Identification of newborn cells by BrdU labeling and immunocytochemistry in vivo

The number and distribution of proliferating cells in the rat's rostral migratory stream as identified by means of two different proliferation markers

In the brains of adult rodents, the cells arising in the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles maintain the ability to divide when migrating to the olfactory bulb along the rostral migratory stream (RMS). Dividing cells in the RMS are most frequently revealed through immunohistochemical detection of an exogenous marker of proliferation, 5-Bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU), which incorporates into DNA during the S-phase of mitosis. The more recently recognized antigen Ki-67 (also known as Kiel-67 and MKI67), an endogenous protein expressed in nuclei at all stages of mitosis, is also used for proliferation detection. BrdU and Ki-67 are often used as alternative methods, but they have not previously been compared in the RMS. We analyzed the numbers and distribution of cells labeled either with BrdU or Ki-67 within the RMS of adult rats. The first group of animals received a single i.p. dose of BrdU. In the second group, dividing cells were visualized by Ki-67 immunohistochemistry. Some sections from brains of BrdU-treated rats were also immunostained for Ki-67. Labeled cells were counted in the three anatomical parts of the RMS (vertical arm, elbow and horizontal arm) using a method for unbiased estimation of cell density. The distribution of proliferating cells was similar for both markers. Most BrdU and Ki-67 positive cells were located in the vertical arm and in the elbow, but a caudo-rostral reduction in cell divisions was more evident with Ki-67 labeling. The number of Ki-67 positive cells significantly exceeded the number of BrdU positive cells in all parts of the RMS. Our results indicate that BrdU and Ki-67 are not interchangeable markers for evaluation of proliferative activity in the RMS.

Tle4 controls both developmental acquisition and early post-natal maturation of corticothalamic projection neuron identity

Identities of distinct neuron subtypes are specified during embryonic development, then maintained during post-natal maturation. In cerebral cortex, mechanisms controlling early acquisition of neuron-subtype identities have become increasingly understood. However, mechanisms controlling neuron-subtype identity stability during post-natal maturation are largely unexplored. We identify that Tle4 is required for both early acquisition and post-natal stability of corticothalamic neuron-subtype identity. Embryonically, Tle4 promotes acquisition of corticothalamic identity and blocks emergence of core characteristics of subcerebral/corticospinal projection neuron identity, including gene expression and connectivity. During the first post-natal week, when corticothalamic innervation is ongoing, Tle4 is required to stabilize corticothalamic neuron identity, limiting interference from differentiation programs of developmentally related neuron classes. We identify a deacetylation-based epigenetic mechanism by which TLE4 controls Fezf2 expression level by corticothalamic neurons. This contributes to distinction of cortical output subtypes and ensures identity stability for appropriate maturation of corticothalamic neurons.

The G Protein-Coupled Serotonin 1A Receptor Augments Protein Kinase Cε-Mediated Neurogenesis in Neonatal Mouse Hippocampus-PKCε-Mediated Signaling in the Early Hippocampus

The neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) plays an important role in mood disorders. It has been demonstrated that 5-HT signaling through 5-HT1A receptors (5-HT1A-R) is crucial for early postnatal hippocampal development and later-life behavior. Although this suggests that 5-HT1A-R signaling regulates early brain development, the mechanistic underpinnings of this process have remained unclear. Here we show that stimulation of the 5-HT1A-R at postnatal day 6 (P6) by intrahippocampal infusion of the agonist 8-OH-DPAT (D) causes signaling through protein kinase Cε (PKCε) and extracellular receptor activated kinase ½ (ERK1/2) to boost neuroblast proliferation in the dentate gyrus (DG), as displayed by an increase in bromodeoxy-uridine (BrdU), doublecortin (DCX) double-positive cells. This boost in neuroproliferation was eliminated in mice treated with D in the presence of a 5-HT1A-R antagonist (WAY100635), a selective PKCε inhibitor, or an ERK1/2-kinase (MEK) inhibitor (U0126). It is believed that hippocampal neuro-progenitors undergoing neonatal proliferation subsequently become postmitotic and enter the synaptogenesis phase. Double-staining with antibodies against bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN) confirmed that 5-HT1A-R → PKCε → ERK1/2-mediated boosted neuroproliferation at P6 also leads to an increase in BrdU-labeled granular neurons at P36. This 5-HT1A-R-mediated increase in mature neurons was unlikely due to suppressed apoptosis, because terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling analysis showed no difference in DNA terminal labeling between vehicle and 8-OH-DPAT-infused mice. Therefore, 5-HT1A-R signaling through PKCε may play an important role in micro-neurogenesis in the DG at P6, following which many of these new-born neuroprogenitors develop into mature neurons.

Recent advances in nucleotide analogue-based techniques for tracking dividing stem cells: An overview

Detection of thymidine analogues after their incorporation into replicating DNA represents a powerful tool for the study of cellular DNA synthesis, progression through the cell cycle, cell proliferation kinetics, chronology of cell division, and cell fate determination. Recent advances in the concurrent detection of multiple such analogues offer new avenues for the investigation of unknown features of these vital cellular processes. Combined with quantitative analysis, temporal discrimination of multiple labels enables elucidation of various aspects of stem cell life cycle in situ, such as division modes, differentiation, maintenance, and elimination. Data obtained from such experiments are critically important for creating descriptive models of tissue histogenesis and renewal in embryonic development and adult life. Despite the wide use of thymidine analogues in stem cell research, there are a number of caveats to consider for obtaining valid and reliable labeling results when marking replicating DNA with nucleotide analogues. Therefore, in this review, we describe critical points regarding dosage, delivery, and detection of nucleotide analogues in the context of single and multiple labeling, outline labeling schemes based on pulse-chase, cumulative and multilabel marking of replicating DNA for revealing stem cell proliferative behaviors, and determining cell cycle parameters, and discuss preconditions and pitfalls in conducting such experiments. The information presented in our review is important for rational design of experiments on tracking dividing stem cells by marking replicating DNA with thymidine analogues.

A distinct transition from cell growth to physiological homeostasis in the tendon

Changes in cell proliferation define transitions from tissue growth to physiological homeostasis. In tendons, a highly organized extracellular matrix undergoes significant postnatal expansion to drive growth, but once formed, it appears to undergo little turnover. However, tendon cell activity during growth and homeostatic maintenance is less well defined. Using complementary methods of genetic H2B-GFP pulse-chase labeling and BrdU incorporation in mice, we show significant postnatal tendon cell proliferation, correlating with longitudinal Achilles tendon growth. Around day 21, there is a transition in cell turnover with a significant decline in proliferation. After this time, we find low amounts of homeostatic tendon cell proliferation from 3 to 20 months. These results demonstrate that tendons harbor significant postnatal mitotic activity, and limited, but detectable activity in adult and aged stages. It also points towards the possibility that the adult tendon harbors resident tendon progenitor populations, which would have important therapeutic implications.

Neural Stem Cell Transplantation into a Mouse Model of Stroke

Stroke is the fifth leading cause of death among Americans each year. Current standard-of-care treatment for stroke deploys intravenous tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA), mechanical thrombolysis, or delivery of fibrinolytics. Although these therapies have reduced stroke-induced damage, therapeutic options still remain limited. Transplantation of patient-specific neural stem (NS) cells represents a promising strategy for the treatment of stroke. Basic science research has shown that transplanted NS cells can differentiate in the brain of rodent models of stroke and promote behavioral recovery. Clinical trials exploring the feasibility of stem cell treatment for stroke are currently being conducted. However, questions remain regarding the optimal means of delivering NS cells, including cell dose, infusion speed, timing of transplantation, anatomic site, and imaging-assisted monitoring and guidance. Of the different available delivery modalities, intravascular NS delivery after stroke represents one practical approach. In this chapter, I provide methods for intravascular delivery of NS cells in a mouse model of stroke. The techniques involved include cell culture of NS cells, flow cytometry of NS cells, modeling stroke via unilateral common carotid artery occlusion, intra-arterial injection of NS cells into the brain, behavior analyses, and immunohistochemistry. Intra-arterial NS cell therapy has the potential to improve functional recovery after ischemic stroke.

Erzhi Pill® Protected Experimental Liver Injury Against Apoptosis via the PI3K/Akt/Raptor/Rictor Pathway

Erzhi Pill (EZP) is one of the basic prescriptions for treating liver diseases in traditional Chinese medicine. However, its mechanism of action is still undefined. The PI3K/AKT/Raptor/Rictor signaling pathway is closely related to apoptosis and plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of liver disease. To define the mechanism of the hepatoprotective effect of EZP in the treatment of liver disease, hepatic injury induced by 2-acetylaminofluorene/partial hepatectomy was treated by EZP for 14 days. The therapeutic effect of EZP was confirmed by the decreased production of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, recovery of pathological liver injury, followed by inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and transforming growth factor-β1. Bromodeoxyuridine assay and TUNEL staining indicated that apoptosis was suppressed and the numbers of cells in S phase and G0/G1phase were decreased. The crucial proteins in the PI3K/AKT/Raptor/Rictor signaling pathway were deactivated in rats with experimental liver injury treated by EZP. These results indicated that the hepatoprotective effect of EZP via inhibition of hepatocyte apoptosis was closely related to repression of the PI3K/Akt/Raptor/Rictor signaling pathway.

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulates odontoblastic differentiation of human dental pulp-stem cells in vitro

BACKGROUND

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (1,25-OH D₃) plays an important role in mineralized tissue metabolism, including teeth. However, few studies have addressed its role in odontoblastic differentiation of human dental pulp-stem cells (hDPSCs).

AIM

This study aimed to understand the influence of various concentrations of 1,25-OH D₃ on the proliferation capacity and early dentinogenesis responses of hDPSCs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

hDPSCs were obtained from the impacted third molar teeth. Monolayer cultured cells were incubated with a differentiation medium containing different concentrations of 1,25-OH D₃ (0.001, 0.01, and 0.1 µM). All groups were evaluated by S-phase rate [immunohistochemical (IHC) bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) staining], STRO-1 and dentin sialoprotein (DSP)+ levels (IHC), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)) levels.

RESULTS

The number of cells that entered the S-phase was determined to be the highest and lowest in the control and 0.001 µM 1,25-OH D₃ groups, respectively. The 0.1 µM vitamin D₃ group had the highest increase in DSP+ levels. The highest Stro-1 levels were detected in the control and 0.1 µM 1,25-OH D₃ groups, respectively. The 0.1 µM 1,25-OH D₃ induced a mild increase in ALP activity.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that 1,25-OH D₃ stimulated odontoblastic differentiation of hDPSCs in vitro in a dose-dependent manner. The high DSP + cell number and a mild increase in ALP activity suggest that DPSCs treated with 0.1 μM 1,25-OH D₃ are in the later stage of odontoblastic differentiation. The results confirm that 1,25-OH D₃-added cocktail medium provides a sufficient microenvironment for the odontoblastic differentiation of hDPSCs in vitro.

Mechano growth factor, a splice variant of IGF-1, promotes neurogenesis in the aging mouse brain

Mechano growth factor (MGF) is a splice variant of IGF-1 first described in skeletal muscle. MGF induces muscle cell proliferation in response to muscle stress and injury. In control mice we found endogenous expression of MGF in neurogenic areas of the brain and these levels declined with age. To better understand the role of MGF in the brain, we used transgenic mice that constitutively overexpressed MGF from birth. MGF overexpression significantly increased the number of BrdU+ proliferative cells in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus and subventricular zone (SVG). Although MGF overexpression increased the overall rate of adult hippocampal neurogenesis at the proliferation stage it did not alter the distribution of neurons at post-mitotic maturation stages. We then used the lac-operon system to conditionally overexpress MGF in the mouse brain beginning at 1, 3 and 12 months with histological and behavioral observation at 24 months of age. With conditional overexpression there was an increase of BrdU+ proliferating cells and BrdU+ differentiated mature neurons in the olfactory bulbs at 24 months when overexpression was induced from 1 and 3 months of age but not when started at 12 months. This was associated with preserved olfactory function. In vitro, MGF increased the size and number of neurospheres harvested from SVZ-derived neural stem cells (NSCs). These findings indicate that MGF overexpression increases the number of neural progenitor cells and promotes neurogenesis but does not alter the distribution of adult newborn neurons at post-mitotic stages. Maintaining youthful levels of MGF may be important in reversing age-related neuronal loss and brain dysfunction.

Evaluation of the osteogenic potential of Hancornia speciosa latex in rat calvaria and its phytochemical profile

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hancornia speciosa Gomes, commonly known as Mangabeira, is a Brazilian native fruit tree belonging to the Apocynaceae family. In folk medicine, the latex obtained from Mangabeira's trunk has been used as an adjunct therapy for bone fractures. Few pharmacological studies on the Hancornia speciosa latex have been developed and despite its popular use for bone healing there is no data about its biological effect on bone.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to investigate the osteogenic potential of Hancornia speciosa latex in rat calvaria, as well as its phytochemical profile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A neutral gel composition containing 5% latex was topical applied to a critical size bone defect and over intact calvaria of rats. Areas of newly formed bone on the borders of the defect and of calvaria periosteum were quantified, as well as the percentage of BrdU-positive cells and total cells in the periosteum at different periods of time after latex application. The cytotoxicity of the latex aqueous phase was evaluated in rat calvarial cells in vitro by MTT assay and its phytochemical profile was investigated by ESI-MS/MS.

RESULTS

The area of newly formed bone on the borders of the calvaria defect was larger in rats that received latex at 15 and 30 days of healing. After 3 days of latex application over the intact calvaria, the periosteum area was increased and newly formed bone was observed after 5 and 11 days. There was also an increase in periosteum cell proliferation and population followed latex application on calvaria (p<0.05). The latex aqueous phase limited rat calvarial cell viability in vitro in concentrations larger than 0.6mg/mL. Chlorogenic acid and naringenin-7-O-glucoside were identified in the latex aqueous phase, along with catechin and procyanidin compounds.

CONCLUSION

There was a stimulus for periosteum cell proliferation and bone formation when Hancornia speciosa latex was topically applied on rat calvaria. In addition, chlorogenic acid and naringenin-7-O-glucoside present in Hancornia speciosa latex may contribute to its effects on bone formation.

Ctip1 Regulates the Balance between Specification of Distinct Projection Neuron Subtypes in Deep Cortical Layers

The molecular linkage between neocortical projection neuron subtype and area development, which enables the establishment of functional areas by projection neuron populations appropriate for specific sensory and motor functions, is poorly understood. Here, we report that Ctip1 controls precision of neocortical development by regulating subtype identity in deep-layer projection neurons. Ctip1 is expressed by postmitotic callosal and corticothalamic projection neurons but is excluded over embryonic development from corticospinal motor neurons, which instead express its close relative, Ctip2. Loss of Ctip1 function results in a striking bias in favor of subcerebral projection neuron development in sensory cortex at the expense of corticothalamic and deep-layer callosal development, while misexpression of Ctip1 in vivo represses subcerebral gene expression and projections. As we report in a paired paper, Ctip1 also controls acquisition of sensory area identity. Therefore, Ctip1 couples subtype and area specification, enabling specific functional areas to organize precise ratios of appropriate output projections.

Myostatin Attenuation In Vivo Reduces Adiposity, but Activates Adipogenesis

A potentially novel approach for treating obesity includes attenuating myostatin as this increases muscle mass and decreases fat mass. Notwithstanding, conflicting studies report that myostatin stimulates or inhibits adipogenesis and it is unknown whether reduced adiposity with myostatin attenuation results from changes in fat deposition or adipogenesis. We therefore quantified changes in the stem, transit amplifying and progenitor cell pool in white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT) using label-retaining wild-type and mstn(-/-) (Jekyll) mice. Muscle mass was larger in Jekyll mice, WAT and BAT mass was smaller and label induction was equal in all tissues from both wild-type and Jekyll mice. The number of label-retaining cells, however, dissipated quicker in WAT and BAT of Jekyll mice and was only 25% and 17%, respectively, of wild-type cell counts 1 month after induction. Adipose cell density was significantly higher in Jekyll mice and increased over time concomitant with label-retaining cell disappearance, which is consistent with enhanced expansion and differentiation of the stem, transit amplifying and progenitor pool. Stromal vascular cells from Jekyll WAT and BAT differentiated into mature adipocytes at a faster rate than wild-type cells and although Jekyll WAT cells also proliferated quicker in vitro, those from BAT did not. Differentiation marker expression in vitro, however, suggests that mstn(-/-) BAT preadipocytes are far more sensitive to the suppressive effects of myostatin. These results suggest that myostatin attenuation stimulates adipogenesis in vivo and that the reduced adiposity in mstn(-/-) animals results from nutrient partitioning away from fat and in support of muscle.

The cell birth marker BrdU does not affect recruitment of subsequent cell divisions in the adult avian brain

BrdU is commonly used to quantify neurogenesis but also causes mutation and has mitogenic, transcriptional, and translational effects. In mammalian studies, attention had been given to its dosage, but in birds such examination was not conducted. Our previous study suggested that BrdU might affect subsequent cell divisions and neuronal recruitment in the brain. Furthermore, this effect seemed to increase with time from treatment. Accordingly, we examined whether BrdU might alter neurogenesis in the adult avian brain. We compared recruitment of [(3)H]-thymidine(+) neurons in brains of zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) when no BrdU was involved and when BrdU was given 1 or 3 months prior to [(3)H]-thymidine. In nidopallium caudale, HVC, and hippocampus, no differences were found between groups in densities and percentages of [(3)H]-thymidine(+) neurons. The number of silver grains per [(3)H]-thymidine(+) neuronal nucleus and their distribution were similar across groups. Additionally, time did not affect the results. The results indicate that the commonly used dosage of BrdU in birds has no long-term effects on subsequent cell divisions and neuronal recruitment. This conclusion is also important in neuronal replacement experiments, where BrdU and another cell birth marker are given, with relatively long intervals between them.

Learning induces sonic hedgehog signaling in the amygdala which promotes neurogenesis and long-term memory formation

BACKGROUND

It is known that neurogenesis occurs throughout the life mostly in the subgranular zone of the hippocampus and the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricle. We investigated whether neurogenesis occurred in the amygdala and its function in fear memory formation.

METHODS

For detection of newborn neurons, mice were injected intraperitoneally with 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) 2h before receiving 15 tone-footshock pairings, and newborn neurons were analyzed 14 and 42 days after training. To determine the relationship between neurogenesis and memory formation, mice were given a proliferation inhibitor methylazoxymethanol (MAM) or a DNA synthesis inhibitor cytosine arabinoside (Ara-C). To test whether sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling was required for neurogenesis, Shh-small hairpin-interfering RNA (shRNA) was inserted into a retroviral vector (Retro-Shh-shRNA).

RESULTS

The number of BrdU(+)/Neuronal nuclei (NeuN)(+) cells was significantly higher in the conditioned mice, suggesting that association of tone with footshock induced neurogenesis. MAM and Ara-C markedly reduced neurogenesis and impaired fear memory formation. Shh, its receptor patched 1 (Ptc1), and transcription factor Gli1 protein levels increased at 1 day and returned to baseline at 7 days after fear conditioning. Retro-Shh-shRNA, which knocked down Shh specifically in the mitotic neurons, reduced the number of BrdU(+)/NeuN(+) cells and decreased freezing responses.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that fear learning induces Shh signaling activation in the amygdala, which promotes neurogenesis and fear memory formation.

Fish oil supplementation associated with decreased cellular degeneration and increased cellular proliferation 6 weeks after middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat

Anti-inflammatory long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3-LC-PUFAs) are both neuroprotective and have antidepressive effects. However the influence of dietary supplemented n-3-LC-PUFAs on inflammation-related cell death and proliferation after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo)-induced stroke is unknown. We have previously demonstrated that anxiety-like and hyperactive locomotor behaviors are reduced in n-3-LC-PUFA-fed MCAo animals. Thus in the present study, male hooded Wistar rats were exposed to MCAo or sham surgeries and examined behaviorally 6 weeks later, prior to euthanasia and examination of lesion size, cell death and proliferation in the dentate gyrus, cornu ammonis region of the hippocampus of the ipsilesional hemispheres, and the thalamus of the ipsilesional and contralesional hemispheres. Markers of cell genesis and cell degeneration in the hippocampus or thalamus of the ipsilesional hemisphere did not differ between surgery and diet groups 6 weeks post MCAo. Dietary supplementation with n-3-LC-PUFA decreased cell degeneration and increased cell proliferation in the thalamic region of the contralesional hemisphere. MCAo-associated cell degeneration in the hippocampus and thalamus positively correlated with anxiety-like and hyperactive locomotor behaviors previously reported in these animals. These results suggest that anti-inflammatory n-3-LC-PUFA supplementation appears to have cellular protective effects after MCAo in the rat, which may affect behavioral outcomes.

Cellular differentiation assessments by measuring the degree of cellular internalization and membrane adsorption using designed peptides

We demonstrate examples of cellular differentiation assessments, including cellular neurite outgrowth and fat cell maturation, by measuring the degree of membrane adsorption or cellular internalization using designed peptides. Because changes in the cellular membrane and cytosol during differentiation were shown to influence membrane adsorption and cellular internalization, we could successfully evaluate the extent of differentiation simply like stain indicators.

The mouse olfactory peduncle. 3. Development of neurons, glia, and centrifugal afferents

The present series of studies was designed to provide a general overview of the development of the region connecting the olfactory bulb to the forebrain. The olfactory peduncle (OP) contains several structures involved in processing odor information with the anterior olfactory nucleus (cortex) being the largest and most studied. Results indicate that considerable growth occurs in the peduncle from postnatal day (P)10–P20, with reduced expansion from P20 to P30. No evidence was found for the addition of new projection or interneurons during the postnatal period. GABAergic cells decreased in both number and density after P10. Glial populations exhibited different patterns of development, with astrocytes declining in density from P10 to P30, and both oligodendrocytes and microglia increasing through the interval. Myelination in the anterior commissure emerged between P11 and P14. Dense cholinergic innervation was observed at P10 and remained relatively stable through P30, while considerable maturation of serotonergic innervation occurred through the period. Unilateral naris occlusion from P1 to P30 resulted in about a 30% reduction in the size of the ipsilateral peduncle but few changes were observed on the contralateral side. The ipsilateral peduncle also exhibited higher densities of GAD67-containing interneurons and cholinergic fibers suggesting a delay in normal developmental pruning. Lower densities of interneurons expressing CCK, somatostatin, and NPY and in myelin basic protein staining were also observed. Understanding variations in developmental trajectories within the OP may be an important tool for unraveling the functions of the region.

Single cell analysis of human RAD18-dependent DNA post-replication repair by alkaline bromodeoxyuridine comet assay

Damage to DNA can block replication progression resulting in gaps in the newly synthesized DNA. Cells utilize a number of post-replication repair (PRR) mechanisms such as the RAD18 controlled translesion synthesis or template switching to overcome the discontinuities formed opposite the DNA lesions and to complete DNA replication. Gaining more insights into the role of PRR genes promotes better understanding of DNA damage tolerance and of how their malfunction can lead to increased genome instability and cancer. However, a simple and efficient method to characterise gene specific PRR deficiencies at a single cell level has not been developed. Here we describe the so named BrdU comet PRR assay to test the contribution of human RAD18 to PRR at a single cell level, by which we kinetically characterized the consequences of the deletion of human RAD18 on the replication of UV-damaged DNA. Moreover, we demonstrate the capability of our method to evaluate PRR at a single cell level in unsynchronized cell population.

Delayed hyperbaric oxygen therapy induces cell proliferation through stabilization of cAMP responsive element binding protein in the rat model of MCAo-induced ischemic brain injury

Treatments that could extend the therapeutic window of opportunity for stroke patients are urgently needed. Early administration of hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) has been proven neuroprotective in the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) in rodents. Our aim was to determine: 1) whether delayed HBOT after permanent MCAo (pMCAo) can still convey neuroprotection and restorative cell proliferation, and 2) whether these beneficial effects rely on HBO-induced activation of protein phosphatase-1γ (PP1-γ) leading to a decreased phosphorylation and ubiquitination of CREB and hence its stabilization. The experiments were performed in one hundred thirty-two male Sprague-Dawley rats with the body weight ranging from 240 to 270 g. Permanent MCAo was induced with the intraluminal filament occluding the right middle cerebral artery (MCA). In the first experiment, HBOT (2.5 ATA, 1h daily for 10 days) was started 48 h after pMCAo. Neurobehavioral deficits and infarct size as well as cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) expression and BrdU-DAB staining in the hippocampus and the peri-infarct region were evaluated on day 14 and day 28 post-MCAo. In the second experiment, HBOT (2.5 ATA, 1h) was started 3h after pMCAo. The effects of CREB siRNA or PP1-γ siRNA on HBO-induced infarct size alterations and target protein expression were studied. HBOT started with 48 h delay reduced infarct size, ameliorated neurobehavioral deficits and increased protein expression of CREB, resulting in increased cell proliferations in the hippocampus and peri-infarct region, on day 14 and day 28 post-MCAo. In the acute experiment pMCAo resulted in cerebral infarction and functional deterioration and reduced brain expression of PP1-γ, which led to increased phosphorylation and ubiquitination of CREB 24h after MCAo. However HBOT administered 3h after ischemia reversed these molecular events and resulted in CREB stabilization, infarct size reduction and neurobehavioral improvement. Gene silencing with CREB siRNA or PP1-γ siRNA reduced acute beneficial effects of HBO. In conclusion, delayed daily HBOT presented as potent neuroprotectant in pMCAo rats, increased CREB expression and signaling activity, and bolstered regenerative type cell proliferation in the injured brain. As shown in the acute experiment these effects of HBO were likely to be mediated by reducing ubiquitin-dependent CREB degradation owing to HBO-induced activation of PP1γ.

Extracts from Radix Astragali and Radix Rehmanniae promote keratinocyte proliferation by regulating expression of growth factor receptors

Chinese herbal medicine has long been used as a treatment for wounds. However, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this study it was shown that the proliferation of keratinocytes, which is known to play an important role in wound healing as the major cell type in the epidermis, was promoted by three herbal extracts/natural compounds: NF3 (an extract from the mixture of Radix Astragali (RA) and Radix Rehmanniae (RR) in the ratio of 2:1), stachyose (an isolated compound from Radix Rehmanniae) and extract P2-2 (a sub-fraction from the extract of Radix Astragali). The effect of the herbal extracts/natural compounds on the growth of keratinocytes was not influenced by a high glucose level, a condition similar to diabetic patients who usually suffer from diabetic foot ulcers. Real time RT-PCR results showed that the expression of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor, but not transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) receptor, was up-regulated by NF3. Moreover, treatments with the EGF receptor kinase inhibitor AG1478 and the MEK inhibitor U0126 resulted in the diminishment of the effect of the three herbal extracts/natural compounds on keratinocyte proliferation, indicating that EGF receptor might have a significant role in this action. This study has further elucidated the molecular mechanism under which herbal extracts/natural compounds exert their effects on the wound healing process.

Birds as a model to study adult neurogenesis: bridging evolutionary, comparative and neuroethological approaches

During the last few decades, evidence has demonstrated that adult neurogenesis is a well-preserved feature throughout the animal kingdom. In birds, ongoing neuronal addition occurs rather broadly, to a number of brain regions. This review describes adult avian neurogenesis and neuronal recruitment, discusses factors that regulate these processes, and touches upon the question of their genetic control. Several attributes make birds an extremely advantageous model to study neurogenesis. First, song learning exhibits seasonal variation that is associated with seasonal variation in neuronal turnover in some song control brain nuclei, which seems to be regulated via adult neurogenesis. Second, food-caching birds naturally use memory-dependent behavior in learning the locations of thousands of food caches scattered over their home ranges. In comparison with other birds, food-caching species have relatively enlarged hippocampi with more neurons and intense neurogenesis, which appears to be related to spatial learning. Finally, migratory behavior and naturally occurring social systems in birds also provide opportunities to investigate neurogenesis. This diversity of naturally occurring memory-based behaviors, combined with the fact that birds can be studied both in the wild and in the laboratory, make them ideal for investigation of neural processes underlying learning. This can be done by using various approaches, from evolutionary and comparative to neuroethological and molecular. Finally, we connect the avian arena to a broader view by providing a brief comparative and evolutionary overview of adult neurogenesis and by discussing the possible functional role of the new neurons. We conclude by indicating future directions and possible medical applications.

Creating a ventral midbrain stem cell niche in an animal model for Parkinson's disease

Neural progenitor cells reside in many regions of the adult brain. However, their capacity to generate new neurons relies on stem cell niches, consisting of stem cells, niche support cells, and basal lamina, which maintain stem cells and direct their differentiation and migration into tissue structures. Neurospheres are thought to expose neural progenitor cells to an environment reminiscent of the stem cell niche. We show that embryonic day 14.5 ventral mesencephalon neurospheres grafted into the midbrain of 6-hydroxydopamine lesioned mice express markers of mesenchymal cells, such as CD29 and CD44, and enclose a core of host-derived proliferating cells that express nestin, polysialic acid-neural cell adhesion molecule, βIII-tubulin, and neuron-specific nuclear protein. Laminin was expressed between the grafted cells and the core of proliferating host-derived cells. Further, infusion of the anti-mitotic agent β-d-arabinofuroside into the midbrain resulted in the loss of host-derived core cells that gradually returned over many days following β-d-arabinofuroside withdrawal. Together, these data suggest that a stem cell niche had been formed. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH+) cells, ectopic to the usual midbrain locations, were present 4 weeks after grafting and increased in numbers up to 12 weeks after grafting, resulting in significantly more TH cells than control animals. These data provide evidence that cells within the midbrain are capable of acquiring a TH phenotype when exposed to the appropriate environment. Whether these cells are a result of neurogenesis or phenotypic shift remains unanswered.

Local cell proliferation upon enucleation in Direct Retinal Brain Targets in the Visual system of the Adult Mouse

In this study we used incorporation of the DNA synthesis marker 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine or BrdU to visualize cell proliferation in the visual system of the adult mouse as a response to monocular enucleation. We detected new BrdU-labeled cells in different subcortical retinal target regions and we established a specific time frame in which this cell proliferation occurred. By performing immunofluorescent double stainings for BrdU and different vascular (glucose transporter type 1, collagen type IV), glial (thymosin β4, glial fibrillary acidic protein) and neuronal (Neuronal Nuclei, doublecortin) markers, we identified these proliferating cells as activated microglia. Additional immunohistochemical stainings for thymosin β4 and glial fibrillary acidic protein also revealed reactive astrocytes in the different retinorecipient nuclei and allowed us to delineate a time frame for microglial and astroglial activation. A PCR array experiment further showed increased levels of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors and enzymes that play an important role in microglial-astroglial communication during the glial activation process in response to the deafferentation.

Spatiotemporal expression in mouse brain of Kiaa2022, a gene disrupted in two patients with severe mental retardation

We previously identified an inactivating disruption of the X-linked KIAA2022 gene by a chromosomal rearrangement in two male patients with severe mental retardation. In order to determine if KIAA2022 has a role during the development of the central nervous system, we have cloned its murine ortholog, Kiaa2022, determined its genomic structure and studied its expression during mouse development. We show that Kiaa2022 is preferentially expressed in the central nervous system and that the transcript is highly expressed in postmitotic neurons. The expression of Kiaa2022 is first detectable at E10.5 to reach a maximum at P3 where it is notably expressed in the hippocampus, the entorhinal cortex and strongly in the ventral premammillary nucleus. After P3, the expression of Kiaa2022 decreases and maintains very low levels thereafter. Our results show that Kiaa2022 is expressed in the developing brain and that it may play a role in postmitotic, maturing neurons.