peijnenburg WJGM. Tannic acid promotes ion release of copper oxide nanoparticles: Impacts from solution pH change and complexation reactions. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 127:59-67. [PMID: 29031800 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 06/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The increasing number of applications in which copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) are used, may lead to potential release of CuO NPs into the environment. However, the impact of natural organic matters on the behavior and fate of CuO NPs in aquatic media is still largely unknown. In this study, the dissolution and aggregation of CuO NPs under the exposure of tannic acid (TA) were monitored over a period of 72 h, with a focus on assessing the contributions of solution pH changes and complexation reactions. Results showed that the total amount of Cu2+ released from CuO NPs increased in the presence of TA especially at the highest TA concentration of 73.5 μmol/L. Although TA was observed to wrap around the CuO NPs, the aggregation of CuO NPs was not strongly influenced by TA and by the solution pH as investigated in this study. The kinetics of Cu2+ release were fitted using the modified pseudo second-order model and the rate of dissolution was assessed to be highest at TA = 14.7 μmol/L. At pH = 4, the increased H+ concentration was responsible for increased Cu2+ release, whereas the complexation reaction between Cu2+ and TA dominated at pH = 7. These findings suggested that the effects of TA on the dissolution of CuO NPs were a combination of solution pH change and complexation reaction, the relative fractions of which also depended on the solution pH. Additionally, the percentage of Cu2+ released from the CuO NPs was found to increase upon decreasing concentrations of CuO NPs. Our work helps to further understand how and to which extent natural organic matters affect the behavior and fate of CuO NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhao
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650093, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650093, China.
| | - Bo Pan
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650093, China
| | - Guoqian Gao
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650093, China
| | - Ying Liu
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650093, China
| | - Siqian Liu
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650093, China
| | - Ni Liang
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650093, China
| | - Dandan Zhou
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan 650093, China
| | - Martina G Vijver
- Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Willie J G M Peijnenburg
- Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands; National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Center for Safety of Substances and Products, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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17
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Jayanthi S, Koppolu BP, Nguyen KG, Smith SG, Felber BK, Kumar TKS, Zaharoff DA. Modulation of Interleukin-12 activity in the presence of heparin. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5360. [PMID: 28706183 PMCID: PMC5509706 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05382-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), especially heparin and heparan sulfate (HS), modulate the functions of numerous cytokines. The aims of this multidisciplinary research were to characterize heparin binding to interleukin-12 (IL-12) and determine the mechanism(s) by which heparin influences IL-12 bioactivity. Heparin and HS were found to bind human IL-12 (hIL-12) with low micromolar affinity and increase hIL-12 bioactivity by more than 6-fold. Conversely, other GAGs did not demonstrate significant binding, nor did their addition affect hIL-12 bioactivity. Biophysical studies demonstrated that heparin induced only minor conformational changes while size-exclusion chromatography and small angle X-ray scattering studies indicated that heparin induced dimerization of hIL-12. Heparin modestly protected hIL-12 from proteolytic degradation, however, this was not a likely mechanism for increased cytokine activity in vitro. Flow cytometry studies revealed that heparin increased the amount of hIL-12 bound to cell surfaces. Heparin also facilitated hIL-12 binding and signaling in cells in which both hIL-12 receptor subunits were functionally deleted. Results of this study demonstrate a new role for heparin in modulating the biological activity of IL-12.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivas Jayanthi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Bhanu Prasanth Koppolu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA.,Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Khue G Nguyen
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Sean G Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA.,Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Barbara K Felber
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch-National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Thallapuranam Krishnaswamy Suresh Kumar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA. .,Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA.
| | - David A Zaharoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA. .,Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Raleigh, NC, USA. .,Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA. .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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18
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Valdez J, Cook CD, Ahrens CC, Wang AJ, Brown A, Kumar M, Stockdale L, Rothenberg D, Renggli K, Gordon E, Lauffenburger D, White F, Griffith L. On-demand dissolution of modular, synthetic extracellular matrix reveals local epithelial-stromal communication networks. Biomaterials 2017; 130:90-103. [PMID: 28371736 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 03/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Methods to parse paracrine epithelial-stromal communication networks are a vital need in drug development, as disruption of these networks underlies diseases ranging from cancer to endometriosis. Here, we describe a modular, synthetic, and dissolvable extracellular matrix (MSD-ECM) hydrogel that fosters functional 3D epithelial-stromal co-culture, and that can be dissolved on-demand to recover cells and paracrine signaling proteins intact for subsequent analysis. Specifically, synthetic polymer hydrogels, modified with cell-interacting adhesion motifs and crosslinked with peptides that include a substrate for cell-mediated proteolytic remodeling, can be rapidly dissolved by an engineered version of the microbial transpeptidase Sortase A (SrtA) if the crosslinking peptide includes a SrtA substrate motif and a soluble second substrate. SrtA-mediated dissolution affected only 1 of 31 cytokines and growth factors assayed, whereas standard protease degradation methods destroyed about half of these same molecules. Using co-encapsulated endometrial epithelial and stromal cells as one model system, we show that the dynamic cytokine and growth factor response of co-cultures to an inflammatory cue is richer and more nuanced when measured from SrtA-dissolved gel microenvironments than from the culture supernate. This system employs accessible, reproducible reagents and facile protocols; hence, has potential as a tool in identifying and validating therapeutic targets in complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Valdez
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Christi D Cook
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Caroline Chopko Ahrens
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Alex J Wang
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Alexander Brown
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Manu Kumar
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Linda Stockdale
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Daniel Rothenberg
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kasper Renggli
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Elizabeth Gordon
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Douglas Lauffenburger
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Forest White
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Linda Griffith
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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19
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Pasqualon T, Lue H, Groening S, Pruessmeyer J, Jahr H, Denecke B, Bernhagen J, Ludwig A. Cell surface syndecan-1 contributes to binding and function of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) on epithelial tumor cells. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2016; 1863:717-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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20
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Function of Membrane-Associated Proteoglycans in the Regulation of Satellite Cell Growth. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 900:61-95. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-27511-6_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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21
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Bazdar DA, Kalinowska M, Panigrahi S, Sieg SF. Recycled IL-7 Can Be Delivered to Neighboring T Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:4698-704. [PMID: 25870237 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1400560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
IL-7 is a key homeostatic cytokine that provides signals for T cell survival and proliferation in vivo. In this article, we provide evidence that IL-7 utilization is enhanced by a novel mechanism of cytokine "recycling" during which T cells treated with rIL-7 are rapidly induced to express p-STAT5 and are subsequently able to recycle biologically active cytokine for release to neighboring cells in soluble form. Our observations indicate that the ability of cells to recycle IL-7 is dependent on IL-7R α-chain (CD127) and endocytosis, consistent with a model whereby IL-7 is internalized via receptor interactions before recycling. These observations provide evidence of a novel mechanism that enables cells to optimally use IL-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas A Bazdar
- Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106; and
| | | | - Soumya Panigrahi
- Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106; and
| | - Scott F Sieg
- Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106; and
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22
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Churchman SM, El-Jawhari JJ, Burska AN, Parmar R, Goëb V, Conaghan PG, Emery P, Ponchel F. Modulation of peripheral T-cell function by interleukin-7 in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2014; 16:511. [PMID: 25533722 PMCID: PMC4298067 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-014-0511-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is a cytokine essential for T-cell lymphopoiesis, survival and polarization with an emerging role in autoimmunity. We previously demonstrated reduced levels of circulating IL-7 in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), although high amounts are expressed in joints, suggesting differences between systemic and synovial effects. We observed healthy levels of IL-7 in 48% of RA patients in clinical remission (CR) and aimed to investigate the consequences of IL-7 deficiency on T-cell responses. Methods We used RA patients with active disease and in CR presenting various levels of IL-7, to investigate its modulatory effects on T cells by analysing responses to phyto-haemagglutinin (PHA), expression of polarization or survival factors, or suppression by regulatory T cells (Tregs). Results IL-7 levels were normal (>10 pg/ml) in 48% of RA patients in CR. Amongst 63 CR patients followed up for 18 months, lack of IL-7 recovery was observed in 13 out of 15 (86%) patients experiencing relapse but only 11 out of 48 (23%) of those who did not (P = 0.0002). Binary regressions showed high significance for below normal IL-7 levels for self-reported maternal family history of arthritis (odds ratio (OR): 7.66, P = 0.006) and a trend for smoking (OR: 3.33, P = 0.068) with no further demographic or clinical associations. Serum IL-7 correlated with restored CD4+T-cell response to PHA (rho = 0.879); this was not related to an increase in T-cell proliferation capacity or expression of survival factors B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2) and BCL2-associated protein X (BAX). Expression of Th1 polarization factor (TBET) was also dependent on exposure to IL-7 in vivo (rho = 0.600). In contrast CD25highTregs’ response to PHA was not affected by in vivo IL-7, but their suppression capabilities were related to circulating IL-7 (rho = 0.589). Co-stimulation with IL-7 (mimicking the joint environment) increased responsiveness of CD4+T-cells to PHA, lowering the ability of CD25highTregs to suppress them. Conclusions Our data demonstrate that IL-7 has a critical role in modulating T-cell function in vivo, possibly explaining opposing effects observed systemically and in the joint. Lack of IL-7 recovery in CR by maintaining a suppressed immune system may be a determinant factor in the occurrence of relapse. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13075-014-0511-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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23
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Künze G, Gehrcke JP, Pisabarro MT, Huster D. NMR characterization of the binding properties and conformation of glycosaminoglycans interacting with interleukin-10. Glycobiology 2014; 24:1036-49. [DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwu069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
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24
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Cheung LC, Strickland DH, Howlett M, Ford J, Charles AK, Lyons KM, Brigstock DR, Goldschmeding R, Cole CH, Alexander WS, Kees UR. Connective tissue growth factor is expressed in bone marrow stromal cells and promotes interleukin-7-dependent B lymphopoiesis. Haematologica 2014; 99:1149-56. [PMID: 24727816 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2013.102327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Hematopoiesis occurs in a complex bone marrow microenvironment in which bone marrow stromal cells provide critical support to the process through direct cell contact and indirectly through the secretion of cytokines and growth factors. We report that connective tissue growth factor (Ctgf, also known as Ccn2) is highly expressed in murine bone marrow stromal cells. In contrast, connective tissue growth factor is barely detectable in unfractionated adult bone marrow cells. While connective tissue growth factor has been implicated in hematopoietic malignancies, and is known to play critical roles in skeletogenesis and regulation of bone marrow stromal cells, its role in hematopoiesis has not been described. Here we demonstrate that the absence of connective tissue growth factor in mice results in impaired hematopoiesis. Using a chimeric fetal liver transplantation model, we show that absence of connective tissue growth factor has an impact on B-cell development, in particular from pro-B to more mature stages, which is linked to a requirement for connective tissue growth factor in bone marrow stromal cells. Using in vitro culture systems, we demonstrate that connective tissue growth factor potentiates B-cell proliferation and promotes pro-B to pre-B differentiation in the presence of interleukin-7. This study provides a better understanding of the functions of connective tissue growth factor within the bone marrow, showing the dual regulatory role of the growth factor in skeletogenesis and in stage-specific B lymphopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence C Cheung
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Deborah H Strickland
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Meegan Howlett
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Jette Ford
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Adrian K Charles
- Princess Margaret Hospital, Perth, WA, Australia School of Paediatrics and Child Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | | | - David R Brigstock
- Center for Clinical and Translational Research, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Roel Goldschmeding
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Catherine H Cole
- Princess Margaret Hospital, Perth, WA, Australia School of Paediatrics and Child Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Warren S Alexander
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research and Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ursula R Kees
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
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25
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Kramer JM. Early events in Sjögren's Syndrome pathogenesis: the importance of innate immunity in disease initiation. Cytokine 2014; 67:92-101. [PMID: 24656928 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2014.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Sjögren's Syndrome (SS) is a debilitating autoimmune disease that primarily affects women. Patients with SS experience dry eyes and dry mouth in addition to systemic disease manifestations, including arthritis, peripheral neuropathy and pulmonary fibrosis. As in many autoimmune diseases, the inciting factors that precipitate SS are poorly understood. Patients with SS have periductal and perivascular lymphocytic infiltration of salivary and lacrimal tissue, and this is a hallmark of disease. While this infiltration is well characterized, the pathologic events that precede and cause this inflammatory cell recruitment are unknown. Although few studies have examined SS salivary tissue prior to disease onset, there is strong evidence for innate immune hyperactivity. Accordingly, processes such as apoptosis of glandular tissue, heightened inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production, and toll-like receptor (TLR) activation are described in early disease and are each linked to innate immune activation in murine models of disease and SS patients. This review will explore the relationship between innate immunity and SS pathogenesis prior to overt disease onset and discuss therapeutic strategies to mitigate disease progression in SS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill M Kramer
- Department of Oral Biology, State University of New York at Buffalo, School of Dental Medicine, 3435 Main Street, 211 Foster Hall, Buffalo, NY 14214, United States.
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26
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Simon Davis DA, Parish CR. Heparan sulfate: a ubiquitous glycosaminoglycan with multiple roles in immunity. Front Immunol 2013; 4:470. [PMID: 24391644 PMCID: PMC3866581 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 12/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a highly acidic linear polysaccharide with a very variable structure. It is ubiquitously expressed on cell surfaces and in the extracellular matrix and basement membrane of mammalian tissues. Synthesized attached to various core proteins to form HS-proteoglycans, HS is capable of interacting with various polypeptides and exerting diverse functions. In fact, a bioinformatics analysis of mammalian proteins that express a heparin/HS-binding motif and are associated with the immune system identified 235 candidate proteins, the majority having an intracellular location. This simple analysis suggests that HS may, in fact, interact with many more components of the immune system than previously realized. Numerous studies have also directly demonstrated that HS plays multiple prominent functional roles in the immune system that are briefly reviewed in this article. In particular, the molecule has been shown to regulate leukocyte development, leukocyte migration, immune activation, and inflammatory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Anak Simon Davis
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Group, Department of Immunology, The John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University , Canberra, ACT , Australia
| | - Christopher R Parish
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Group, Department of Immunology, The John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University , Canberra, ACT , Australia
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27
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Despras G, Bernard C, Perrot A, Cattiaux L, Prochiantz A, Lortat-Jacob H, Mallet JM. Toward libraries of biotinylated chondroitin sulfate analogues: from synthesis to in vivo studies. Chemistry 2012; 19:531-40. [PMID: 23154924 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201202173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chondroitin sulfate-E (CS-E) oligosaccharidic analogues (di to hexa) were prepared from lactose. In these compounds, the 2-acetamido group was replaced by a hydroxyl group. This modification speeded up the synthesis, and large oligosaccharides were constructed in a few steps from a lactose-originated block. The protecting groups used were as follows; Fmoc for hydroxyl groups to be glycosylated, allyl group for anomeric position protection, and trichoroacetimidate leaving groups were used to prepare up to octasaccharides. We took advantage of the presence of allyl group to develop a click biotinylation, through its transformation into a 3-azido-2-hydroxyl propyl group in two steps (epoxidation and sodium azide epoxide opening). The biotinylating agent was a water-soluble propargylated and biotinylated triethylene glycol (PEG). By using surface plasmon resonance (SPR), it was shown that the di-, tetra-, and hexasaccharides display a binding affinity and selectivity toward HSF/GSF and CXCL12 similar to that of CS-E. A parallel study confirmed their mimicry of natural compounds, based on the hexasaccharide interaction with Otx2, a homeodomain protein involved in brain maturation, thus validating our simplification approach to synthesize bioactive GAG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Despras
- UPMC Paris 06, UMR 7203, Laboratoire des BioMolécules, Université P. et M. Curie, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
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Hara T, Shitara S, Imai K, Miyachi H, Kitano S, Yao H, Tani-ichi S, Ikuta K. Identification of IL-7-producing cells in primary and secondary lymphoid organs using IL-7-GFP knock-in mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:1577-84. [PMID: 22786774 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
IL-7 is a cytokine crucial for development and maintenance of lymphocytes and other hematopoietic cells. However, how IL-7-expressing cells are distributed in lymphoid organs is not well known. To address this question, we established and analyzed IL-7-GFP knock-in mice. Thymic epithelial cells (TECs) expressed high GFP levels in the cortex and medulla, as detected with an anti-GFP Ab. Thymic mesenchymal cells also expressed GFP. Flow cytometry analysis suggested that cortical TECs expressed higher GFP levels than did medullary TECs. In bone marrow, immunohistochemistry indicated high levels of GFP in many VCAM-1(+) mesenchymal stromal cells and in some VCAM-1(-) cells. Additionally, half of the VCAM-1(+)CD31(-) stromal cells and some platelet-derived growth factor receptor α(+) stromal cells were GFP(+), as detected by flow cytometry. Moreover, we detected GFP expression in fibroblastic reticular cells in the T cell zone and cortical ridge of lymph nodes. Remarkably, lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) expressed GFP at high levels within the lymph node medulla, skin epidermis, and intestinal tissues. Additionally, we detected abundant IL-7 transcripts in isolated LECs, suggesting that LECs produce IL-7, a heretofore unknown finding. Furthermore, GFP is expressed in a subpopulation of intestinal epithelial cells, and that expression was markedly upregulated in a dextran sulfate sodium-induced acute colitis model. Overall, IL-7-GFP knock-in mice serve as a unique and powerful tool to examine the identity and distribution of IL-7-expressing cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Hara
- Laboratory of Biological Protection, Department of Biological Responses, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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Mitchell WA, Castells A, Lang PO, Matas E, Lapenna A, Aspinall R. Pulmonary delivery of interleukin-7 provides efficient and safe delivery to the aging immune system. Rejuvenation Res 2012; 15:414-22. [PMID: 22663183 DOI: 10.1089/rej.2011.1258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Age-associated atrophy of the thymus with coincident reduction in thymopoeisis, decline in thymic output, and subsequent immune dysfunction has been reversed by the use of interleukin-7 (IL-7). In the earlier studies and in clinical trials, delivery of IL-7 has been by multiple injections over several days to maintain effective activity levels in the tissues. This is unlikely to meet with high compliance rates in future clinical use, and so we tested alternate routes of delivery using a technique involving tagging IL-7 with fluorescent dye that emits in the near-infrared region and whose fluorescence can be visualized within the tissues of live animals. We have shown that intratracheal instillation, enabling transfer through the lungs, provides an effective route for delivering IL-7 into the bloodstream and from there into the tissues in older animals. Delivery is rapid and widespread tissue distribution is seen. Comparison of administration either subcutaneously or by instillation reveals that IL-7 delivery by the pulmonary route provides significantly greater transmission to lymphoid tissues when compared with injection. In functional assessment studies, pulmonary administration led to significantly improved intrathymic T cell development in older animals when compared with IL-7 delivered by injection. Furthermore, in these older animals, delivery of IL-7 by intratracheal instillation was not accompanied by any apparent adverse events when compared with controls receiving saline vehicle by instillation or animals receiving IL-7 by subcutaneous injection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wayne A Mitchell
- Regenerative Medicine Group, Translational Medicine, Cranfield Health, Cranfield University, Cranfield, United Kingdom
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Dezell SA, Ahn YO, Spanholtz J, Wang H, Weeres M, Jackson S, Cooley S, Dolstra H, Miller JS, Verneris MR. Natural killer cell differentiation from hematopoietic stem cells: a comparative analysis of heparin- and stromal cell-supported methods. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2012; 18:536-45. [PMID: 22155502 PMCID: PMC3303970 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbmt.2011.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells differentiated from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) may have significant clinical benefits over NK cells from adult donors, including the ability to choose alloreactive donors and potentially more robust in vivo expansion. Stromal-based methods have been used to study the differentiation of NK cells from HSCs. Stroma and cytokines support NK cell differentiation, but may face considerable regulatory hurdles. A recently reported clinical-grade, heparin-based method could serve as an alternative. How the stromal-based and heparin-based approaches compare in terms of NK cell generating efficiency or function is unknown. We show that compared with heparin-based cultures, stroma significantly increases the yield of HSC-derived NK cells by differentiating less-committed progenitors into the NK lineage. NK cells generated by both approaches were similar for most NK-activating and -inhibiting receptors. Although both approaches resulted in a phenotype consistent with CD56(bright) stage IV NK cells, heparin-based cultures favored the development of CD56(+)CD16(+) cells, whereas stroma produced more NK cell immunoglobulin-like receptor-expressing NK cells, both of which are markers of terminal maturation. At day 21, stromal-based cultures demonstrated significantly more IL-22 production, and both methods yielded similar amounts of IFN-γ production and cytotoxicity by day 35. These findings suggest that heparin-based cultures are an effective replacement for stroma and may facilitate clinical trials testing HSC-derived NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven A Dezell
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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The influence of HIV on CD127 expression and its potential implications for IL-7 therapy. Semin Immunol 2012; 24:231-40. [PMID: 22421574 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2012.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2011] [Revised: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 02/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is critical for early T-cell development and plays an important role in T-cell homeostasis, differentiation and function. Signalling via the IL-7 receptor is dependent on the expression of its components, IL-7Rα (CD127) and IL-2Rγ (CD132) and is mediated in part by alterations in CD127 expression levels in different cell subsets. Naïve and memory T-cells express high levels of CD127, while effector cells are CD127(lo) and retention of the receptor is thought to influence the development of memory cells. Reduced expression of CD127 has been associated with markers of disease severity in HIV infection and other chronic viral infections as well as in various cancers. In HIV infection, decreased CD127 expression on T-cells is correlated with reduced CD4(+) T-cell counts, increased viral replication and immune activation. The loss of IL-7 activity, due to decreased CD127 expression, may contribute to the observed loss of CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity in HIV infection. The downregulation of CD127 expression in HIV infection may be due to host (e.g. IL-7, IL-4, immune activation) and/or viral (e.g. HIV-tat) factors and mechanisms of receptor regulation may differ by cell type. In addition, the expression of a soluble form of CD127 (sCD127) has been shown to be increased in HIV infection. This protein may affect IL-7 activity in vivo and therefore may have implications for IL-7-based therapies which are currently being tested in clinical trials. Understanding how CD127 is regulated during HIV infection will provide insight for the development of novel therapeutics to improve immune function and anti-viral T-cell activity.
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Biophysical characterization of glycosaminoglycan-IL-7 interactions using SPR. Biochimie 2011; 94:242-9. [PMID: 22085638 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2011.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) interact with a number of cytokines and growth factors thereby playing an essential role in the regulation of many physiological processes. These interactions are important for both normal signal transduction and the regulation of the tissue distribution of cytokines/growth factors. In the present study, we employed surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy to dissect the binding interactions between GAGs and murine and human forms of interleukin-7 (IL-7). SPR results revealed that heparin binds with higher affinity to human IL-7 than murine IL-7 through a different kinetic mechanism. The optimal oligosaccharide length of heparin for the interactions to human and murine IL-7 involves a sequence larger than a tetrasaccharide. These results further demonstrate that while IL-7 is principally a heparin/heparan sulfate binding protein, it also interacts with dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfates C, D, and E, indicating that this cytokine preferentially interacts with GAGs having a higher degree of sulfation.
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Gill S, Wight TN, Frevert CW. Proteoglycans: key regulators of pulmonary inflammation and the innate immune response to lung infection. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2010; 293:968-81. [PMID: 20503391 DOI: 10.1002/ar.21094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to viruses and bacteria results in lung infections and places a significant burden on public health. The innate immune system is an early warning system that recognizes viruses and bacteria, which results in the rapid production of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and chemokines and the pulmonary recruitment of leukocytes. When leukocytes emigrate from the systemic circulation through the extracellular matrix (ECM) in response to lung infection they encounter proteoglycans, which consist of a core protein and their associated glycosaminoglycans. In this review, we discuss how proteoglycans serve to modify the pulmonary inflammatory response and leukocyte migration through a number of different mechanisms including: (1) The ability of soluble proteoglycans or fragments of glycosaminoglycans to activate Toll-like receptor (TLRs) signaling pathways; (2) The binding and sequestration of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors by proteoglycans; (3) the ability of proteoglycans and hyaluronan to facilitate leukocyte adhesion and sequestration; and (4) The interactions between proteoglycans and matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) that alter the function of these proteases. In conclusion, proteoglycans fine-tune tissue inflammation through a number of different mechanisms. Clarification of the mechanisms whereby proteoglycans modulate the pulmonary inflammatory response will most likely lead to new therapeutic approaches to inflammatory lung disease and lung infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Gill
- Center for Lung Biology, University of Washington School of Medicine at South Lake Union, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Ponchel F, Cuthbert RJ, Goëb V. IL-7 and lymphopenia. Clin Chim Acta 2010; 412:7-16. [PMID: 20850425 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2010.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Revised: 09/01/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is a growth and anti-apoptotic factor for T-lymphocytes, with potential for clinical use in the treatment of immunodeficiencies due to loss of T-cells. Lymphopenia induced by disease (HIV infection, hemodialysis or Idiopathic CD4+ lymphopenia) or by treatment (high dose chemotherapy or depleting antibodies) for cancer or auto-immune diseases results in increased circulating levels of IL-7 which decline with T-cell recovery, however, the mechanism of such response remains to be elucidated. Furthermore, IL-7 is a major player in the regulation of peripheral T-cell homeostasis and as such is an important candidate cytokine for therapy aimed at improving T-cell reconstitution following lymphopenia. Anti- IL-7 is on the other hand proposed to treat conditions where IL-7 may play a more direct role in pathogenesis such as autoimmune disease like Rheumatoid Arthritis, Multiple Sclerosis or Inflammatory Bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederique Ponchel
- Leeds Institute of Molecular Medicine, Section of Musculoskeletal disease, the University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
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Cdc25A-driven proliferation regulates CD62L levels and lymphocyte movement in response to interleukin-7. Exp Hematol 2010; 38:1143-56. [PMID: 20831893 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2010.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Revised: 08/16/2010] [Accepted: 08/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is a multifunctional cytokine and a promising immunotherapeutic agent. However, because transient T-cell depletion is an immediate outcome of IL-7 administration at supraphysiological doses, we investigated the mechanism by which the IL-7 proliferative signal transduced through Cdc25A, a key activator of cyclin-dependent kinases, could modulate lymphocyte movement. MATERIALS AND METHODS Employing novel methods of manipulating Cdc25A gene expression, combined with in vitro and in vivo evaluation of IL-7 application, we assessed the expression of activation and homing markers and identified the mechanism by which IL-7 could induce T-cell expansion and alter lymphocyte motility. RESULTS Constitutively active Cdc25A drove T-cell proliferation independently of IL-7 and resulted in an activated phenotype (CD69(hi), CD44(hi)). Conversely, inhibition of Cdc25A resulted in decreased proliferation, reduced expression of activation markers, and upregulation of the lymph node homing molecule, CD62L, which promoted cell adhesion when engaged by ligand. We found that IL-7 prevented the nuclear translocation of the transcription factor, Foxo1, in a manner dependent on the activity of Cdc25A, resulting in decreased levels of CD62L. In vivo administration of IL-7 decreased lymph node cellularity, while treatment with IL-7, premixed with a neutralizing IL-7 antibody (M25), increased total lymph node cells--with more nuclear Foxo1 detected in cells from mice receiving IL-7 + M25. CONCLUSIONS These results are consistent with the model that IL-7 drives Cdc25A-mediated T-cell proliferation, which prevents the nuclear translocation of Foxo1, leading to reduced expression of CD62L and the migration of T cells into circulation.
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Crawley AM, Faucher S, Angel JB. Soluble IL-7Rα (sCD127) Inhibits IL-7 Activity and Is Increased in HIV Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:4679-87. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0903758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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IL-2/anti-IL-2 antibody complexes show strong biological activity by avoiding interaction with IL-2 receptor alpha subunit CD25. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:2171-6. [PMID: 20133862 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0909384107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
IL-2 is crucial to T cell homeostasis, especially of CD4(+) T regulatory cells and memory CD8(+) cells, as evidenced by vigorous proliferation of these cells in vivo following injections of superagonist IL-2/anti-IL-2 antibody complexes. The mechanism of IL-2/anti-IL-2 antibody complexes is unknown owing to a lack of understanding of IL-2 homeostasis. We show that IL-2 receptor alpha (CD25) plays a crucial role in IL-2 homeostasis. Thus, prolongation of IL-2 half-life and blocking of CD25 using antibodies or CD25-deficient mice led in combination, but not alone, to vigorous IL-2-mediated T cell proliferation, similar to IL-2/anti-IL-2 antibody complexes. These data suggest an unpredicted role for CD25 in IL-2 homeostasis.
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Naive T cell homeostasis: from awareness of space to a sense of place. Nat Rev Immunol 2009; 9:823-32. [PMID: 19935802 DOI: 10.1038/nri2657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The peripheral naive T cell pool is fairly stable in number, diversity and functional competence in the absence of vigorous immune responses. However, this apparent tranquility is not an intrinsic property of T cells but involves continuous tuning of the T cell pool composition by homeostatic signals. In the past decade, studies have revealed that naive T cells rely on combinatorial signals from self-peptide-MHC complexes and interleukin-7 for their physical and functional maintenance. Competition for these factors dictates T cell 'space'. In addition, recent studies show that these and other homeostatic factors are offered to T cells on stromal cell networks, which also serve to guide T cell trafficking in secondary lymphoid organs. Such findings suggest the importance of 'place' in the perception and integration of homeostatic cues for the maintenance and functional tuning of the naive T cell pool.
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Wang Y, Stenken JA. Affinity-based microdialysis sampling using heparin for in vitro collection of human cytokines. Anal Chim Acta 2009; 651:105-11. [PMID: 19733743 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2009] [Revised: 07/30/2009] [Accepted: 08/11/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Microdialysis sampling is a widely used method to sample from complex biological matrices. Cytokines are important signaling proteins that are typically recovered with low relative recovery values during microdialysis sampling. Heparin was included in the microdialysis perfusion fluid as an affinity agent to increase in vitro recovery of different cytokines through polyethersulfone (PES) microdialysis membranes with 100 kDa molecular weight cutoff. No change in fluid volumes collected from the microdialysis probes occurred when heparin was included in the perfusion fluid up to concentrations of 10 microM. The loss of heparin (10 microM) across the dialysis membrane was minimal (2.7+/-0.9%, n=3). Additionally, heparin at these concentrations did not interfere with the cytokine immunoassays. The control and heparin-enhanced relative recoveries for five human cytokines using 0.1 microM heparin in the microdialysis perfusion fluid flowing at 0.5 microL min(-1) were (n=3): interleukin-4 (IL-4), 4.2+/-0.5% and 7.2+/-3.1%; interleukin-6 (IL-6), 1.4+/-0.8% and 3.6+/-1.3%; interleukin-7 (IL-7), 1.3+/-0.8% and 4.8+/-1.8%; monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), 9.0+/-1.6% and 19.5+/-2.7%; and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), 7.4+/-1.3% and 16.9+/-1.6%, respectively. Heparin increased the microdialysis sampling relative recovery of several human cytokines in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuexi Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180-3590, USA
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40
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Injection of glycosylated recombinant simian IL-7 provokes rapid and massive T-cell homing in rhesus macaques. Blood 2009; 114:816-25. [PMID: 19351957 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-11-191288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-7 (IL-7), the principal cytokine implicated in thymopoiesis and peripheral T-cell homeostasis, is presently under evaluation in human diseases characterized by persistent lymphopenia. Unexpectedly, before the eventual IL-7-driven T-cell expansion, all treated patients showed a profound T-cell depletion 24 hours after injection. The current study uses the rhesus macaque model to investigate the mechanisms involved in this IL-7-induced T-cell depletion. We identify a new critical function of IL-7 that induces massive and rapid T-cell migration from the blood into various organs, including lymph nodes, parts of the intestine, and the skin. This homing process was initiated after the induction of chemokine receptor expression by circulating T cells and the production of corresponding chemokines in target organs. Finally, we demonstrate that the IL-7-induced cell cycling is initiated within these organs before T cells migrate back into the bloodstream, indicating that T-cell homing is required for in vivo IL-7 function.
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Faller E, Kakal J, Kumar R, MacPherson P. IL-7 and the HIV Tat protein act synergistically to down-regulate CD127 expression on CD8 T cells. Int Immunol 2009; 21:203-16. [DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxn140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Aspinall R, Mitchell W. Reversal of age-associated thymic atrophy: Treatments, delivery, and side effects. Exp Gerontol 2008; 43:700-705. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2008.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2008] [Revised: 04/04/2008] [Accepted: 04/14/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Abstract
Although interleukin-2 (IL-2) is typically considered a soluble cytokine, our laboratory has shown that the availability of IL-2 in lymphoid tissues is regulated, in part, by an association with heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan. Heparan sulfate is usually found in proteoglycan form, in which the heparan sulfate chains are covalently linked to a specific core protein. We now show that perlecan is one of the major IL-2-binding heparan sulfate proteoglycans in murine spleen. IL-2 binds perlecan via heparan sulfate chains, as enzymatic removal of heparan sulfate from splenic perlecan abolishes its ability to bind IL-2. Furthermore, we demonstrate that perlecan-bound IL-2 supports the proliferation of an IL-2-dependent cell line. Identification of perlecan as a major heparan sulfate proteoglycan that binds IL-2 has implications for both the localization and regulation of IL-2 in vivo.
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Poiesi C, De Francesco MA, Baronio M, Manca N. HIV-1 p17 binds heparan sulfate proteoglycans to activated CD4(+) T cells. Virus Res 2007; 132:25-32. [PMID: 18036696 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2007.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2007] [Revised: 10/09/2007] [Accepted: 10/10/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that HIV-1 p17 binds to activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells and enhances secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, but we were unable to define a ligand on activated cells. In this work we evaluate the hypothesis that HIV-1 p17 may be a heparin/heparan sulfate-binding protein. HIV-1 p17 contains C- and N-terminal sequences with positively charged residues and a consensus cluster for heparin binding. We demonstrated by affinity chromatography that HIV-1 p17 binds strongly to heparin-agarose at physiological pH. Soluble heparins and heparan sulfate but not chondroitin 4-sulfate and dextran sulfate inhibit binding of HIV-1 p17 to heparin solid phase and to activated CD4(+) T cells. Furthermore the inhibition of cell sulfatation by chlorate treatment completely counteracts HIV-1 p17 binding to activated cells. These results indicate for the first time that HIV-1 p17 can be ascribed to the heparin binding protein family and suggest that this interaction might play a key role in the ability of the protein to induce an inflammatory effect on activated cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Poiesi
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Brescia Medical School, Brescia, Italy.
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45
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van Roon JAG, Hartgring SAY, Wenting-van Wijk M, Jacobs KMG, Tak PP, Bijlsma JWJ, Lafeber FPJG. Persistence of interleukin 7 activity and levels on tumour necrosis factor alpha blockade in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2006; 66:664-9. [PMID: 17185327 PMCID: PMC1954618 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2006.062547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To identify the mechanism of interleukin (IL)7-stimulated tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) production and to determine the relationship between intra-articular IL7 and TNFalpha expression levels in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In addition, the effect of TNFalpha blockade on IL7 activity and on IL7 levels was studied. METHODS The effect of IL7 on isolated CD4 T cells and CD14 monocytes/macrophages was studied. IL7 and TNFalpha levels were measured in the synovial fluid of patients with RA. In RA synovial tissue, IL7 and TNFalpha expression was assessed in addition to IL1beta, numbers of inflammatory cells and adhesion molecule expression. The extent to which TNFalpha blockade could prevent IL7-induced lymphocyte responses was studied in vitro. In addition, regulation of serum IL7 levels on anti-TNFalpha therapy (adalimumab) was studied. RESULTS IL7 induced cell contact-dependent TNFalpha production by cocultures of T cells and monocytes, but not by T cells and monocytes cultured separately. IL7 and TNFalpha levels in RA synovial fluid and synovial tissue significantly correlated. IL7-stimulated lymphocyte responses were not inhibited by TNFalpha blockade. Circulating IL7 levels were significantly reduced in patients who successfully responded to anti-TNFalpha treatment. However, IL7 levels persisted in non-responders. CONCLUSION The present data suggest that IL7 is an important inducer of T cell-dependent TNFalpha production in RA joints. This may contribute to the correlation of intra-articular IL7 and TNFalpha in these joints. Furthermore, the persistence of IL7-induced inflammatory activity on TNFalpha blockade in vitro and persistence of IL7 levels and disease activity in anti-TNFalpha non-responders suggest that IL7 might additionally promote TNFalpha-independent inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel A G van Roon
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, PO Box 85500, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Sportoletti P, Del Papa B, De Ioanni M, Moretti L, Bonifacio E, Lanterna V, Bell A, Fettucciari K, Carnevali E, Zei T, Falzetti F, Martelli MF, Tabilio A, Di Ianni M. Interleukin-7–Engineered Mesenchymal Cells: In Vitro Effects on Naive T-Cell Population. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2006; 12:1250-60. [PMID: 17162206 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbmt.2006.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2006] [Accepted: 09/02/2006] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
T-cell homeostasis is regulated by several molecules; among these, interleukin (IL)-7 plays an essential role in the survival and homeostatic proliferation of peripheral naive T cells. In a previous study, we investigated whether human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) could be engineered with the IL-7 gene to produce functional level of this cytokine. In the present study, we analyzed the impact of different quantities of IL-7 produced by MSCs on the survival and proliferation of a negative immunoselected naive (CD3(+)/CD45RA(+)) T-cell population. Co-cultivation of peripheral naive T cells with MSCs producing low (16 pg/mL) or high (1000 pg/mL) IL-7 levels or in the presence of exogenous IL-7 (0.01 ng/mL and 100 ng/mL) maintained the CD3(+)/CD45RA(+) naive T-cell phenotype. Chemokine receptor CCR7(+) expression was also maintained among this T-cell population. Naive T-cell molecular characteristics were maintained as assessed by the Vbeta spectratyping complexity score, which showed the maintenance of a broad T-cell repertoire. No Th1 or Th2 differentiation was observed, as assessed by interferon-gamma or IL-4 accumulation. In contrast, only MSCs producing high amounts of IL-7 caused increased activation (CD25 31.2% +/- 12% vs 10% +/- 3.5%; P < .05), proliferation (CD71 17.8+/-7% vs 9.3%+/-3, P < .05), apoptosis (assessed by annexin V: 18.6% +/- 5% vs 14.9% +/- 2.6%; P > .05), and the phase S cell cycle (15% vs 6.9%, P > .05). Exogenous IL-7 exhibited no significant effect. In conclusion, we demonstrated that IL-7 produced by MSCs has a dose-independent effect on naive T-cell survival while exerting a dose-dependent effect on activation/proliferation. Due to the continuous production of IL-7 by engineered cells, our system is more efficacious than exogenous IL-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Sportoletti
- Hematology and Clinical Immunology Section, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Perugia University, Perugia, Italy
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Barata JT, Silva A, Abecasis M, Carlesso N, Cumano A, Cardoso AA. Molecular and functional evidence for activity of murine IL-7 on human lymphocytes. Exp Hematol 2006; 34:1133-42. [PMID: 16939806 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2006.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2006] [Revised: 04/28/2006] [Accepted: 05/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Although interleukin-7 (IL-7) is essential for human and murine lymphopoiesis and homeostasis, clear disparities between these species regarding the role of IL-7 during B-cell development suggest that other, subtler differences may exist. One basic unsolved issue of IL-7 biology concerns cross-species activity, because in contrast to the human ortholog, the ability of murine (m)IL-7 to stimulate human cells remains unresolved. Establishing whether two-way cross-species reactivity occurs is fundamental for evaluating the role of IL-7 in chimeric human-mouse models, which are the most versatile tools for studying human lymphoid development and disease in vivo. Here, we show that mIL-7 triggers the same signaling pathways as human (h)IL-7 in human T cells, promoting similar changes in viability, proliferation, size, and immunophenotype, even at low concentrations. This ability is not confined to T cells, because mIL-7 mediates cell growth and protects human B-cell precursors from dexamethasone-induced apoptosis. Importantly, endogenous mIL-7 produced in the mouse thymic microenvironment stimulates human T cells, because their expansion in chimeric fetal thymic organ cultures is inhibited by a mIL-7-specific neutralizing antibody. Our results demonstrate that mIL-7 affects human lymphocytes and indicate that mouse models of human lymphoid development and disease must integrate the biological effects of endogenous IL-7 on human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joao T Barata
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine of Lisbon University, Lisbon, Portugal.
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Espeli M, Rossi B, Mancini SJC, Roche P, Gauthier L, Schiff C. Initiation of pre-B cell receptor signaling: Common and distinctive features in human and mouse. Semin Immunol 2006; 18:56-66. [PMID: 16337808 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2005.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
B cell development in the bone marrow is a highly regulated process and expression of a functional pre-BCR represents a crucial checkpoint, common to human and mouse. In this review, we discuss pre-BCR analogies and differences between the two species leading to pre-B cell differentiation and proliferation. In addition, the mechanisms triggering pre-BCR activation are reviewed, taking into account the recent report of heparan sulfates and galectin 1 as stromal cell-derived pre-BCR ligands. Finally, ligand-induced pre-BCR activation models are proposed on the bases of the differences reported for pre-BCR and IL7 dependencies in the two species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Espeli
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy (CIML), CNRS-INSERM-University Méditerranée, Campus de Luminy, Case 906, 13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France
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Abstract
The ability of memory CD8 T cells to patrol non-lymphoid tissues represents an effective method whereby proficient immunosurveillance is achieved. From the analysis of memory CD8 T cell migration in vivo, it is clear that tissue-specific factors control trafficking and residence time within tissues. We propose that at least three pools of memory CD8 T cells exist based on migratory capabilities as dictated by their location in the body. Moreover, we hypothesize that the process of acquisition of homeostatic signals in specific tissues, such as the cytokines IL-7 and IL-15, regulates the mobility of memory T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly D Klonowski
- Division of Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, M/C 1319, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030-1319, USA
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Wegrowski Y, Maquart FX. Involvement of stromal proteoglycans in tumour progression. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2004; 49:259-68. [PMID: 15036265 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2003.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/02/2003] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and proteoglycans (PGs) belong to a class of extracellular macromolecules necessary for the growth of any multicellular structures, including tumours. Transformed cells induce stromal reaction either per se or by activation of the mesenchymal cells. Tumour stroma contains several chondroitin sulphate and heparan sulphate proteoglycans. These proteoglycans and their glycosaminoglycan chains modify cell behaviour by interacting with different molecules such as growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, proteinases and their inhibitors. This review describes the main proteoglycans of tumour stoma and discusses their implication in the regulation of the activity of extracellular proteins and peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanusz Wegrowski
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, CNRS FRE 2534, Faculty of Medicine, IFR-53, 51095 Reims Cedex, France.
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